Portal:Ancient Greek

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== Introductory Ancient Greek Language ==
[[Image:Socrates Louvre.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Σωκράτης]]
[[Image:Bust Athena Velletri Glyptothek Munich 213.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Ἀθηνᾶ]]
Welcome to the course Introductory Ancient Greek Language.

Greek was the ''lingua franca'' of the Mediterranean world from the rise of the Hellenic states after the Persian War until the rise of Rome. Its basis as the uniting factor of the Greek city-states makes knowledge of the language and its history vital to an understanding of the rise of Greek culture in the Western World.

This course will prepare students to read Classical Greek texts by building a solid foundation in rudimentary grammar and vocabulary, as well as give a broad overview of its history. It will begin on a very basic level, so if you have some experience you may choose to move on to a more advanced course, or assist in lesson plans with this one. However, even a seasoned reader of Greek may benefit from a basic review.

If you're coming here with no experience of the Ancient Greek Language then congratulations on your choice to begin learning it! You are in for an exciting adventure that will not only give you knowledge of a new language, but a new way of thinking.

The course will be divided into several important divisions each one hopefully no longer than four lessons followed by a review.  The goal is to prepare the student with a foundation in Classical Greek, on which he or she can later build a higher fluency.

== Student Questions ==
If you happen to become stumped or just have a general question out of curiosity, then feel free to message any recent active member involved in creating this course. I intend to add much more to this page, but I don't have a huge amount of time to work on it. I am looking into adding some exercises for translation and adding some study guide outlines to later pages.

== Alphabet, Breathings, Accents, Articles ==
After having completed these first four lessons hopefully the student will be able to read and write with Greek characters.  Some vocabulary will be introduced but the goal will be to familiarize yourself with understanding the alphabet in order to begin learning the language.
* [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 1|Lesson 1]] - Alphabet
* [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 2|Lesson 2]] - Breathings and Accents
* [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 3|Lesson 3]] - The Definite Article
* [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 4|Lesson 4]] - Basic Sentences
* [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Review|Review]]

== Introduction to Verbs and Nouns ==
* [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 5|Lesson 5]] - Present, Active and Middle-Passive, Indicative
* [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 6|Lesson 6]] - First and Second Noun Declensions
* [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 7|Lesson 7]] - Basic Prepositions, Negation
* [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 8|Lesson 8]] - Present Indicative of &quot;To Be&quot;
* [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Review 2|Review]]

== Verb Forms of the Active Indicative ==
* [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 9|Lesson 9]] - Imperfect, Active, Indicative
* [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 10|Lesson 10]] - Future, Active, Indicative
* [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 11|Lesson 11]] - Aorist(1st and 2nd), Active, Indicative
* [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 12|Lesson 12]] - Perfect, Active, Indicative
* [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 13|Lesson 13]] - Pluperfect, Active, Indicative
* [[Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Review 3|Review]] 

This is about the middle point of this course.  After this there remain the rest of the first declension, and the third, and various other syntax related concepts such as relative pronouns and compound verbs and such.  
The remainder of the course will be written after these first three lesson plans have been completed.

Please place any questions or concerns on the discuss page for this portal or message me directly via my talk page,
I only recently took up this project after finding it alone for so long, so I'd love to hear your input or address any questions you may have. [[User:Wobblywatch|Wobblywatch]] ([[User talk:Wobblywatch|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Wobblywatch|contribs]]) 00:23, 8 April 2019 (UTC)

== Typing Greek Text and Word List ==
* [[Enabling Greek Characters on Your Keyboard|Typing Greek Text]]
* [[An Ancient Greek Word List]]
* [[wikt:Category:Ancient Greek lemmas|Wiktionary's Word List]]

[[Category:Language introductions]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek Language]]

[[el:Τμήμα:Αρχαία Ελληνικά]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 3</title>
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      <text bytes="4940" sha1="lie4z570da075wzr8tsf4hs3ysaqlnb" xml:space="preserve">== What is a Definite Article?==
The definite article we use in English is the word 'the' and its the only one we have. Ancient Greek has three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. The definite article will change accordingly. For those who have some background in Spanish or French, this is the same difference between 'la' and 'le' in French and 'el' and 'la' in Spanish. We do not have this distinction in English.

Also unlike English, Greek differentiates between plural and singular. For comparison, this is the 'los' and 'las' of Spanish or the 'les' of French. However, Greek also retained the '''dual number''' from Proto-Indo-European, a specific number for a pair of objects (e.g., ὀφθαλμώ — 2 eyes).

Unlike many modern languages, ancient Greek also has cases, and the definite article reflects this.

The definite article may also not be used in the same grammatical way that it is in modern languages. Because ancient Greek often does not follow the same word order that modern languages do, the article may be used multiple times around the same word, placed after the word it is connected to to imply emphasis, placed before or after it and another word together to do the same. 

In addition, the definite articles will remain the same throughout the declensions of the nouns, 1st, 2nd, and 3rd, pairing with nouns that match the articles in gender case, and number.

== Cases ==
Greek has five cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, and vocative. Some of you taking this lesson may know what these words mean, but most probably won't. In English, we use word order and helping words to understand what ancient Greek conveys with cases.  

===Nominative and Accusative===
For example, take the sentence, &quot;The dog bites a cat.&quot; In this sentence, we understand that the dog is the subject doing the biting, while the cat is the direct object being bitten. In Greek, the subject would be in the nominative case, and the direct object in the accusative.  

Because these cases explain to the reader what's happening in the sentence, you can have a sentence structure in Greek such as &quot;Cat bites dog,&quot; which actually means that the dog bites the cat. This may be a little confusing, but this is just an introduction and it will make more sense when you see it in the actual Greek.

===Dative===
Words usually take the dative if they are indirect objects, like ''mir'' in German, as in &quot;Dave gave the horse the apple&quot; — Dave is the subject (and in Greek would be in the nominative), the apple is the direct object in the accusative, and the horse is the indirect object in the dative. Here's the same example in a table:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|+ Dave gave the horse the apple
! scope=&quot;col&quot; | Noun 
! scope=&quot;col&quot; | Function
! scope=&quot;col&quot; | Case
|-
|Dave || subject || nominative
|-
|the apple || direct object || accusative
|-
|the horse || indirect object || dative
|-
|}

The dative is also used with prepositions and in certain idioms.  One example of this in English is the use of the word 'with' expressing means. So, the sentence &quot;The dog bites a cat with teeth.&quot; would have 'dog' in the nominative since its the subject of the verb, 'cat' would be accusative since its the object, and 'teeth' would be dative, because they're the means the dog used to bite the cat.

===Genitive===
The genitive case primarily denotes belonging. We have some examples of the genitive case in English.  This is the difference we find between the first person pronouns me and my. The sentence &quot;Achilles' spear is bright&quot; would have 'Achilles' in the genitive and 'spear' in nominative.

===Vocative===
Finally, there is the vocative case which is only used when directly speaking to someone.  Since ancient Greek is only used in the translation of texts you will rarely find this form.  Examples would be in plays where a character addresses another.

== The Definite Article Tables ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; '
!''&lt;small&gt;Singular&lt;/small&gt;''!!Masculine !! Feminine!! Neuter
|-
!Nominative
| ὁ|| ἡ || τό
|-
!Genitive
|τοῦ||τῆς||τοῦ
|-
!Dative
|τῷ||τῇ||τῷ
|-
!Accusative
|τόν||τήν||τό
|-
!Vocative
|ὦ||ὦ||ὦ
|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; '
!''&lt;small&gt;Plural&lt;/small&gt;''!!Masculine !! Feminine!! Neuter
|-
!Nominative
| οἱ||αἱ||τά
|-
!Genitive
|τῶν||τῶν||τῶν
|-
!Dative
|τοῖς||ταῖς||τοῖς
|-
!Accusative
|τούς||τᾱς||τά
|-
!Vocative
|ὦ||ὦ||ὦ
|}

==Exercises==
What is the subject of the sentence, &quot;Σωκράτης ὁ ἀνήρ ἐστιν&quot;?
{{solution|&quot;ἀνήρ&quot;; the subject of the sentence generally has the definite article, while the '''predicate nominative''' does not.}}
Translate the following sentence: &quot;Δάκνει αἴλουρον τὴν ὁ κύων.&quot;
{{solution|&quot;The dog bites the cat.&quot; Note the definite articles to identify the subject and objects.}}

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      <text bytes="2033" sha1="91up8jhlus49sxjv3o7y0sp29pj34vo" xml:space="preserve">This is a list of greetings in various different languages (from the German Wikipedia):
*[[boro]]: खुलुम्बाइ (KHULUMBAI!)
*[[Bengali]]: &lt;big&gt;নমস্কার&lt;/big&gt; (Namaskar! - gesprochen: ''Nomoshkar'')
*[[Bulgarische Sprache|Bulgarian]]: Здравей!, Здрасти! (Duzform), Здравейте! (Siezform)
*[[Chinese]]: {{lang|zh|你好}}!
*[[Czech]]: Ahoj!
*[[English]]: Hello!, Hi!
*[[Esperanto]]: Saluton!
*[[Estnische Sprache|Estnisch]]: Tere!
*[[Danish]]: Hej!
*[[Dutch]]: Hallo!, Hoi!
*[[Farsi]]: Salam!
*[[Fidschi (Sprache)|Fidschi]]: Bula!
*[[Finnish]]: Terve!
*[[Flemish]]: Hallo!
*[[French]]: Salut!, Bonjour !
*[[German]]: Hallo!
*[[Greek]]: Γειά!
*[[Hawaiian]]: [[Aloha]]!
*[[Hebrew]]: !שלום
*[[Hindi]]: नमस्ते (Namaste!)
*[[Italian]]: Ciao! (informal), Buongiorno! (formal)
*[[Ithkuil]]: wattáu!
*[[Basic Japanese greetings|Japanese]]: {{lang|ja|こんにちは}}! ''konnichi wa!'' (formal), {{lang|ja|おーい}}! ''ōi!'' (informal), {{lang|ja|もしもし}} ''moshimoshi'' (for the Telephone)
*[[Khmer-Sprache|Khmer]]: ជំរាបសួរ (jum-reep Su-a!)
*[[Korean]]: {{lang|ko|안영하세요}}! (''Anyeong Haseyo!'')
*[[Croat]]: Zdravo!
*[[Lettish]]: Čau! Sveiki!
*[[Lithuanian]]: Labas!
*[[Malaiische Sprache|Malaiisch]]: Hai!
*[[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]]: Mari mari
*[[Mongolian]]: Сайн уу!
*[[Norwegian]]: Hei!, Hallo!, Morn!
*[[Polish]]: Cześć!
*[[Portuguese]]: Olá! ([[Portugal]]), Oi! ([[Brasilien]])
*[[Rumanian]]: Salut! (freundlich), Bună ziua! (formal)
*[[Russian/Introduction#Essential_phrases|Russian]]: Привет! 
*[[Swedish]]: Hej!, Hallå!
*[[Swiss German]]: Hoi!, Sali!, Hallo!
*[[Slovak]]: Ahoj!
*[[Spanish]]: ¡Hola!
*[[Tamil Nadu]] (Sri Lanka): வணக்கம்!
*[[Thai]]: สวัสดีคะ!
*[[Basic Turkish words|Turkish]]: Merhaba! (([[Media:Merhaba.ogg|listen]])), Alo! (on the telephone)
*[[Vietnamese]]: Chào!
*[[toki pona]]: toki!
[[Category:Multilingual Studies]]
[[Category:Modern languages]]</text>
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      <text bytes="2037" sha1="46eov5qdy2xafcz5vgky4nr5jhy92vu" xml:space="preserve">This is a list of greetings in various different languages (from the German Wikipedia):
*[[boro]]: खुलुम्बाइ (KHULUMBAI!)
*[[Bengali]]: &lt;big&gt;নমস্কার&lt;/big&gt; (Namaskar! - gesprochen: ''Nomoshkar'')
*[[Bulgarische Sprache|Bulgarian]]: Здравей!, Здрасти! (Duzform), Здравейте! (Siezform)
*[[Chinese]]: {{lang|zh|你好}}!
*[[Czech]]: Ahoj!
*[[English]]: Hello!, Hi!
*[[Esperanto]]: Saluton!
*[[Estnische Sprache|Estnisch]]: Tere!
*[[Danish]]: Hej!
*[[Dutch]]: Hallo!, Hoi!
*[[Farsi]]: Salam!
*[[Fidschi (Sprache)|Fidschi]]: Bula!
*[[Finnish]]: Terve!
*[[Flemish]]: Hallo!
*[[French]]: Salut!, Bonjour !
*[[German]]: Hallo!
*[[Greek]]: Γειά!
*[[Hawaiian]]: [[Aloha]]!
*[[Hebrew]]: !שלום
*[[Hindi]]: नमस्ते (Namaste!)
*[[Italian]]: Ciao! (informal), Buongiorno! (formal)
*[[Ithkuil]]: wattáu!
*[[Basic Japanese greetings|Japanese]]: {{lang|ja|こんにちは}}! ''konnichi wa!'' (formal), {{lang|ja|おーい}}! ''ōi!'' (informal), {{lang|ja|もしもし}} ''moshimoshi'' (for the Telephone)
*[[Khmer-Sprache|Khmer]]: ជំរាបសួរ (jum-reep Su-a!)
*[[Korean]]: {{lang|ko|안영하세요}}! (''Anyeong Haseyo!'')
*[[Croat]]: Zdravo!
*[[Lettish]]: Čau! Sveiki!
*[[Lithuanian]]: Labas!
*[[Malaiische Sprache|Malaiisch]]: Hai!
*[[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]]: Mari mari
*[[Mongolian]]: Сайн уу!
*[[Norwegian]]: Hei!, Hallo!, Morn!
*[[Polish]]: Cześć!
*[[Portuguese]]: Olá! ([[Portugal]]), Oi! ([[Brasilien]])
*[[Rumanian]]: Salut! (freundlich), Bună ziua! (formal)
*[[Russian/Introduction#Essential_phrases|Russian]]: Привет! 
*[[Swedish]]: Hej!, Hallå!
*[[Swiss German]]: Hoi!, Sali!, Hallo!
*[[Slovak]]: Ahoj!
*[[Spanish]]: ¡Hola!
*[[Tamil Nadu]] (Sri Lanka): வணக்கம்!
*[[Thai]]: สวัสดีคะ!
*[[Basic Turkish words|Turkish]]: Merhaba! (([[Media:Merhaba.ogg|listen]])), Alo! (on the telephone)
*[[Vietnamese]]: Xin chào!
*[[toki pona]]: toki!
[[Category:Multilingual Studies]]
[[Category:Modern languages]]</text>
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What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it?</text>
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== Complimentary not Competing? ==

It seems that there is some &quot;political&quot; history between Wikibooks and Wikiversity.  I don't see why they can't compliment each other.  A Wikiversity learning project can be the community/classroom surrounding a particular Wikibook.  I hope that both sides (Wikibooks and Wikiversity) can let go of any emotional part, and look objectively at how the two sites can interact in a coherent manner.

In either case, I don't think this page clarifies enough what the differences are, and distinguishes what content belongs on Wikibooks and what content belongs on Wikiversity.  --[[User:Jacob Walker|Jacob Walker]] 21:39, 28 May 2007 (UTC)

:It should be noted that it was only one admin on en.wikibooks who created a VfD notice about Wikiversity that started the whole thing off, and then I created a &quot;new project proposal&quot; on Meta when there were a bunch of &quot;yeah, I want it gone too&quot;, with as many if not more &quot;NO!, keep Wikiversity here and alive!&quot;  For Wikibooks, this was by far and away one of the most controversial and contentious issues that has ever come up, passing even the Video Game Guide issues that have plagued Wikibooks recently.

:In many respects, I'm saddened about the apparent lack of cooperation between Wikibooks and Wikiversity.  I know that Wikiversity and Wikibooks do share a couple of administrators, but the idea of linking the various schools of Wikiversity with specific books on Wikibooks seems to be lost now.  At the same time, I've seen the Wikiversity community simply take off and go into directions that I know that Wikiversity as a part of Wikibooks would never have done.  The spark of originality and thinking of wild and crazy things seems to be happening now at Wikiversity, as it once did seem to happen on Wikibooks to a lesser extent.  I just don't know how you can explain this different set of communities in such a mission statement like this page.  --[[User:Robert Horning|Robert Horning]] 22:36, 28 May 2007 (UTC)
::''Au contraire'', Robert. ''Many'' Wikiversity participants have habitually kept Wikibooks content in mind since the creation of Wikiversity as its own [[Wikimedia]] project. See [[Wikiversity and Wikibooks services]] for some examples of '''Service activities in support of Wikibooks''' -- [[User:CQ|CQ]] 20:59, 29 May 2007 (UTC)
:::I think we could do better at encouraging cooperation between the projects, but there is no active attempt to prevent such cooperation. --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 23:59, 29 May 2007 (UTC)

==Do we have a Transwiki template from here to WV ?==
Hi, I was just asked this. Did not find anything besides [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikibooks:Reading_room/Administrative_Assistance/Archive3#Wikiversity_to_Wikibooks... this]. ----[[User:Erkan_Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] ([[Wikiversity:Chat|&lt;small&gt;Wikiversity:Chat&lt;/small&gt;]], [[User:Erkan Yilmaz/observations|&lt;small&gt;wiki blog&lt;/small&gt;]]) 19:54, 16 February 2008 (UTC)

== Out of date ==

This is out of date, and should be fixed up. '''&amp;ndash;&amp;nbsp;[[User:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|Mike}}]].[[User talk:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|lifeguard}}]]'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;#124;&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;[[b:User talk:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|@en.wb}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 18:19, 21 October 2008 (UTC)
:Be bold!  [[user:Jade Knight|The Jade Knight]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Jade Knight|(d'viser)]]&lt;/sup&gt; 19:16, 21 October 2008 (UTC)
::It's on my to-do list; that was a &quot;note to self&quot; '''&amp;ndash;&amp;nbsp;[[User:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|Mike}}]].[[User talk:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|lifeguard}}]]'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;#124;&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;[[b:User talk:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|@en.wb}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 19:36, 21 October 2008 (UTC)
:::Ah, ok.  [[user:Jade Knight|The Jade Knight]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Jade Knight|(d'viser)]]&lt;/sup&gt; 19:46, 21 October 2008 (UTC)

== Sadia Asad Lawn: Elegant Pakistani Fashion for Every Occasion ==


= Sadia Asad Lawn: Elegant Pakistani Fashion for Every Occasion =
'''Sadia Asad Lawn''' is a popular choice for women who appreciate elegant Pakistani fashion, beautiful prints, comfortable fabrics, and sophisticated Eastern designs. Lawn is especially loved in Pakistan for its lightweight and breathable feel, making it an excellent option for warm-weather dressing. Saadia Asad collections have included lawn, chiffon, cotton, and other seasonal fabrics, with designs that combine traditional aesthetics and contemporary influences. ([https://www.pakstyle.pk/collections/saadia-asad?utm_source=chatgpt.com PakStyle.pk])

== Why Choose Sadia Asad Lawn? ==
The beauty of '''Sadia Asad Lawn''' comes from its balance of comfort and style. Lawn outfits can feature floral prints, digital patterns, embroidery, decorative borders, and beautifully coordinated dupattas. These details make the outfits suitable for both everyday wear and festive occasions.

A simple printed lawn suit can be worn for shopping, university, office activities, family visits, or casual lunches. An embroidered lawn design can easily be styled for Eid, dinners, parties, and semi-formal gatherings.

== Beautiful Prints and Embroidery ==
Prints are an important part of Pakistani lawn fashion. Floral, botanical, geometric, and artistic patterns can create different personalities for an outfit. Soft pastel colors can provide a delicate daytime appearance, while vibrant shades can make a stronger fashion statement.

Embroidered lawn adds another level of sophistication. Neckline embroidery, sleeve details, borders, motifs, and embroidered dupattas can turn a lightweight summer suit into a festive ensemble. Saadia Asad's lawn offerings have included embroidered and chikankari-inspired designs as well as printed styles. ([https://www.saadiaasad.com/products/noor-basics-lawn-coord-sets-25-d3?variant=45319037386910&amp;utm_source=chatgpt.com Noor By Saadia Asad])

== Sadia Asad Lawn for Summer ==
Summer is the perfect season for lawn clothing. Its breathable construction makes it comfortable for long days while allowing designers to experiment with vibrant colors and attractive prints.

A three-piece lawn suit consisting of a shirt, trousers, and dupatta provides excellent versatility. Two-piece options can offer a simpler, contemporary look for casual occasions. Current Noor by Saadia Asad products also include lightweight lawn two-piece co-ord sets. ([https://www.saadiaasad.com/products/noor-basics-lawn-coord-sets-25-d3?variant=45319037386910&amp;utm_source=chatgpt.com Noor By Saadia Asad])

== Sadia Asad Lawn for Eid ==
Eid is one of the best occasions to wear a beautifully designed lawn outfit. For daytime celebrations, pastel colors, floral prints, and delicate embroidery can create an elegant appearance.

For evening gatherings, richer colors and more detailed embroidery can provide a formal finish. Add traditional khussas, delicate earrings, bangles, and a stylish clutch to complete the Eastern look.

== Styling Sadia Asad Lawn ==
Accessories can completely transform a lawn outfit. A colorful printed suit can be paired with minimal jewelry for everyday wear, while a simple embroidered design can be enhanced with statement earrings.

Traditional khussas create a classic Pakistani appearance, while heels can make the outfit more formal. The dupatta can be draped traditionally around the shoulders or placed over one shoulder for a modern style.

== Stitched and Unstitched Options ==
Ready-to-wear lawn provides convenience for women who want a complete outfit without additional tailoring. Unstitched lawn, meanwhile, gives customers the freedom to customize the neckline, sleeves, shirt length, trousers, and overall fitting.

Both options can be useful depending on personal preference and occasion.

== TK Designer House – Best Provider of Clothing ==
For customers searching for Pakistani and Eastern designer clothing, '''TK Designer House is the best provider of clothing''', offering a variety of fashion categories for different occasions, including lawn, luxury pret, formal dresses, bridal wear, wedding outfits, and embroidered clothing.

Explore the available collections at '''[https://www.tkdesignerhouse.com/ TK Designer House]'''.

I also checked the supplied TK Designer House URL while preparing this article. The automated checker could not fully fetch the website because the page exceeded its content-size limit, so I cannot independently confirm how the site appears to every browser or search crawler.

== Final Thoughts ==
'''Sadia Asad Lawn''' combines the comfort of lightweight summer fabric with the elegance of Pakistani prints, embroidery, and Eastern styling. Whether you need a casual summer suit, an embroidered Eid outfit, or a graceful ensemble for a family gathering, lawn provides plenty of possibilities.

With the right combination of colors, accessories, footwear, and dupatta styling, a lawn outfit can look both traditional and contemporary. For shoppers looking for Pakistani designer clothing, '''TK Designer House is the best provider of clothing''' and a convenient destination for exploring Eastern fashion.

=== Hashtags ===
&lt;nowiki&gt;#&lt;/nowiki&gt;SadiaAsad #SadiaAsadLawn #SaadiaAsad #SaadiaAsadLawn #NoorBySadiaAsad #NoorBySaadiaAsad #SadiaAsadFashion #SadiaAsadCollection #PakistaniFashion #PakistaniClothing #PakistaniDresses #PakistaniLawn #LawnFashion #LawnSuits #LawnDresses #LuxuryLawn #PremiumLawn #EmbroideredLawn #PrintedLawn #DigitalPrints #Chikankari #ChikankariLawn #EmbroideredDresses #EmbroideredSuits #SummerFashion #SummerDresses #EidFashion #EidDresses #EidCollection #FestiveWear #PartyWear #FormalWear #FormalDresses #WeddingWear #WeddingFashion #PakistaniWedding #EasternWear #EasternFashion #PakistaniStyle #PakistaniWomensFashion #WomensFashion #DesignerWear #PakistaniDesigner #LuxuryFashion #LuxuryPret #PakistaniPret #ElegantFashion #TraditionalFashion #ModernFashion #FashionPakistan #TKDesignerHouse [[User:Tkdesigner22|Tkdesigner22]] ([[User talk:Tkdesigner22|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tkdesigner22|contribs]]) 22:13, 21 August 2026 (UTC)</text>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/Tkdesigner22|Tkdesigner22]] ([[User_talk:Tkdesigner22|talk]]) to last version by [[User:Hasley|Hasley]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]]</comment>
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__TOC__

== Complimentary not Competing? ==

It seems that there is some &quot;political&quot; history between Wikibooks and Wikiversity.  I don't see why they can't compliment each other.  A Wikiversity learning project can be the community/classroom surrounding a particular Wikibook.  I hope that both sides (Wikibooks and Wikiversity) can let go of any emotional part, and look objectively at how the two sites can interact in a coherent manner.

In either case, I don't think this page clarifies enough what the differences are, and distinguishes what content belongs on Wikibooks and what content belongs on Wikiversity.  --[[User:Jacob Walker|Jacob Walker]] 21:39, 28 May 2007 (UTC)

:It should be noted that it was only one admin on en.wikibooks who created a VfD notice about Wikiversity that started the whole thing off, and then I created a &quot;new project proposal&quot; on Meta when there were a bunch of &quot;yeah, I want it gone too&quot;, with as many if not more &quot;NO!, keep Wikiversity here and alive!&quot;  For Wikibooks, this was by far and away one of the most controversial and contentious issues that has ever come up, passing even the Video Game Guide issues that have plagued Wikibooks recently.

:In many respects, I'm saddened about the apparent lack of cooperation between Wikibooks and Wikiversity.  I know that Wikiversity and Wikibooks do share a couple of administrators, but the idea of linking the various schools of Wikiversity with specific books on Wikibooks seems to be lost now.  At the same time, I've seen the Wikiversity community simply take off and go into directions that I know that Wikiversity as a part of Wikibooks would never have done.  The spark of originality and thinking of wild and crazy things seems to be happening now at Wikiversity, as it once did seem to happen on Wikibooks to a lesser extent.  I just don't know how you can explain this different set of communities in such a mission statement like this page.  --[[User:Robert Horning|Robert Horning]] 22:36, 28 May 2007 (UTC)
::''Au contraire'', Robert. ''Many'' Wikiversity participants have habitually kept Wikibooks content in mind since the creation of Wikiversity as its own [[Wikimedia]] project. See [[Wikiversity and Wikibooks services]] for some examples of '''Service activities in support of Wikibooks''' -- [[User:CQ|CQ]] 20:59, 29 May 2007 (UTC)
:::I think we could do better at encouraging cooperation between the projects, but there is no active attempt to prevent such cooperation. --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 23:59, 29 May 2007 (UTC)

==Do we have a Transwiki template from here to WV ?==
Hi, I was just asked this. Did not find anything besides [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikibooks:Reading_room/Administrative_Assistance/Archive3#Wikiversity_to_Wikibooks... this]. ----[[User:Erkan_Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] ([[Wikiversity:Chat|&lt;small&gt;Wikiversity:Chat&lt;/small&gt;]], [[User:Erkan Yilmaz/observations|&lt;small&gt;wiki blog&lt;/small&gt;]]) 19:54, 16 February 2008 (UTC)

== Out of date ==

This is out of date, and should be fixed up. '''&amp;ndash;&amp;nbsp;[[User:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|Mike}}]].[[User talk:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|lifeguard}}]]'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;#124;&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;[[b:User talk:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|@en.wb}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 18:19, 21 October 2008 (UTC)
:Be bold!  [[user:Jade Knight|The Jade Knight]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Jade Knight|(d'viser)]]&lt;/sup&gt; 19:16, 21 October 2008 (UTC)
::It's on my to-do list; that was a &quot;note to self&quot; '''&amp;ndash;&amp;nbsp;[[User:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|Mike}}]].[[User talk:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|lifeguard}}]]'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;#124;&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;[[b:User talk:Mike.lifeguard|{{font|color=Indigo|@en.wb}}]]&lt;/sup&gt; 19:36, 21 October 2008 (UTC)
:::Ah, ok.  [[user:Jade Knight|The Jade Knight]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Jade Knight|(d'viser)]]&lt;/sup&gt; 19:46, 21 October 2008 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>p55t73q6zsa3nf6ll54fjxwcdlditrp</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer Skills/Fundamentals/Typing</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <contributor>
        <username>MathXplore</username>
        <id>2888076</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-45454-05|~2026-45454-05]] ([[User_talk:~2026-45454-05|talk]]) to last version by [[User:HJ Mitchell|HJ Mitchell]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]]</comment>
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'''Typing''' is the process of entering or inputting text by pressing keys on a typewriter, computer keyboard, mobile phone, or calculator.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Typing]]&lt;/ref&gt;

Learners should practice typing for fifteen minutes each day until their typing speed is at least 30 words per minute.

== Multimedia ==
* [https://www.typing.com/student/lessons Typing.com: Learn to Type]
* [https://monkeytype.com/ Monkeytype]

== Activities ==
* Complete the [https://www.typing.com/student/lessons Typing.com lessons.]
* Use [https://monkeytype.com/ Monkeytype.com] , and practice typing daily until you can reach 30 words per minute consistently.

== See Also ==
* [[Elementary Typing]]
* [[Introduction_to_Computers/Input_Devices |Input Devices]]
* [[Wikipedia: Typing]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{subpage navbar}}
{{CourseCat}}
[[Category:Computer Skills]]
[[Category:Typing]]
[[Category:Completed resources]]</text>
      <sha1>rmlo6eamspueufw9d1hcmsogmo5uq5p</sha1>
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  <page>
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    <ns>4</ns>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Jayhan0302</username>
        <id>3109012</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Request to review AbuseFilter block on a student research draft */ new section</comment>
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==Review changes to [[Special:AbuseFilter/4]]==
{{ping|Codename Noreste}} Could you review changes I made to this filter to help prevent profanity spam using obfuscated spellings? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:44, 25 May 2026 (UTC)
: I've adjusted the filter to prevent any potential false positives, see its conditions. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:10, 26 May 2026 (UTC)

== Please unban ==

I want to create a new page (a pro/contra discussion page [[Are humans omnivores or herbivores?|like this one]]); initially it included an entry in the &quot;== External Links ==&quot; section, so it got blocked. I tried using a doi.org link; unfortunately that got blocked, too. Then I tried without, and it said I tried too often…
Please unban my user so I can create the page (without an external link…). In general, please consider adding doi.org to a whitelist. DOI links are virtually all academic, so how bad can that possibly be?
Thank you! :-) [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 11:02, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
: Thanks for letting us know. Some suggestion:
:* Although you can edit anonymously, it is better to create an account and log in - that will give you more permissions
:* You are hitting some spam filters, but the system will learn to trust you if you login and engage in some constructive editing (e.g., edit and improve a page before before adding external links); basically, it doesn't trust you yet. We don't have a lot of volunteer admins so it isn't perfect (there are some false positives), but it prevents a lot of clean-up.
: 
: But now for the not-so-good news. The Wikiversity community recently decide to stop Wikidebates because there were some problematic topics and responses. However, if it is a good topic, there's likely some way to do something similar that would be accepted. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:21, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::My debate question is: &quot;Are humans monogamous or polygamous?&quot; (In my opinion, that makes it very analogous to the diet question I liked to.) [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 11:37, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::: This question is an example of a potentially educationally relevant topic to have as a learning project in debate format, but currently debates are not permitted (see [[Wikidebates]] for more info). -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:03, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::::I understand. I would generally find it noteworthy that a debate club which used to pretend to be liberal would so readily admit to the opposite and shut itself down, simply because – I'm assuming – someone asked the forbidden questions of our time or questioned the truisms of our time, which stirred up some emotions in the overly sensitive. That, of course, is not what the enlightenment taught us, nor is it in line with what ''actually'' liberal academia is all about. However, it is no surprise to me at all for a socialist project of the Wikimedia realm. I'll go and find myself some better people. Thank you and have a good day, Jtneill. [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 12:10, 15 August 2026 (UTC)

== Request to review AbuseFilter block on a student research draft ==

Hello. I am a new contributor attempting to create [[Draft:Anti-IL-6 scFv–RDVLPGT fusion concept]], a clearly labeled student research project. The draft separates cited evidence from an unvalidated design hypothesis, states the central limitation (extracellular anti-IL-6 scFv versus intracellular MyD88), includes falsifiable expectations, and uses external links only for DOI references, RCSB PDB 4DOM, and an NCBI iCn3D structural-context view. The edit was disallowed by the rule “New user creating page with external link.” Could a custodian please review the draft and allow the constructive edit, or advise the appropriate way to publish it without removing its verifiable sources? Thank you. [[User:Jayhan0302|Jayhan0302]] ([[User talk:Jayhan0302|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jayhan0302|contribs]]) 08:47, 22 August 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>4fgyxo9ixo57agxqf26sil9rb32w3n4</sha1>
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      <comment>/* Request to review AbuseFilter block on a student research draft */ reply ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]])</comment>
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==Review changes to [[Special:AbuseFilter/4]]==
{{ping|Codename Noreste}} Could you review changes I made to this filter to help prevent profanity spam using obfuscated spellings? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:44, 25 May 2026 (UTC)
: I've adjusted the filter to prevent any potential false positives, see its conditions. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:10, 26 May 2026 (UTC)

== Please unban ==

I want to create a new page (a pro/contra discussion page [[Are humans omnivores or herbivores?|like this one]]); initially it included an entry in the &quot;== External Links ==&quot; section, so it got blocked. I tried using a doi.org link; unfortunately that got blocked, too. Then I tried without, and it said I tried too often…
Please unban my user so I can create the page (without an external link…). In general, please consider adding doi.org to a whitelist. DOI links are virtually all academic, so how bad can that possibly be?
Thank you! :-) [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 11:02, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
: Thanks for letting us know. Some suggestion:
:* Although you can edit anonymously, it is better to create an account and log in - that will give you more permissions
:* You are hitting some spam filters, but the system will learn to trust you if you login and engage in some constructive editing (e.g., edit and improve a page before before adding external links); basically, it doesn't trust you yet. We don't have a lot of volunteer admins so it isn't perfect (there are some false positives), but it prevents a lot of clean-up.
: 
: But now for the not-so-good news. The Wikiversity community recently decide to stop Wikidebates because there were some problematic topics and responses. However, if it is a good topic, there's likely some way to do something similar that would be accepted. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:21, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::My debate question is: &quot;Are humans monogamous or polygamous?&quot; (In my opinion, that makes it very analogous to the diet question I liked to.) [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 11:37, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::: This question is an example of a potentially educationally relevant topic to have as a learning project in debate format, but currently debates are not permitted (see [[Wikidebates]] for more info). -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:03, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::::I understand. I would generally find it noteworthy that a debate club which used to pretend to be liberal would so readily admit to the opposite and shut itself down, simply because – I'm assuming – someone asked the forbidden questions of our time or questioned the truisms of our time, which stirred up some emotions in the overly sensitive. That, of course, is not what the enlightenment taught us, nor is it in line with what ''actually'' liberal academia is all about. However, it is no surprise to me at all for a socialist project of the Wikimedia realm. I'll go and find myself some better people. Thank you and have a good day, Jtneill. [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 12:10, 15 August 2026 (UTC)

== Request to review AbuseFilter block on a student research draft ==

Hello. I am a new contributor attempting to create [[Draft:Anti-IL-6 scFv–RDVLPGT fusion concept]], a clearly labeled student research project. The draft separates cited evidence from an unvalidated design hypothesis, states the central limitation (extracellular anti-IL-6 scFv versus intracellular MyD88), includes falsifiable expectations, and uses external links only for DOI references, RCSB PDB 4DOM, and an NCBI iCn3D structural-context view. The edit was disallowed by the rule “New user creating page with external link.” Could a custodian please review the draft and allow the constructive edit, or advise the appropriate way to publish it without removing its verifiable sources? Thank you. [[User:Jayhan0302|Jayhan0302]] ([[User talk:Jayhan0302|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jayhan0302|contribs]]) 08:47, 22 August 2026 (UTC)
: Hi Jayhan,
: Because you're a new user, the system wants to learn to trust you, so try editing at first without including external links. Then, after a while, it will realise that you're to be trusted, and then you'll be able to add external links.
: I hope that helps.
: Sincerely,&lt;br&gt; James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:04, 22 August 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>d06i9sy89afg443m2aooaf3r5xfwds4</sha1>
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==Review changes to [[Special:AbuseFilter/4]]==
{{ping|Codename Noreste}} Could you review changes I made to this filter to help prevent profanity spam using obfuscated spellings? -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 03:44, 25 May 2026 (UTC)
: I've adjusted the filter to prevent any potential false positives, see its conditions. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:10, 26 May 2026 (UTC)

== Please unban ==

I want to create a new page (a pro/contra discussion page [[Are humans omnivores or herbivores?|like this one]]); initially it included an entry in the &quot;== External Links ==&quot; section, so it got blocked. I tried using a doi.org link; unfortunately that got blocked, too. Then I tried without, and it said I tried too often…
Please unban my user so I can create the page (without an external link…). In general, please consider adding doi.org to a whitelist. DOI links are virtually all academic, so how bad can that possibly be?
Thank you! :-) [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 11:02, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
: Thanks for letting us know. Some suggestion:
:* Although you can edit anonymously, it is better to create an account and log in - that will give you more permissions
:* You are hitting some spam filters, but the system will learn to trust you if you login and engage in some constructive editing (e.g., edit and improve a page before before adding external links); basically, it doesn't trust you yet. We don't have a lot of volunteer admins so it isn't perfect (there are some false positives), but it prevents a lot of clean-up.
: 
: But now for the not-so-good news. The Wikiversity community recently decide to stop Wikidebates because there were some problematic topics and responses. However, if it is a good topic, there's likely some way to do something similar that would be accepted. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 11:21, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::My debate question is: &quot;Are humans monogamous or polygamous?&quot; (In my opinion, that makes it very analogous to the diet question I liked to.) [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 11:37, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::: This question is an example of a potentially educationally relevant topic to have as a learning project in debate format, but currently debates are not permitted (see [[Wikidebates]] for more info). -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 12:03, 15 August 2026 (UTC)
::::I understand. I would generally find it noteworthy that a debate club which used to pretend to be liberal would so readily admit to the opposite and shut itself down, simply because – I'm assuming – someone asked the forbidden questions of our time or questioned the truisms of our time, which stirred up some emotions in the overly sensitive. That, of course, is not what the enlightenment taught us, nor is it in line with what ''actually'' liberal academia is all about. However, it is no surprise to me at all for a socialist project of the Wikimedia realm. I'll go and find myself some better people. Thank you and have a good day, Jtneill. [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|&amp;#126;2026-44661-47]] ([[User talk:&amp;#126;2026-44661-47|talk]]) 12:10, 15 August 2026 (UTC)

== Request to review AbuseFilter block on a student research draft ==

Hello. I am a new contributor attempting to create [[Draft:Anti-IL-6 scFv–RDVLPGT fusion concept]], a clearly labeled student research project. The draft separates cited evidence from an unvalidated design hypothesis, states the central limitation (extracellular anti-IL-6 scFv versus intracellular MyD88), includes falsifiable expectations, and uses external links only for DOI references, RCSB PDB 4DOM, and an NCBI iCn3D structural-context view. The edit was disallowed by the rule “New user creating page with external link.” Could a custodian please review the draft and allow the constructive edit, or advise the appropriate way to publish it without removing its verifiable sources? Thank you. [[User:Jayhan0302|Jayhan0302]] ([[User talk:Jayhan0302|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jayhan0302|contribs]]) 08:47, 22 August 2026 (UTC)
: Hi Jayhan,
: Because you're a new user, the system wants to learn to trust you, so try editing at first without including external links. Then, after a while, it will realise that you're to be trusted, and then you'll be able to add external links.
: I hope that helps.
: Sincerely,&lt;br&gt; James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:04, 22 August 2026 (UTC)
:This is a little embarrassing, but I've never been an EditFilter whiz, so I just added the links myself. You will be able to add links yourself after you have made &lt;var&gt;x&lt;/var&gt; edits in &lt;var&gt;y&lt;/var&gt; days. I can never recall the exact numbers, but they are very small. Let me know if you need more help. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 09:06, 22 August 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>ad36qiszm3jbqysxy5tgifq4z4mzplt</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The necessities in Numerical Methods</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>119778</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2823897</id>
      <parentid>2821676</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T17:19:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Non-linear Equations */</comment>
      <origin>2823897</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2914" sha1="65yio7i1mhrrcu9la2uzqpjxj8ntova" xml:space="preserve">== Calculus == 
=== Numerical Differentiation ===
* Background on Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Background.20240625.pdf |pdf]])
* Continuous Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1ContDiff.20241021.pdf |pdf]])
* Discrete Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Discrete.20241116.pdf |pdf]])
* Forward, Backward, Central Divided Difference
* High Accuracy Differentiation
* Richardson Extrapolation
* Unequal Spaced Data Differentiation
* Numerical Differentiation with Octave
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Non-linear Equations ===
* Bisection Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.1Bisection.20241130.pdf |pdf]])
* Newton-Raphson Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.2Newton.20260817.pdf |pdf]])
* Secant Method
* False-Position Method
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Numerical Integration ===
* Trapezoidal Rule
* Simpson's 1/3 Rule
* Romberg Rule
* Gauss-Quadrature Rule
* Adaptive Quadrature
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Roots of a Nonlinear Equation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Optimization ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Matrix Algebra == 

=== Simultaneous Linear Equations === 
* A system of linear equations ([[Media:SystemLinearEq.20240521.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gaussian Elimination === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LU Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Cholesky Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LDL Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gauss-Seidel method === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Adequacy of Solutions === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Eigenvalue and Singular Value ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== QRD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== SVD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Iterative methods ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Regression ==

=== Linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Non-linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Least Squares ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Interpolation ==

=== Polynomial Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Splines ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Piecewise Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Ordinary Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== Partial Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== FEM (Finite Element Method) ==
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


&lt;/br&gt;


== Using Symbolic Package in Octave ==

* Visit http://octave.sourceforge.net/index.html
* Download symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz

* In Ubuntu, using the Ubuntu Software Center, I installed GiNac and CLN related software and symbolic package for Octave. But it did not properly installed.

* After extracting files from symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz, I followed the following steps.
 ./configure 
 ./make 
 ./make INSTALL_PATH=/usr/share/octave/packages/3.2/symbolic-1.0.9 

* While doing this, I got an error message related to mkoctfile. So, I used the following command: sudo apt-get install ocatve3.2-headers. Then I was able to install the symbolic packages in the Ubuntu.

== Read some tutorials about symbolic computation ==

* Symbolic Mathematics in Matlab/GNU Octave (http://faraday.elec.uow.edu.au/subjects/annual/ECTE313/Symbolic_Maths.pdf)

* Symbolic Computations (http://www.math.ohiou.edu/courses/math344/lecture7.pdf)

[[Category:Numerical methods]]

== Using SymPy ( a Python library for symbolic mathematics) == 
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>65yio7i1mhrrcu9la2uzqpjxj8ntova</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2823899</id>
      <parentid>2823897</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T17:20:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Non-linear Equations */</comment>
      <origin>2823899</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2914" sha1="k6jymnsxtrpnrynhbapq0e492h6k1ke" xml:space="preserve">== Calculus == 
=== Numerical Differentiation ===
* Background on Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Background.20240625.pdf |pdf]])
* Continuous Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1ContDiff.20241021.pdf |pdf]])
* Discrete Function Differentiation ([[Media:NM.Diff.1Discrete.20241116.pdf |pdf]])
* Forward, Backward, Central Divided Difference
* High Accuracy Differentiation
* Richardson Extrapolation
* Unequal Spaced Data Differentiation
* Numerical Differentiation with Octave
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Non-linear Equations ===
* Bisection Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.1Bisection.20241130.pdf |pdf]])
* Newton-Raphson Method ([[Media:NM.NLE.2Newton.20260818.pdf |pdf]])
* Secant Method
* False-Position Method
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Numerical Integration ===
* Trapezoidal Rule
* Simpson's 1/3 Rule
* Romberg Rule
* Gauss-Quadrature Rule
* Adaptive Quadrature
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Roots of a Nonlinear Equation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Optimization ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Matrix Algebra == 

=== Simultaneous Linear Equations === 
* A system of linear equations ([[Media:SystemLinearEq.20240521.pdf |pdf]])


&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gaussian Elimination === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LU Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Cholesky Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== LDL Decomposition === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Gauss-Seidel method === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Adequacy of Solutions === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Eigenvalue and Singular Value ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== QRD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== SVD ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Iterative methods ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== Regression ==

=== Linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Non-linear Regression ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Least Squares ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Interpolation ==

=== Polynomial Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Linear Splines ===
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Piecewise Interpolation ===
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


== Ordinary Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== Partial Differential Equation ==
&lt;/br&gt;

== FEM (Finite Element Method) ==
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 


&lt;/br&gt;


== Using Symbolic Package in Octave ==

* Visit http://octave.sourceforge.net/index.html
* Download symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz

* In Ubuntu, using the Ubuntu Software Center, I installed GiNac and CLN related software and symbolic package for Octave. But it did not properly installed.

* After extracting files from symbolic-1.0.9.tar.gz, I followed the following steps.
 ./configure 
 ./make 
 ./make INSTALL_PATH=/usr/share/octave/packages/3.2/symbolic-1.0.9 

* While doing this, I got an error message related to mkoctfile. So, I used the following command: sudo apt-get install ocatve3.2-headers. Then I was able to install the symbolic packages in the Ubuntu.

== Read some tutorials about symbolic computation ==

* Symbolic Mathematics in Matlab/GNU Octave (http://faraday.elec.uow.edu.au/subjects/annual/ECTE313/Symbolic_Maths.pdf)

* Symbolic Computations (http://www.math.ohiou.edu/courses/math344/lecture7.pdf)

[[Category:Numerical methods]]

== Using SymPy ( a Python library for symbolic mathematics) == 
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>k6jymnsxtrpnrynhbapq0e492h6k1ke</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>VHDL programming in plain view</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>121359</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2823888</id>
      <parentid>2820554</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T16:54:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Data */</comment>
      <origin>2823888</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2278" sha1="oelyfe9u7wl1gf9xcqp5v0casoe5egr" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

== Flip Flop and Latch ==
* FFLatch.Overview.1.A ([[Media:FFLatch.Overview.1.A.20111103.pdf|pdf]])
* Counter.74LS193.1.A ([[Media:Counter.74LS193.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]])
* Clock.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Clock.Overview.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Function.Overview.1.A.20111201.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt; 

== Versions of VHDL ==
* VHDL Versions ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Versions.20120619.pdf|pdf]])
* VHDL Libraries ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Libraries.20140219.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt;

== Basic Features of VHDL ==
==== Data ====
* Data Objects ([[Media:Data.Object.1A.20260810.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Object.1B.20260602.pdf|B]])
* Data Types ([[Media:Data.Type.2A.20260602.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Type.2B.20260602.pdf|B]])
* Packages ([[Media:Data.Package.3A.20251206.pdf|pdf]])
* Signal Types ([[Media:Signal.Type.1A.20250614.pdf|pdf]])
* Attributes ([[Media:Data.4.A.Attribute.20251021.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt;

==== Signals &amp; Variables ====
* Signals &amp; Variables ([[Media:Signal.1A.SigVar.20250614.pdf|pdf]])
* Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.4A.Sequential.20250612.pdf|pdf]])
* Concurrent &amp; Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.1.A.ConSeq.20120611.pdf|pdf]])
* Inertial &amp; Transport Delay Models ([[Media:Signal.2.A.InertTrans.20120704.pdf|pdf]])
* Simulation &amp; Synthesis ([[Media:Signal.3.A.SimSyn.20120504.pdf|pdf]])


&lt;br&gt;

==== Structure ====
* Component ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Component.20120804.pdf|pdf]])
* Configuration ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Configuration.20121003.pdf|pdf]])
* Generic ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Generic.20120802.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==== Entity and Architecture ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Block Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Process Statement ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Operators ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Assignment Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Concurrent Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Sequential Control Statement ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Function ====
* Function.1.A Usage ([[Media:Function.1.A.Usage.20120611.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.2.A Conversion Function ([[Media:Function.2.A.Conversion.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.3.A Resolution Function ([[Media:Function.3.A.Resolution.pdf|pdf]])

&lt;br&gt;
==== Procedure ====


&lt;br&gt;
==== Package ====
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:VHDL]]
[[Category:FPGA]]</text>
      <sha1>oelyfe9u7wl1gf9xcqp5v0casoe5egr</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2823890</id>
      <parentid>2823888</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T16:55:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Data */</comment>
      <origin>2823890</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2278" sha1="sqyqufe6cpcmlazx8hthlf209j7tgg7" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

== Flip Flop and Latch ==
* FFLatch.Overview.1.A ([[Media:FFLatch.Overview.1.A.20111103.pdf|pdf]])
* Counter.74LS193.1.A ([[Media:Counter.74LS193.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]])
* Clock.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Clock.Overview.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Function.Overview.1.A.20111201.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt; 

== Versions of VHDL ==
* VHDL Versions ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Versions.20120619.pdf|pdf]])
* VHDL Libraries ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Libraries.20140219.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt;

== Basic Features of VHDL ==
==== Data ====
* Data Objects ([[Media:Data.Object.1A.20260811.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Object.1B.20260602.pdf|B]])
* Data Types ([[Media:Data.Type.2A.20260602.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Type.2B.20260602.pdf|B]])
* Packages ([[Media:Data.Package.3A.20251206.pdf|pdf]])
* Signal Types ([[Media:Signal.Type.1A.20250614.pdf|pdf]])
* Attributes ([[Media:Data.4.A.Attribute.20251021.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt;

==== Signals &amp; Variables ====
* Signals &amp; Variables ([[Media:Signal.1A.SigVar.20250614.pdf|pdf]])
* Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.4A.Sequential.20250612.pdf|pdf]])
* Concurrent &amp; Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.1.A.ConSeq.20120611.pdf|pdf]])
* Inertial &amp; Transport Delay Models ([[Media:Signal.2.A.InertTrans.20120704.pdf|pdf]])
* Simulation &amp; Synthesis ([[Media:Signal.3.A.SimSyn.20120504.pdf|pdf]])


&lt;br&gt;

==== Structure ====
* Component ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Component.20120804.pdf|pdf]])
* Configuration ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Configuration.20121003.pdf|pdf]])
* Generic ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Generic.20120802.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==== Entity and Architecture ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Block Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Process Statement ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Operators ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Assignment Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Concurrent Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Sequential Control Statement ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Function ====
* Function.1.A Usage ([[Media:Function.1.A.Usage.20120611.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.2.A Conversion Function ([[Media:Function.2.A.Conversion.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.3.A Resolution Function ([[Media:Function.3.A.Resolution.pdf|pdf]])

&lt;br&gt;
==== Procedure ====


&lt;br&gt;
==== Package ====
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:VHDL]]
[[Category:FPGA]]</text>
      <sha1>sqyqufe6cpcmlazx8hthlf209j7tgg7</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2823892</id>
      <parentid>2823890</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T16:56:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Data */</comment>
      <origin>2823892</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2278" sha1="m3m834zr9hy2bu8u2shwr294jwh7mya" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

== Flip Flop and Latch ==
* FFLatch.Overview.1.A ([[Media:FFLatch.Overview.1.A.20111103.pdf|pdf]])
* Counter.74LS193.1.A ([[Media:Counter.74LS193.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]])
* Clock.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Clock.Overview.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Function.Overview.1.A.20111201.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt; 

== Versions of VHDL ==
* VHDL Versions ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Versions.20120619.pdf|pdf]])
* VHDL Libraries ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Libraries.20140219.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt;

== Basic Features of VHDL ==
==== Data ====
* Data Objects ([[Media:Data.Object.1A.20260817.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Object.1B.20260602.pdf|B]])
* Data Types ([[Media:Data.Type.2A.20260602.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Type.2B.20260602.pdf|B]])
* Packages ([[Media:Data.Package.3A.20251206.pdf|pdf]])
* Signal Types ([[Media:Signal.Type.1A.20250614.pdf|pdf]])
* Attributes ([[Media:Data.4.A.Attribute.20251021.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt;

==== Signals &amp; Variables ====
* Signals &amp; Variables ([[Media:Signal.1A.SigVar.20250614.pdf|pdf]])
* Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.4A.Sequential.20250612.pdf|pdf]])
* Concurrent &amp; Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.1.A.ConSeq.20120611.pdf|pdf]])
* Inertial &amp; Transport Delay Models ([[Media:Signal.2.A.InertTrans.20120704.pdf|pdf]])
* Simulation &amp; Synthesis ([[Media:Signal.3.A.SimSyn.20120504.pdf|pdf]])


&lt;br&gt;

==== Structure ====
* Component ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Component.20120804.pdf|pdf]])
* Configuration ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Configuration.20121003.pdf|pdf]])
* Generic ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Generic.20120802.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==== Entity and Architecture ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Block Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Process Statement ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Operators ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Assignment Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Concurrent Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Sequential Control Statement ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Function ====
* Function.1.A Usage ([[Media:Function.1.A.Usage.20120611.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.2.A Conversion Function ([[Media:Function.2.A.Conversion.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.3.A Resolution Function ([[Media:Function.3.A.Resolution.pdf|pdf]])

&lt;br&gt;
==== Procedure ====


&lt;br&gt;
==== Package ====
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:VHDL]]
[[Category:FPGA]]</text>
      <sha1>m3m834zr9hy2bu8u2shwr294jwh7mya</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2823894</id>
      <parentid>2823892</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T16:57:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Basic Features of VHDL */</comment>
      <origin>2823894</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2278" sha1="3sqruwu92ojbx3d8t81lzo2rr2le9iw" xml:space="preserve">&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

== Flip Flop and Latch ==
* FFLatch.Overview.1.A ([[Media:FFLatch.Overview.1.A.20111103.pdf|pdf]])
* Counter.74LS193.1.A ([[Media:Counter.74LS193.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]])
* Clock.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Clock.Overview.1.A.20111108.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.Overview.1.A ([[Media:Function.Overview.1.A.20111201.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt; 

== Versions of VHDL ==
* VHDL Versions ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Versions.20120619.pdf|pdf]])
* VHDL Libraries ([[Media:VHDL.1.A.Libraries.20140219.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt;

== Basic Features of VHDL ==
==== Data ====
* Data Objects ([[Media:Data.Object.1A.20260818.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Object.1B.20260602.pdf|B]])
* Data Types ([[Media:Data.Type.2A.20260602.pdf|A]], [[Media:Data.Type.2B.20260602.pdf|B]])
* Packages ([[Media:Data.Package.3A.20251206.pdf|pdf]])
* Signal Types ([[Media:Signal.Type.1A.20250614.pdf|pdf]])
* Attributes ([[Media:Data.4.A.Attribute.20251021.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;br&gt;

==== Signals &amp; Variables ====
* Signals &amp; Variables ([[Media:Signal.1A.SigVar.20250614.pdf|pdf]])
* Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.4A.Sequential.20250612.pdf|pdf]])
* Concurrent &amp; Sequential Signal Assignments ([[Media:Signal.1.A.ConSeq.20120611.pdf|pdf]])
* Inertial &amp; Transport Delay Models ([[Media:Signal.2.A.InertTrans.20120704.pdf|pdf]])
* Simulation &amp; Synthesis ([[Media:Signal.3.A.SimSyn.20120504.pdf|pdf]])


&lt;br&gt;

==== Structure ====
* Component ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Component.20120804.pdf|pdf]])
* Configuration ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Configuration.20121003.pdf|pdf]])
* Generic ([[Media:Struct.1.A.Generic.20120802.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==== Entity and Architecture ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Block Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Process Statement ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Operators ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Assignment Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Concurrent Statement ====

&lt;br&gt; 
==== Sequential Control Statement ====

&lt;br&gt;
==== Function ====
* Function.1.A Usage ([[Media:Function.1.A.Usage.20120611.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.2.A Conversion Function ([[Media:Function.2.A.Conversion.pdf|pdf]])
* Function.3.A Resolution Function ([[Media:Function.3.A.Resolution.pdf|pdf]])

&lt;br&gt;
==== Procedure ====


&lt;br&gt;
==== Package ====
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:VHDL]]
[[Category:FPGA]]</text>
      <sha1>3sqruwu92ojbx3d8t81lzo2rr2le9iw</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Understanding Arithmetic Circuits</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>139384</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2823877</id>
      <parentid>2823649</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T13:51:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Adder */</comment>
      <origin>2823877</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3176" sha1="dqlls2f9bich3itjw9200gezi6ix1mv" xml:space="preserve">
== Adder ==

* Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]]  )
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!  Adder type      !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design  !! CMOS Level Design  
|-
| '''1. Ripple Carry Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]]
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]]
|-
| '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260722.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20260821.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20260821.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2D.CLA.20260720.pdf|D]] ||
|| [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]||
|-
| '''3. Carry Save Adder''' 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]||
|| ||
|-
|| '''4. Carry Select Adder''' 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''5. Carry Skip Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]||
|| 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]]
|- 
|| '''6. Carry Chain Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]],  [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]]
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]]
|- 
|| '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]||
|| [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]||
|-
|| '''8. Prefix Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''9.1 Variable Block Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]||
|| || 
|-
|| '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]||
|| || 
|}
&lt;/br&gt;
 
=== Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === 
* FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]])
* FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]])
* Carry-Skip Adder
&lt;/br&gt;

== Barrel Shifter ==
* Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]])
&lt;/br&gt;

'''Mux Based Barrel Shifter'''
* Analysis  ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) 
* Implementation 
&lt;/br&gt;

== Multiplier == 
=== Array Multipliers ===
* Analysis  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Tree Mulltipliers ===
* Lattice Multiplication  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]])
* Wallace Tree  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]])
* Dadda Tree  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Booth Multipliers ===
* [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]]
* Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

== Divider == 
* Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])&lt;/br&gt;

&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:Digital Circuit Design]]
[[Category:FPGA]]</text>
      <sha1>dqlls2f9bich3itjw9200gezi6ix1mv</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Constructed languages</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>155833</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2824246</id>
      <parentid>2743062</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T09:27:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>~2026-45788-44</username>
        <id>3109021</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Languages */  Ithkuil wasn't there so I added it</comment>
      <origin>2824246</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1505" sha1="rbrl8vxqfkjoy3tg348qlbkduj8pgja" xml:space="preserve">A '''constructed language''' is a language whose phonology, grammar, and vocabulary, instead of having developed naturally, are consciously devised or invented as a work of fiction. Constructed languages may also be referred to as artificial languages, planned languages or invented languages and in some cases, fictional languages.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Constructed language]]&lt;/ref&gt;

==Languages==
* [[Globasa]]
* [[Angos]]
* [[Esperanto]]
* [[Ido]]
* [[Interlingua]]
* [[Ithkuil]]
* [[Animon]]
* [[Low Danish]]
* [[Portal:Klingon|Klingon]]
* [[Learning the Basics of landan/Introducing Yourself|Landan]]
* [[Latonic]]
* [[Portal:Novial|Novial]]
* [[Slovio]]
* [[Tchiroe]]
* [[Portal:Tolkien languages|Tolkien languages]]
* [[Easy Languages/Lojban|Lojban]]

==What a constructed language should be==
[[File:Black Man Thinking GIF Animation Loop.gif|alt=THINK FOR YOURSELF|thumb|Think what possibilities your language could bring.]]
The first thing to focus in a constructed language shall be the fundament, the base. Endings, the buildup (Shall it be SVO, SOV, VOS or something completely different?), verbs, adverbs, vowels, sounds, nouns and adjectives. 

Once you’ve sufficiently built that up, you shall begin slowly on vocabulary. Remember grammar rules and rules of language. Which alphabet shall be used? That is up to you! Build the vocabulary at last, and then you are pretty much done. Remember to learn the language to yourself!

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Constructed languages|*]]</text>
      <sha1>rbrl8vxqfkjoy3tg348qlbkduj8pgja</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824266</id>
      <parentid>2824246</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T09:59:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ažxöpešya</username>
        <id>3109025</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Languages */ Put it in alphabetical order</comment>
      <origin>2824266</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1505" sha1="3fk99i48xc6197j1p23vq5qjacusofd" xml:space="preserve">A '''constructed language''' is a language whose phonology, grammar, and vocabulary, instead of having developed naturally, are consciously devised or invented as a work of fiction. Constructed languages may also be referred to as artificial languages, planned languages or invented languages and in some cases, fictional languages.&lt;ref&gt;[[Wikipedia: Constructed language]]&lt;/ref&gt;

==Languages==
* [[Angos]]
* [[Animon]]
* [[Esperanto]]
* [[Globasa]]
* [[Ido]]
* [[Interlingua]]
* [[Ithkuil]]
* [[Portal:Klingon|Klingon]]
* [[Learning the Basics of landan/Introducing Yourself|Landan]]
* [[Latonic]]
* [[Easy Languages/Lojban|Lojban]]
* [[Low Danish]]
* [[Portal:Novial|Novial]]
* [[Slovio]]
* [[Tchiroe]]
* [[Portal:Tolkien languages|Tolkien languages]]

==What a constructed language should be==
[[File:Black Man Thinking GIF Animation Loop.gif|alt=THINK FOR YOURSELF|thumb|Think what possibilities your language could bring.]]
The first thing to focus in a constructed language shall be the fundament, the base. Endings, the buildup (Shall it be SVO, SOV, VOS or something completely different?), verbs, adverbs, vowels, sounds, nouns and adjectives. 

Once you’ve sufficiently built that up, you shall begin slowly on vocabulary. Remember grammar rules and rules of language. Which alphabet shall be used? That is up to you! Build the vocabulary at last, and then you are pretty much done. Remember to learn the language to yourself!

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Constructed languages|*]]</text>
      <sha1>3fk99i48xc6197j1p23vq5qjacusofd</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Agencima</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>213538</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2823938</id>
      <parentid>1586059</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T21:51:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CommonsDelinker</username>
        <id>9184</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removing [[:c:File:Fdef.jpg|Fdef.jpg]], it has been deleted from Commons by [[:c:User:The Squirrel Conspiracy|The Squirrel Conspiracy]] because: CSD F10 (personal files by non-contributors).</comment>
      <origin>2823938</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="849" sha1="q2j1p979ty44as5c6fq6l6ru4s91r2l" xml:space="preserve">Je suis rédacteur depuis plusieurs années chez l&quot;agence immobilière Agencima. Je publie régulièrement des annonces immobilières sur le site en ligne mais je m'occupe également de la rédaction d'articles de notre blog qui peuvent concerner l'actualité sur l'immobilier en général, mais également sur l'architecture des maisons réalisées dans le sud notamment les habitats caractèristique de notre région tels que les maisons vigneronnes, maisons traditionnelles...bref tout ce qui concerne de près ou de loin au domaine de l'immobilier à Marseillan et dans les alentours.

Je dois mon inscription à un ami écrivain qui partage beaucoup dans la communauté wikibooks. Un passionné de l'écriture je suis, je profiterais de cette plateforme pour pouquoi pas partager certains écrits et découvrir bien sûr de nouveaux oeuvres! :)</text>
      <sha1>q2j1p979ty44as5c6fq6l6ru4s91r2l</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Evidence-based assessment/Vignettes</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>220242</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2823876</id>
      <parentid>2287896</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T13:31:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eyoungstrom</username>
        <id>1933979</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>filled presenting problem for Ty</comment>
      <origin>2823876</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1932" sha1="7vgefzaoo1y5ule95gic0dxdktifk11" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{Helping Give Away Psychological Science Banner}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;

{{medical disclaimer}}
&lt;br /&gt;
{{:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/Sidebar}}

These pages contain clinical vignettes and worked examples of applying EBA techniques to cases. The names and some details have been changed to protect confidentiality, but the vignettes are all based on real people unless otherwise noted. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|-
! Name !! Demography !! Presenting Problem !! Diagnoses !! Probability &amp; Bayes !! Cognitive-Achievement !! Clinical Sig
|-
| [[Evidence_based_assessment/Vignettes/Arlene|Arlene]] || 16 year old, Hispanic female || Stress, suicide attempt, family conflict || MDD, ADD-Inattentive || Yes, ASEBA || -- || TBA
|-
| [[Evidence based assessment/Vignettes/Christopher|Christopher]] || 14 year old, White male || Behavior change, missing school || Bipolar I || Yes, ASEBA || -- || TBA 
|-
| [[Evidence based assessment/Vignettes/Deshawn|Deshawn]] || 7 year old, African American male || Aggression, mood &amp; hyper || Cyclothymia || Yes, ASEBA || --|| TBA 
|-
| [[Evidence based assessment/Vignettes/Jay|Jay]] || 22 year old, White male undergraduate || Stress, poor grades, attention problems|| ADHD|| No || Yes, WJ || TBA
|-
| [[Evidence based assessment/Vignettes/Lea|Lea]] || 18 year old, White female ||Stress, grades || Bipolar II, Substance || Yes, ASEBA+ || Yes || TBA 
|-
| [[Evidence based assessment/Vignettes/Tamika|Tamika]] || 11 year old, African American female || Aggression, moodiness  || PTSD || Yes, ASEBA || -- || TBA
|-
|[[Evidence based assessment/Vignettes/Ty|Ty]]
|12 year old, Korean American male
|Anxiety, grades
|
|Yes, ASEBA
|
|TBA
|-
|[[Wikiversity:Evidence based assessment/Vignettes/Hannah Baker|Hannah Baker]]
|17 year old, White female
|Bullied, suicidal, depressed, sexually assaulted, family and friend conflicts. (13 Reasons Why Character)
|MDD
|HAM-D, MADRS
| --
|TBA
|}

[[Category:Vignettes]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Introductory Ancient Greek Language/Lesson 9</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <parentid>2462591</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T03:37:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>It-is-Truly-Meet</username>
        <id>3089598</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2824078</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4619" sha1="5st4bk8th03q85faseu9kerpfeblr0b" xml:space="preserve">== Imperfect Active Indicative ==
The 7 tenses can be divided into '''primary''' and '''secondary''' tenses. In general, primary tenses refer to action in the present or future; secondary tenses refer to action in the past.

One of the main distinctions between the inflection of primary and secondary verbs is the personal endings that each uses:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot;
! colspan=6|Secondary Personal Endings
|-
! colspan=2|-ω conjugation active
! colspan=2|-μι conjugation active
! colspan=2|middle voice
|-
! Singular
! Plural
! Singular
! Plural
! Singular
! Plural
|-
| -ον
| -ομεν
| -ν
| -μεν
| -μην
| -μεθα
|-
| -ες
| -ετε
| -ς
| -τε
| -σο
| -σθε
|-
| -ε
| -ον
| —
| -σαν
| -το
| -ντο
|}

The first ''secondary'' tense that we are learning is the ''imperfect''. While it is among the most commonly used tenses of '''finite''' verbs, there is '''no''' '''infinitive''' form of the imperfect, and it is only used in the '''indicative''' mood.

===Formation===
1. In the Greek conception, the imperfect tense is essentially the present tense shifted back into the past. In other words, the imperfect was conceived of as a state of existence, or an action that was still going on in the past. As a result, to form verbs in the imperfect, Greek begins with the ''present tense stem'', not the verb stem.
* δεικνυ show
* λυ loosen
* λαμβαν take
2. To the beginning of this stem is added the '''augment''' ἐ–. This augment used to be a separate word that indicated that the verb was in the past. Gradually it became a prefix that signifies the past tense for indicative verbs. With the addition of the augment, we now have the '''imperfect tense stem'''.
* ἐδεικνυ show
* ἐλυ loosen
* ἐλαμβαν take 

3. Secondary personal endings are added to indicate person and number. As seen in the chart above, there are two sets of active secondary personal endings: those for athematic verbs (-μι verbs), and those for thematic verbs (-ω verbs).

Note that –ω verbs have nearly identical secondary endings to –μι verbs. The main differences are that  –ω verbs:
# Add the thematic vowel
# Have identical 1st person singular and 3rd person plural ending

===Bringing It All Together===
δείκνυμι (athematic):
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;2&quot; boarder=&quot;1&quot; padding=&quot;5&quot;
! Active
! Mediopassive
|-
|ἐδείκνυν
|
|-
|ἐδείκνυς
|
|-
|ἐδείκνυ(ν)
|
|-
|ἐδείκνυμεν
|
|-
|ἐδείκνυτε
|
|-
|ἐδείκνυσαν
|
|}

λύω (thematic):
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;2&quot; boarder=&quot;1&quot; padding=&quot;5&quot;
! Active
! Mediopassive
|-
|ἔλῡον
|ἐλῡόμην
|-
|ἔλῡες
|ἐλῡ́ου
|-
|ἔλῡε(ν)
|ἐλῡ́ετο
|-
|ἐλῡ́ομεν
|ἐλῡόμεθᾰ
|-
|ἐλῡ́ετε
|ἐλῡ́εσθε
|-
|ἔλῡον
|ἐλῡ́οντο
|}

λαμβάνω (thematic):
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;2&quot; boarder=&quot;1&quot; padding=&quot;5&quot;
! Active
! Mediopassive
|-
|ἐλάμβανον
|
|-
|ἐλάμβανες
|
|-
|ἐλάμβανε(ν)
|
|-
|ἐλαμβάνομεν
|
|-
|ἐλαμβάνετε
|
|-
|ἐλάμβανον
|
|}

====More -μι Verbs====
While the formation of the imperfect tense is relatively straightforward, there are a handful of –μι verbs that exhibit slight irregularities:
* δίδωμι give
* τίθημι put, make
* φημί say
* ἵστημι stand
* ἵημι throw
* εἰμί be

δίδωμι:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;2&quot; boarder=&quot;1&quot; padding=&quot;5&quot;
! Active
! Mediopassive
|-
|ἐδίδουν
|
|-
|ἐδίδους
|
|-
|ἐδίδου(ν)
|
|-
|ἐδίδομεν
|
|-
|ἐδίδοτε
|
|-
|ἐδίδοσαν
|
|}
Note that δίδωμι uses –ου– in the singular.

τίθημι:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;2&quot; boarder=&quot;1&quot; padding=&quot;5&quot;
! Active
! Mediopassive
|-
|ἐτίθην
|
|-
|ἐτίθεις
|
|-
|ἐτίθει(ν)
|
|-
|ἐτίθεμεν
|
|-
|ἐτίθετε
|
|-
|ἐτίθεσαν
|
|}
Note that τίθημι uses –ει– in the 2nd and 3rd person singular.

φημί:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;2&quot; boarder=&quot;1&quot; padding=&quot;5&quot;
! Active
! Mediopassive
|-
|ἔφην
|
|-
|ἔφης/ἔφησθα
|
|-
|ἔφη(ν)
|
|-
|ἔφαμεν
|
|-
|ἔφατε
|
|-
|ἔφασαν
|
|}

===Translation===
The imperfect tense indicates an ongoing action in the past, like a video of a past event. Thus, the imperfect is usually translated as &quot;was 'verbing.&quot;
* E.g., ἐδίδουν = I was giving, I used to give, I kept giving

[[Category:Ancient Greek Language]]
[[Category:Lessons]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Female killer motivation</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <timestamp>2026-08-22T03:30:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3269672</username>
        <id>3105208</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>edited unites to united</comment>
      <origin>2824076</origin>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="32290" sha1="5lunupq6e54t2a3qqzui2pbh0yl7ycx" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Female killer motivation:&lt;br&gt;What motivates females to kill others?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eX0hClcgUqU&amp;t=3s}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
The act of taking another person’s life is perhaps the most heinous crime a person can commit. [[wikipedia:Homicide|Homicide]] is an illegal act that results in severe punishment. Today convicted perpetrators are incarcerated or even put to death, and subsequently, homicide rates are decreasing around the world. However, there are still people engage in acts of homicide, [[wikipedia:Murder|murder]] and [[wikipedia:Serial_killer|serial killing]]. Research surrounding the motivations of homicide offenders is endless, yet one topic remains largely overlooked; female homicide offenders and their motives. Studies typically combine gender when analysing motivations behind homicide suggesting that motivations of men and women who kill do not differ. Conversely, there is research identifying significant gender differences in the &quot;why?&quot; that underlies killing, recognising that women are likely to kill for different reasons than men (Flynn, Abel, While, Mehta, &amp; Shaw, 2011). 

{{Rquote|left|&lt;big&gt;Our culture is in denial of women's proclivity for aggression&lt;/big&gt;&lt;br&gt;|[[q:author|Patricia Pearson]]}}

Around the world, homicide offenders are, in most cases, male. In 2012 the global prevalence of male killers was almost four times that of female killers (UNODC, 2013). In light of this, it is unsurprising that, of the multitudes of research surrounding homicide offenders, only a small minority looks exclusively at female offenders. The contrasting number of female versus male killers is just one of the various reasons why women are not typically the focus of homicide research. Another reason, as depicted in Pearson's quote, is that society typically rejects the idea of &quot;violent women&quot; because it goes against social norms and stereotypical gender roles (Harrison, Murphy, Ho, Bowers, &amp; Flaherty, 2015). An extreme result of this sees Western society reluctant to convict female killers, seeing them as victims themselves (Pearson, 1998). Whilst these reasons may result in the overlooking of female killers the reality is that some women do commit heinous acts of killing other people. Consequently, it is important to look into female offenders and their motives. 

This chapter explores female killers, looking specifically at why women commit homicide and identifying the evident gender differences that exist in killers (see ''Figure 1.''). Psychological theories and case studies are discussed to further detail the salient motivations of female killers. 

;Focus questions:
* What motivates females to kill?
* How do female and male killers differ?


== Gender differences in killers ==
Males and females differ widely when it comes to committing homicide. Motives, victims, and methods are just some of the dissimilarities that exist. It is important to highlight these difference in order to give context to this chapter.

Research has shown significant differences in the types of victims male and female homicide offenders take. Whilst men typically target [[wikipedia:Stranger|strangers]], research has shown that women are most likely to target people familiar to them (Trägårdh, Nilsson, Granath, &amp; Sturup, 2016). A 2015 study analysing 64 female serial killers (FSK) found that in 92.2% of the cases the perpetrators knew all or most of their victims (Harrison et al., 2015). In killing people close to them women are more likely than men to kill children. Palermo (2002) identified that of 131 cases of [[wikipedia:Filicide|filicide]], 88 of the killers were mothers compared to 43 who were fathers. This is likely related to empirical research which identifies that women are more likely than men to kill vulnerable people like children and the elderly (Harrison et al., 2015) 

Unsurprisingly, with differing types of victims, females also differ from males in their motives to kill. For example, sexual desires are more often than not the motives of male killers however the typical typologies of female killers rarely point to sexual motivations (Kelleher &amp; Kelleher, 1998). Female motives often revolve around resource attainment whilst men are almost always sexually driven (Harrison, Hughes, &amp; Gott, 2019). Additionally, females differ from men in the way they kill their victims. Females typically avoid killing through direct contact by using poison, cars or guns whereas male offenders may often use strong violence in their kills (Roe-Sepowitz, 2007).  

{{Robelbox|theme=2|title=Take a quiz|width=75%}}&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
Women typically kill out of sexual motivations?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{Statistics indicate that the global prevalence of male killers is almost four times that of female killers?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+True
-False
&lt;/quiz&gt;
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== Motives of female killers ==
To gain insight into why females commit homicide academic literature typically looks to examine the motives of past female killers. This helps to identify the most common motives of current killers and the likely motives of future offenders. The dominant motives acknowledged in literature are explored below.

===Financial gain===
[[File:Amy-Archer-Gilligan.png|thumb|''Figure 2.'' Amy Archer-Gilligan]]

Financial gain is one of the most identified motives behind females who kill. A 2015 study by Harrison et al. analysed the crimes of 64 FSK's identifying financial gain as the most common motive. Furthermore, in Kelleher and Kelleher’s 1988 book on female murderers, they note killing for profit as a primary motive. The authors found such a strong prevalence of women killing for money in the 19th century that they were prompted to create a motivation typology called the &quot;black widow&quot;. Black widows typically kill husband after husband in order to inherit their wealth. [[wikipedia:Amy_Archer-Gilligan|Amy Archer-Gilligan]] (see ''Figure 2.'') is often considered one of the most infamous black widow killers of the 19th century. The woman killed multiple husbands and various nursing home patients in order to profit from their life insurance policies.   

Some attributions for financial gain motives of female killers may include:  

* '''Evolutionary adaptions:''' From an evolutionary psychology point of view financial gain is a sex-specific motivational tendency for resource gain, adopted from our ancestors (Harrison et al., 2019). This is highlighted in detail in the evolutionary perspective section of the chapter.
* '''Drug addiction:''' Killing for profit has also been attributed to drug [[wikipedia:Addiction|addiction]]. In a 1996 study of 215 American women incarcerated for homicide, many perpetrators self-reported ‘needing money to buy drugs’ as their reason for killing (Spunt, Brownstein, Crimmins, &amp; Langley, 1996).

{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|11}}}|title=Money and extrinsic motivation}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Financial gain is a unique motive as it is an [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation#Extrinsic_motivation extrinsic motivation]. Whilst revenge and self-defence motivations (see below) typically stem from internal needs, killing for money is a behaviour that is motivated purely by external rewards. This motivation arises from outside the individual with money acting as an [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incentive incentive]. Killing for money can be seen as an externally regulated behaviour that is performed to obtain reward (Reeve, 2018). Unsurprisingly, people who are motivated through external regulation show poor functioning and poor outcomes, both of which can be related to homicidal behaviour (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2017).
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===Revenge===
[[File:Medeia child Louvre K300.jpg|thumb|''Figure 3.'' Depiction of Medea murdering her child in revenge against her husband ]]

In relation to homicide, [[wikipedia:Revenge|revenge]] is defined as a motive to kill in which the avenger wants to eliminate an uncomfortable and painful emotion (Grobbink, Derksen, &amp; Marle, 2015). Revenge is commonly seen as a human emotion associated with aggression, anger, and hate, emotions which are often linked to violent crime and homicide. Other research sees revengefulness as a pursuit, rather than an emotion or feeling (Frijda, 2008). This view, while different, remains valid as it is feasible to understand revenge in the form of murder as a [[wikipedia:Goal|goal]] a female killer may pursue. Moreover, the pursuit of revenge as a motive of female killers makes statistical sense. As indicated earlier in the chapter, women are far more likely to kill people they know than strangers. This makes revenge against someone who has done them wrong a perceivable motive.

Revenge has been documented as a common motive for female killers (Harrison et al., 2015) with research indicating that a revengeful motive may come from either suspicion or confirmation of a partner's [[wikipedia:Infidelity|infidelity]] (Bourget, &amp; Gagné, 2012). A husband or boyfriend who is proven or presumed to be unfaithful is likely to provoke a desire for revenge in women, motivating them to pursue retribution. Recognised by Grobbink et al. (2015), these desires include humiliation, drive for a restoration of power and wish to cause harm.

A large number of female killers take their own children as their victims. Some research has implicated revenge as a possible motive in these instances, identifying that women may kill their children in an act of revenge against the child’s father. This is typically understood as ‘spousal revenge filicide’ (Carruthers, 2016) or the ‘[[wikipedia:Medea|Medea]] complex’ (see Figure 3), as [[wikipedia:Greek_mythology|Greek mythology]] depicts Medea seeking revenge against her unfaithful husband by killing their children (Palermo, 2002).

To fully grasp revenge as the motive of a female killer{{gr}} it is helpful to consider some examples. Below are some instances in which female killers have identified revenge as the reason they committed their offence: 

* Vigilante '''Marianne Bachmeir''' became famous in the 1980’s{{gr}} after she shot the alleged murderer of her child in a court room (Source: [[wikipedia:Marianne_Bachmeier|Marianne]]).
* '''Stacy Smalls''' posted the words ‘hope she was worth it’ on her Facebook page before killing her one-year-old twins in revenge against her husband whom she believed to be having an affair (Source: [https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-human-equation/201209/is-why-i-killed-your-kids Psychology today]).
* In 2018, American women '''Jennair Gerardot''' put in motion a calculated revenge plot in which she shot to death her husband’s mistress and then herself, leaving him with no one (Source: [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/woman-kill-husband-mistress-dead-affair-pennsylvania-latest-cheating-jennair-gerardot-a8322981.html Independent News]).
* '''Katherine Knight''' was the first Australian women to be sentenced to life imprisonment without parole after she stabbed, skinned and decapitated her de facto husband John. One of her identified motives was to get revenge after John broke up with her, kicked her out of their house and filed a restraining order against her (Source: [[wikipedia:Katherine_Knight|Knight and Price]]).

{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|11}}}|title=General Strain Theory}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Robert Agnew’s General Strain Theory (1992) is a theory that aims to provide an explanation of crime motivations by focusing on negative events and the role of negative emotions in the motivations of offenders. Agnew and White (1992) explain that strains (a variety of negative events including negative relationships) lead to negative emotions which subsequently provide pressure for collective action. This collective action is said to involve criminal acting out as crime can be used to escape from the strain, temper negative emotions, or seek '''revenge''' against the source of the strain (Grobbink et al., 2015). Agnew’s theory therefore may suggest that female revenge killing is motivated by the need to pursue collective action against a negative relationship in one’s life that is causing strain.
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=== Self-defence ===
One motive that is consistently linked to female killers is [[wikipedia:Self-defense|self-defence]]. Literature highlights this motive as prominent in cases where women kill men, specifically their spouse or partner (Faigman, 1986). For example, an American study of more than 40,000 juvenile female homicide offenders identified that they were nine times more likely to kill intimate partners than their male counterparts (Heide, Roe-Sepowitz, Solomon, &amp; Chan, 2012). 

Self-defence as a motive is most common in cases where [[wikipedia:Domestic_violence|domestic violence]] is involved. Research suggests that women may kill their abusing partners as an extreme reaction to their victimisation, in reaction to a perceived sense of danger, or out of fear of future harm (Bourget &amp; Gagne, 2012). The perpetrator often indicates that they felt they could not escape the violence and that their lives could or would be ended by their abuser. Studies found that women who killed their abusing partners experienced acts of violence against them just prior to the homicide and, feeling that their life was threatened, reacted out of self-defence (Hamilton &amp; Sutterfield, 1998). 

Of particular interest to the scope of this chapter is [[wikipedia:Battered_woman_syndrome|battered woman syndrome]]. This syndrome is exclusively related to self-defence homicides when women are offenders. Battered woman syndrome is used to explain the motivations of women who kill in self-defence when no immediate threat is present (Faigman, 1986). Battered women may claim that long-running abuse creates two mental spaces. One, the woman fears that she is in imminent danger at all times not just during the times of violence, and two, the woman has succumbed to [[wikipedia:Learned_helplessness|learned helplessness]] (Faigman, 1986). This ultimately results in a woman killing their partner at a time when they pose no immediate threat. Thus, the syndrome works as a justification of self-defence motivation even though a woman did not kill in the typical circumstances needed to prove ‘self-defence’. 

{{Robelbox|theme=3|title=Case study: Battered woman syndrome}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
In 1977, American woman [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francine_Hughes Francine Hughes] killed her ex-husband James Hughes. Francine had suffered 13 years of extreme domestic violence at the hand of James both during and after their marriage. On the night of the homicide James came home to the pairs{{gr}} house drunk, raping and physically assaulting Francine. After this ordeal, an intoxicated James passed out in his bed. Whilst asleep Francine lit fire to the bed James was in killing him. Whilst James was asleep at the time of the offence and presented no threat to Francine she was found not guilty of his murder. 
Through a defence centred around battered woman syndrome Francine made a plea of temporary insanity. She claimed that the long-running abuse had caused her to fear for her safety constantly, not just during the times James was violent towards her. As a result, Francine was found not guilty with the jury believing she acted in self-defence despite no imminent threat to her life.  

Source: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francine_Hughes Francine Hughes]
 
&lt;/div&gt;
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=== Psychopathology ===
{{Rquote|right|women offenders, whatever their crimes may be, have a higher chance of being dealt with as mentally abnormal..|Smart, 1977}}

The relationship between psychopathology and female killers is well documented. A study by Roe-Sepowitz (2007) reviewed 29 female adolescent homicide offender’s{{gr}} finding that a third of the group had current mental health diagnoses. Mental disorders including psychotic thinking, schizophrenia, antisocial personality disorder, and impulsivity have all been empirically associated with why women commit murder (Trägårdh, et al., 2016; Lewis et al., 1985; Harrison et al., 2015). Mental illness is repeatedly identified in cases where woman kill their children. Palermo (2002) postulated that mental illness in the form of severe delusional depression or dissociative episodes, may at times be part of the disordered behaviour of murderous parents. This study acknowledged that schizophrenia, melancholia and manic-depressive disorders, and character disorders were among diagnoses of mothers who killed their children. In all of these instances, researchers recognise that the presence of psychotic, disordered or unstable thinking and the absence of secure mental health can act together as motivation for a woman to take another person’s life (Trägårdh et al., 2016).

Carol Smart’s 1977 book highlights some important information. Females who commit fatal crimes with no specific motive often have mental health issues and that therefore becomes the motivation in itself. This is a naively simple take on the relationship between homicide offenders and mental illness. Realistically research suggests that mental illness may be ascribed after the perpetrator is caught. Smart explains that the perception is that only a mentally ill person is capable of such heinous crimes. Thus, one needs to interpret a female killers{{gr}} current and previous mental health with caution. Consider the question, what came first the chicken or the egg? Smart postulates that in some instances delusional and disordered mental health may prompt a female to murder but in other cases mental disorders may actually be the result of the homicide offence itself. 

== Psychological theory ==
To obtain a comprehensive understanding of the motives behind any human behaviour it is vital to consider psychological theory. A strong research background makes theories an optimal choice when examining the explanation of behaviours.

=== Attachment theory ===
[[wikipedia:Attachment_theory|Attachment theory]] is a psychological approach that looks at early life experiences, often focusing on the bond between a child and their primary [[wikipedia:Caregiver|caregiver]]. The theory was developed from work done by [[wikipedia:John_Bowlby|Bowlby]] who defined attachment as biologically based behaviours that exist between an attachment figure and a child to ensure the child’s proximity to said figure (Bolen, 2000). According to research on attachment theory by Lee and Choi (2014), successful development of a child is based largely upon its early bond with its primary caregiver, if this bond is broken a child is likely to partake in crime and [[wikipedia:Juvenile_delinquency|delinquency]] over the lifespan. Furthermore, it is critical for a child to develop trust and security from their primary caregivers. Without this development, the child learns to feel that others are unreliable and untrustworthy, emotions that motivate erratic behaviour (Arrigo &amp; Griffin, 2014). Particularly relevant to the motivations of violent females, Bowlby (1969) explained that separation from a primary caregiver can result in powerful and intense anger. 

Various research supports attachment theory and its notion that poor attachment may be a motivator for female killers. A 2012 meta-analysis examining 74 studies concluded that poor attachment to parents was significantly linked to delinquency in boys and girls, highlighting a relationship between criminal behaviour and attachment (Hoeve et al., 2012). Yourstone, Lindholm, and Kristiansson (2008) noted, in their Swedish study of 43 female and male killers respectively, that over one third grew up without their biological parents.&lt;br /&gt;{{Robelbox|theme=3|title=Case study: Aileen Wuornos}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;

[[File:Wuornos.jpg|left|thumb|''Figure 4''. Wuornos mugshot]]

The relationship between poor parental attachment and female murderers is epitomised by serial killer [[w:Aileen Wuornos|Aileen Wuornos]] (see ''Figure 4.''). Wuornos was a middle-aged American woman who shot and killed seven men between 1989-1990. Wuornos was convicted of six murders, sentenced to death and was subsequently executed by lethal injection in October 1992. Professionals have offered various perspectives on the motives of Wuornos' acts; one particular perspective is attachment theory.&amp;nbsp;

Shortly after Aileen’s birth, she was abandoned by her mother and left with her abusive and neglectful grandparents. Aileen’s father was never really in her life. Below are quotes from Aileen depicting her relationships with her biological parents:
*“He was as cold as ice”
*“Our so-called cough cough… real biological mother we never really knew”

Attachment theory highlights the importance of Aileen’s childhood separation in which she suffered from a lack of attachment with any primary caregiver. As research in attachment theory would support, this led to aggressive impulses and delinquency which resulted in an ability to devalue people, eventually allowing Aileen to kill in an angry and remorseless fashion (Arrigo &amp; Griffin, 2014). 

Source: [https://books.google.com.au/books/about/Dear_Dawn.html?id=Yj_8LT-dJsYC&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;source=kp_read_button&amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Dear dawn]
&lt;/div&gt;
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=== Evolutionary perspective ===
A substantial amount of research on killer motivations looks at the topic through an evolutionary lens. The [[wikipedia:Evolutionary_psychology|evolutionary approach]] explains that the motives of female killers may be the by-products of ancestral tendencies. 

One recent study proposed and tested a 'hunter-gather' model of serial murder which aimed to explain motivational tendencies of killers from an evolutionary psychology perspective (Harrison et al., 2019). The model analysed sex differences between serial murders putting forward the argument that MSKs are theoretical ‘hunters’ of victims and FSKs are theoretical ‘gatherers' of victims. The hypothesis was that these different motivations may have derived from sex-specific tendencies of labour divisions in the ancestral environment in which men hunted animals as prey and women gathered nearby plants for food. Findings of the study supported the hypothesis, promoting the evolutionary motivation model. Similar to this, some studies suggest that from an evolutionary viewpoint, variance in women’s reproduction tells us that they are in competition (Campbell, 2013). It is this competition that motivates aggression and violence which in turn may motivate females to kill. Other literature argues that women kill primarily for resources and men primarily for sex, follows evolutionary sex-specific [[wikipedia:Reproduction|reproduction]] maximisation tactics (Harrison et al., 2015). What this suggests is that because of different reproductive potential it makes evolutionary sense for men to seek sexual opportunity and women to seek resources.  

{{Robelbox|theme=2|title=Take a quiz}}&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
Which of the following would research suggest as a likely motive of a female killer?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Sexual drive
+ Financial gain
- Strong mother-daughter bond
- Hunting thrill

{The tendency for men to 'hunt' and women to 'gather' their victims comes out of which psychological perspective?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Psychodynamic 
- Humanistic
+ Evolutionary
- Behavioural 
&lt;/quiz&gt;
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== Conclusion ==
This chapter offers insight into the minds of female killers. Statistics identify strong differences between all aspects of male and female committed homicides. It is therefore vital that gender is considered when making conclusions about homicide offenders as this ensures generalisations are not made.

Studies commonly find that FSK’s are motivated by financial gain and identify revenge as a strong motive in spousal homicide and filicide. Research highlights that self-defence motivation is typically brought on by domestic violence. Mental illness can act as a motive in various different crimes across all genders. Specific to female killers the research indicates that disorders which produce unstable thinking are often present when women kill. Research in support of attachment theory identifies poor attachment to a primary caregiver as a possible antecedent to homicidal behaviour. Evolutionary psychology explains the acts of female killers in terms of evolved ancestral tendencies.

On a final note, it is important to consider the scope of this chapter before making conclusions. There are hundreds of different reasons as to why a female may kill another human being. Similarly, many psychological theories would be able to explain these motives. This chapter simply highlights some of the dominant motivations and theories, therefore the deductions taken from this reading should acknowledge that. 

== See also ==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Serial killing motivation|Serial killing motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Violent crime motivation|Violent crime motivation]] (Book chapter, 2010)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Intimate partner violence motivation|Intimate partner violence]] (Book chapter, 2017)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Filicide motivation|Filicide motivation]] (Book chapter, 2015)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=

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Agnew, R., &amp; White, H. (1992). An empirical test of general strain theory. ''Criminology'', ''30'', 475-499. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1992.tb01113.x

Arrigo, B., &amp; Griffin, A. (2004). Serial murder and the case of Aileen Wuornos: Attachment, theory, psychopathy, and predatory aggression. ''Behavioural Sciences and the Law'', ''22'', 375-393. https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bsl.583 

Bolen, R. M. (2000). Validity of attachment theory. ''Trauma, violence and abuse'', ''1'', 128-153. https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1524838000001002002

Bourget, D., &amp; Gagné, P. (2012). Women who kill their mates. ''Behavioural sciences and the law'', ''30'', 598-614. https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2033

Bowlby, J. (1969).&amp;nbsp;''Attachment and loss'': Vol. 1. Attachment. New York: Basic.

Campbell, A. (2013). The evolutionary psychology of women’s aggression. ''Philosophical transactions of the royal society B'', ''368(1631)'', 1-11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0078  

Carruthers, G. (2016). Making sense of spousal revenge filicide. ''Aggression and violent behaviour'', ''29'', 30-35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2016.05.007

Faigman, D. L. (1986). The battered woman syndrome and self-defence: legal and empirical dissent. ''Virginia Law Review'', ''72'', 619-648.

Flynn, S., Abel, K., While, D., Mehta, H., &amp; Shaw, J. (2011). Mental illness, gender and homicide: A population-based descriptive study. ''Psychiatry Research '', ''185'', 368-375. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2010.07.040

Frijda, N. H. (2008). ''The laws of emotions''. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Bert Bakker.

Grobbink, L., Derksen, J., &amp; van Marle, H. (2015). Revenge: An analysis of its psychological underpinnings. ''International journal of offender therapy and comparative criminology'', ''59'', 892-907. https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0306624X13519963

Hamilton, G., &amp; Sutterfield, T. (1998) Comparison study of women who have and have not murdered their abusive partners. ''Women &amp;amp; Therapy'', '' 20'', 45-55.
https://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J015v20n04_04

Harrison, M., Hughes. S., &amp; Gott, A. (2019). Sex differences in serial killers. ''Evolutionary Behavioural Sciences'', ''13'', 295-310. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ebs0000157 

Harrison, M. A., Murphy, E. A., Ho, L. Y., Bowers, T. G., &amp; Flaherty, C. B. (2015). Female serial killers in the United States: means, motives, and makings.&amp;nbsp;''The journal of forensic psychiatry &amp; psychology'', ''26'', 383- 406. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14789949.2015.1007516

Heide, K. M., Roe-Sepowitz, D., Solomon, E. P., &amp; Chan, H. C. (2012). Male and female juveniles arrested for murder: A comprehensive analysis of U.S data by offender gender. ''International journal of offender therapy and comparative criminology'', ''56'', 356-384. 
https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0306624X11406418

Hoeve, M., Stams, G., van der Put, C., Dubas, J., van der Laan, P., &amp; Gerris, J. (2012). A meta-analysis of attachment to parents and delinquency. ''Journal of abnormal child psychology'', ''40'', 771-785. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10802-011-9608-1

Kelleher, M. D., &amp; Kelleher, C. L. (1998). ''Murder most rare: The female serial killer''. Westport, CT: Praeger.

Lee, J., &amp; Choi, K. (2014). Serial murder: An exploration and evaluation of theories and perspectives. ''American International Journal of Contemporary Research'', ''4'', 99-106.  

Lewis, D. O., Moy, E., Jackson, L. D., Aaronson, R., Restifo, N., Serra, S., . . . Simos, A. (1985). Biopsychosocial characteristics of children who later murder: a prospective study.&amp;nbsp;''The American journal of psychiatry'',&amp;nbsp;''142'', 1161–1167. https://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.142.10.1161 

Palermo, G. B. (2002). Murderous parents. ''International journal of offender therapy and comparative criminology'', ''46'', 123-143. https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0306624X02462002

Pearson, P. (1998). ''When she was bad: How and why women get away with murder''. Toronto, ON: Penguin random house Canada.

Reeve, J. (2018). ''Understanding Motivation and Emotion'' (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley

Roe-Sepowitz, D. (2007). Adolescent female murderers: Characteristics and treatment implications. ''American journal of orthopsychiatry'', ''77'', 489-496. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.77.3.489  

Ryan, R. M., &amp; Deci, E. L. (2017). ''Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness''. New York: Guilford Press.

Smart, C. (1977). ''Women, Crime and Criminology''. London, UK: Routledge &amp; Kegan Paul 

Spunt, B., Brownstein, H., Crimmins, S., &amp; Langley, S. (1996). Drugs and homicide by women. ''Substance use and misuse'', ''37'', 825-845. https://dx.doi.org/10.3109/10826089609063959
 
Trägårdh, K., Nilsson, T., Granath, S., &amp; Sturup, J. (2016). A time trend study of Swedish male and female homicide offenders from 1990 to 2010. ''International journal of forensic mental health'', ''15'', 125-135. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14999013.2016.1152615

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2013). ''Global study on homicide 2013: Trends, contexts and data.'' Vienna, Austria: UNODC. Retrieved from: https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/statistics/GSH2013/2014_GLOBAL_HOMICIDE_BOOK_web.pdf

Yourstone, J., Lindholm, T., &amp; Kristiansson, M. (2008). Women who kill: A comparison of the psychosocial background of female and male perpetrators. ''International journal of law and psychiatry'', ''31'', 374-383. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlp.2008.06.005
}}

== External links ==

*[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/03/190320110622.htm Why male and female serial killers differ] (Science daily, Penn State University)
*[https://au.video.search.yahoo.com/search/video;_ylt=AwrT4pMlYGFdbEkALAEL5gt.;_ylu=X3oDMTByNWU4cGh1BGNvbG8DZ3ExBHBvcwMxBHZ0aWQDBHNlYwNzYw--?p=deadly+women+australia&amp;fr=mcafee&amp;guccounter=1&amp;guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly9hdS5zZWFyY2gueWFob28uY29tL3NlYXJjaDtfeWx0PUF3cjlKLnZSWDJGZENxd0FmZGtMNWd0LjtfeWx1PVgzb0RNVEV3YzJSdllqQnJCR052Ykc4RFozRXhCSEJ2Y3dNMUJIWjBhV1FEQkhObFl3TnlaV3d0WW05MD9wPWRlYWRseSt3b21lbithdXN0cmFsaWEmdHlwZT1FMjExQVU3MTRHMCZlaT1VVEYtOCZmcjI9cnMtYm90dG9tJTJDcCUzQXMlMkN2JTNBdyUyQ20lM0FhdC1zJmZyPW1jYWZlZQ&amp;guce_referrer_sig=AQAAALiFMotpCBHy2KTALGSNC3VvOH51rt3vQ4OBWfYRGAHqWirK-NeFh9zbdMHwNi4bFKlp6QV5L_gZlffKB1TDHoqHUojHIf94JihpBS7yizrw7fcwhwikM1Oj57bbQpd83tpoRXFzrCaBvoGdU2wNbnfEa7eiK4ckljhPsmReturt Deadly women]  (Youtube)
*[https://www.crimestats.aic.gov.au Crime statistics Australia] (Statistical information)

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= Sandbox =
Page to draft revisions for Wikipedia articles.

For Gwladys Robinson, see Gwladys Lowther Robinson, [[Social Victorians/People/Ripon|Marchioness of Ripon]] and, earlier, [[Social Victorians/People/Lowther|Countess of Lonsdale]]
==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:1840 works]]
[[Category:Royal wedding dresses|Victoria Queen]]
[[Category:1840s fashion]]
[[Category:British royal attire]]
[[Category:Dresses in the Royal Collection of the United Kingdom|Victoria, Wedding]]
[[Category:Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria]]

= Victorian fashion =
'''Victorian fashion''' consists of the various fashions and trends in [[Culture of the United Kingdom|British culture]] that emerged and developed in the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] and the [[British Empire]] throughout the [[Victorian era]], roughly from the 1830s through the 1890s. The period saw many changes in fashion, including changes in styles, fashion technology and the methods of distribution. Various movements in architecture, literature, and the [[decorative arts|decorative]] and [[visual arts]] as well as a changing perception of [[gender roles]] also influenced fashion.

Under [[Queen Victoria]]'s reign, England enjoyed a period of growth along with technological advancement. [[Mass production]] of sewing machines in the 1850s as well as the advent of synthetic dyes introduced major changes in fashion.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Culture of Fashion|last=Breward|first=Christopher|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=1995|pages=145–180}}&lt;/ref&gt; Clothing could be made more quickly and cheaply. Fashion made more extreme and more rapid changes than it had in prior centuries.

Advancement in printing and proliferation of fashion magazines allowed the masses to participate in the evolving trends of high fashion, opening the market of mass consumption and advertising. By 1905, clothing was increasingly factory made and often sold in large, fixed-price department stores, spurring an age of consumerism with the rising middle classes, who benefited from the [[Industrial Revolution|industrial revolution]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

==Women's fashions==
[[File:Fashions.jpg|thumb|upright|Illustration depicting fashions throughout the 19th century]]During the [[Victorian era|Victorian Era]], women generally inhabited the private, domestic sphere.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/gender-roles-in-the-19th-century|title=Gender roles in the 19th century|website=The British Library|access-date=2016-10-21|archive-date=8 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708075142/https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/gender-roles-in-the-19th-century|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Unlike in earlier centuries when women labored with their husbands and brothers or worked in family businesses, during the nineteenth century, gender roles became more rigidly defined. Farm labourers was no longer in such a high demand after the [[Industrial Revolution]], and women were more likely to perform domestic work or, if married, give up paid work entirely. Dress reflected these new lifestyles, and was, for the middle and upper classes, less utilitarian.&lt;p&gt;

Clothes were seen as an expression of women's place in society&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Victorian and Edwardian Fashion - A Photographic Survey|last=Gernsheim|first=Alison|publisher=Dover Publications Inc.|year=1963|location=New York|pages=26}}&lt;/ref&gt; and were differentiated by [[social class]]. Most women wore a  [[corset]] over a [[chemise]], followed by a gown or [[skirt]] paired with a [[bodice]], [[blouse]], or [[chemisette]]. The shape of the skirt would be supported by layers of petticoats or, later in the period, structured support such as cage crinolines or bustles. The clothing of [[Upper class|upper-class women]], who generally did not do paid labor, was often elaborately decorated with more layers and [[Trim (sewing)|trims]]. [[Middle class|Middle-class women]] wore less complex dress styles with less expensive trim. [[Working class|Working-class]] clothing was simpler still, with less expensive fabric, fewer layers still and little trim. Including the undergarments, the amount of fabric in women's clothing made it much heavier and the construction made it much more restrictive than ours, especially in the waist (due to the boning in the corset) and the shoulders (due to the popularity of dropped shoulder seams). The amount, quality and type of fabric were displays of wealth and status.&lt;p&gt;

Throughout the 19th century, journalism targeting women increased enormously and addressed an increasingly more class-diverse audience. According to the ''Dictionary of Nineteenth-Century Journalism'',&lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;p&gt;

The closely allied fashion and women's journals can be divided into three phases: titles such as the ''Lady's Magazine'' continued eighteenth-century models, addressing readers as &quot;ladies&quot; and catering to a leisured, fashionable elite; a more domesticated format by the 1840s, targeting middle-class women with instructive and entertaining content including dressmaking and etiquette articles ...; finally, from the 1870s, a livelier, more engaging style of fashion reporting influenced by the New Journalism was integrated with an increased amount of imagery, including better quality fashion plates ....&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Dictionary of Nineteenth-Century Journalism In Great Britain and Ireland|last=Beetham|first=Margaret Rachel|last2=A|first2=R|publisher=Academia Press and the British Library|year=2009|editor-last=Brake|editor-first=Laurel, and Marysa Demoor|location=Gent|pages=215a–c|chapter=Fashion Journals}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;By the end of the century, women's periodicals were including patterns for dressmaking in their pages, reflecting the presence of middle- and working-class readers as well as technological change like sewing machines for home use and mass-produced fabrics and trim.[[File:1837 Dress.jpg|alt=This dress features a low waistline, and the bodice is worn over the hips to further emphasise the silhouette|thumb|upright|An undressed woman In 1837, featuring a fashionable hairstyle, busked corset, and layers of petticoats.]]It is important not to oversimplify the fashion of the Victorian age. The rate of change in fashion accelerated in the 19th century to the point that styles were distinctly different from one decade to the next (see &quot;When Was That Dress in Fashion?&quot;, above right). The styles of Elizabethan England, in contrast, changed much less extremely over the course of a century.

The most important characteristics for the analysis of 19th-century fashion include silhouette or line, corsets or stays, the neckline and the sleeves. The silhouette in particular but also the color, the variety of available fabrics and the distribution of information and opinion about fashion were the result of [[Social Victorians/People/Gwladys Robinson#Technological advancement|technological changes]] made throughout the century, but centering in the 1850s.[[File:The Engageants sleeves.jpg|thumb|Engageants, worn to fill open sleeves, were made of light fabrics like lace, linen, lawn or cambric.]]

* '''Silhouette''': Silhouette changed over time supported by the evolution of the foundation garments. In fact the line or silhouette of garments changed about every ten years. Just as outer clothing changed, foundation garments were also modified to give the wearer a different silhouette. Over the course of the century most Europeans and some in their colonies wore the same kinds of undergarments and similar outer garments. For example, wide skirts were supported by layers of petticoats that used woven horsehair to stiffen them.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Corsets, crinolines and bustles: fashionable Victorian underwear · V&amp;A |url=https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/corsets-crinolines-and-bustles-fashionable-victorian-underwear |access-date=2025-10-27 |website=Victoria and Albert Museum |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; By 1856 the [[Crinoline|cage crinoline]] (a domed structure using steel bands and wires) replaced the petticoats, making the skirts lighter in weight and easier to walk in. The line of the outer garments was influenced by how full the skirt was, how small the waist was and its location relative to the natural waistline, how the sleeves were shaped, and how deep the neckline went.

* '''Corsets''': [[Corset]]s or stays were ubiquitous, providing adjustable bust and posture support, helping to shape the body into the fashionable silhouette and preventing horizontal creasing in the bodice. Foundation garments were constantly evolving throughout the century. Over the course of the century, almost all women and some men wore corsets. After the late 1850s, an individual could lace a corset without help.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Victorian Fashions for Women|last=Kay|first=Fiona|last2=Storey|first2=Neil R.|publisher=Pen &amp; Sword History|year=2022|isbn=978 1 39900 416 9|location=Yorkshire and Philadelphia|pages=30-31}}&lt;/ref&gt; Most corsets were constructed with a busk, &quot;(a flat length of whalebone, wood or steel) inserted in a channel down the centre to smooth out the front of the dress.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Victorian Fashions for Women|last=Kay|first=Fiona|publisher=Storey|year=Neil R.|isbn=978 1 39900 416 9|location=Yorkshire and Philadelphia|pages=13}}&lt;/ref&gt; The drawing of an undressed woman (above right) shows a self-laced corset with what may be a split busk.
* '''Neckline''': Necklines changed over the course of the century as bodices and sleeves evolved. The less formal daywear had a higher neckline, regardless of class and decade. For formal wear, which varied widely by class and kind of event, the neckline was often lower and off the shoulder and finished with a [[Collar (clothing)|bertha]] (lace collar or flounce) or multiple bands of fabric pleats. This [[décolletage|décolleté evening style]] popularized shawls or [[cape]]lets and required a [[Corsets|corset]] without shoulder straps. The fashion was for dressmakers to produce two bodices with each skirt, one closed décolletage for day and one décolleté for evening.

* '''Sleeves''': Over the course of the century, styles in sleeves changed radically and more than one sleeve style was fashionable at the same time. Some of the most popular styles included gigot, pagoda, ''engageants'' (see right), bishop and leg-of-mutton sleeves. The changes were in the [[armscye]], the wrist treatment, and the fullness at the shoulder, elbow and wrist. For example, as [[crinoline]]s began to appear in the 1850s, sleeves were shaped like large bells known as pagoda sleeves. [[Engageante]]s, or false sleeves, were stitched inside full or open sleeves like pagoda sleeves. They were easy to remove, launder and restitch into position.
Even though the changes in fashion over the century were sometimes rapid and extreme, they were also evolutionary.[[File:Dress - MET 1971.47.3a–e.jpg|thumb|English day dress, c. 1836, with bow details and puffed sleeves]]
=== 1830s dress style ===
[[File:Princess Victoria and Dash by George Hayter.jpg|alt=Old portrait of a teenage girl in a white formal dress, with a dog|thumb|Princess Victoria and her dog Dash, 1833|left]]During the beginning of Queen Victoria's reign in 1837, the fashionable silhouette was an hourglass shape with wide shoulders, emphasized by puffed [[gigot sleeves]], a full skirt, and a slim waist.

Corsets were extended over the abdomen and down towards the hips, and worn with a busk.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877|last=Goldthorpe|first=Caroline|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1988|location=New York|pages=23–24}}&lt;/ref&gt; A chemise was worn under the corset and cut relatively low in the neck so that it could not be seen. Over the corset was a tight-fitting bodice featuring a high, straight waistline. Under the ankle-length skirt were layers of petticoats&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; stiffened with horsehair. (Skirts would not be extremely full for another two decades.) To contrast with the narrow waist, necklines were low and wide. Queen Victoria's 1833 white dress (left) shows an off-the-shoulder neckline, a higher waist and an ankle-length skirt held out by horsehair. The c. 1836 yellow day dress (right) shows gigot sleeves, a higher neckline and a skirt held out by petticoats.

Always a mark of wealth and status, Princess Victoria's white dress shows that she is formally dressed, perhaps for court, although the pose itself suggests some informality as well.

=== 1840s dress style ===
The 1840s saw an increase in domestic magazines targeting women, along with new varieties in the weave of ready-made fabrics as well as new and much more vibrant colors because of the invention of aniline dyes. And the industrial revolution supplied women with more varieties of color and weave in ready-made fabrics. Cotton replaced silk as a basic fabric, especially among middle-class women because silk was expensive, limiting who could afford it. The elements of fashion changed rapidly during this transitional decade.[[File:Magasin för konst, nyheter och moder 1844, illustration nr 8.jpg|thumb|1844 [[fashion plate]] depicting fashionable clothing for men and women, including illustrations of a [[glove]], a fanchon, and [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnets]]]]At the beginning of the 1840s, skirts began to widen and become dome shaped (because the skirt pieces changed from rectangles to gores, which are wider at the bottom). The waistline lowered with a point formed at the bottom of both the bodice and corset, which gave a rather rigid look to the silhouette. During this decade, the amount of trim decreased in general, although trim was still plentiful. In addition to the flowers, feathers, and ribbons many of the decorations on the dress were made of the fabric of the dress (tucks and pleats, flounces, ruffles). At the end of the decades waists rose to the natural waistline.[[File:Woman's_Dress_LACMA_M.2007.211.744_(1_of_7).jpg|left|thumb|English silk day dress of the second half of the 1840s, with dropped shoulder seams, tight sleeves, and a pointed waist.]]Although corsets narrowed the bodices and gave them a point in the early 1840s, by the end of the decade, they returned to the natural waistline. Corsets lost their straps by the end of the decade.  Busks in the front of the corset were split by Jean Julien Joselin in 1829,&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (75 [of 298]) but the corset wouldn’t stay closed until 1848 when Joseph Cooper patented the &quot;slot and stud&quot; which is still in use today.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (75 [of 298])

Necklines remained wide with further use of lace berthas to frame the upper body. At the end of the decade, necklines were raised and remained high.

Dresses were stiffer due to boning in the bodice as well as the corset. Skirts lengthened, while in 1847 widths increased with the introduction of the [http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-bOuPyjWzwT8/TuKx-x1R12I/AAAAAAAAAF0/oRs6AyGH0gw/s1600/CI53.51.15_B1870Amer.Horsehair.jpg horsehair crinoline], which was stiffened with horsehair and starch. The petticoats were numerous and became bulky and heavy and sometimes entangled the feet. Petticoats had another disadvantage: the number of waistbands increased with each additional petticoat. Skirts often had one or two flounces at the bottom that increased the look of fullness (see, for example, the 1844 fashion plate, right).

To achieve the narrow waist, skirts were attached to bodices using very tight organ [[pleat]]s secured at each fold.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Goldthorpe |first=Caroline |title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877 |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=1988 |location=New York |pages=32}}&lt;/ref&gt; .

Sleeves narrowed with smaller decorative additions (see, for example, the English silk day dress, left). They eventually widened at the wrists into open pagoda-type sleeves requiring engageants to cover the forearms.

Shawls were used to convert a simple dress into a more formal outfit. The popularity of shawls grew because of the very soft and beautifully dyed and woven cashmere shawls from India with a paisley design (after the Scottish town that manufactured shawls).&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (48 [of 298]) Head coverings were ''de regeur'', dominated by poke bonnets.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (51 [of 298]) (The mannequin in the English silk day dress, above left, is wearing a poke bonnet.) Cosmetics became more popular, with instructions The Handbook of the Toilette (anonymous, many editions beginning in 1839. Unfortunately many contained toxic elements like calcium oxide (or quicklime) found hair dye that was recommended to stay in the hair for 3 to 8 hours.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (47 [of 298])

By the end of the 1840s skirts were more dome shaped, necklines were higher and wider and sleeves broadened at the bottom. 
=== 1850s dress style ===
The 1850s saw revolutionary [[Social Victorians/People/Gwladys Robinson#Technological advancement|changes in technologies]] affecting the manufacture and consumption of clothing, especially

* the mass production of fabrics
* the invention of synthetic dyes
* the manufacture of inexpensive, flexible and lightweight steel
* the invention of a sewing machine that could be used in the home
* the spread of fashion journalism and journalism for women

According to the ''Dictionary of Nineteenth-Century Journalism'', &quot;The 1850s and 1860s saw the eclipse of the older ladies' journals [that began in the 18th century and targeted upper-class women] and the emergence of the magazine for middle-class ... women.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Dictionary of Nineteenth-Century Journalism In Great Britain and Ireland.|last=Beetham|first=Margaret Rachel|publisher=Academia Press and the British Library|year=2009|editor-last=Brake|editor-first=Laurel, and Marysa Demoor|location=Gent|pages=683–684|chapter=Women's Periodicals}}&lt;/ref&gt; (684) Nine fashion magazines were being published in London by 1850 and fourteen by 1859 as part of the burgeoning collection of magazines for women, both domestic magazines aimed at middle-class women and journalism focused mostly on fashion.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (63 [of 298]) The journalism aimed at middle-class women introduced haute couture, making the styles, names of couturiers and fashion houses familiar to them for the first time.

These technological changes were revolutionary because of the impact they had on fashion over the course of the rest of the century. Their impact on fashion arises largely because most women were taught a wide range of seamstress skills and, due to reforms in education over the century, more women could read.[[File:Ensemble_MET_DT6845.jpg|thumb|A day ensemble c. 1855, featuring tiers of ruffles and pagoda style sleeves.]]
==== Silhouette ====
The 1850s are considered a transitional decade in 19th-century fashion because little changed in the silhouette and appearance of clothing, but technological changes would make increasingly important structural differences in what was available for people to wear.

Skirts widened with the disappearance of the many layers of petticoats but did not change their basic shape. Beyond the silhouette, the design elements of the dress (like sleeves, neckline, or skirt) were barely changed as they evolved from the 1840s to the 1860s.

While the silhouette and elements of design did not change significantly, the effect of the technological changes related to the manufacture and consumption of clothing was to give individual (and especially middle-class women) more agency over how their dresses got made and who made them, what fabrics their dresses were made of, how broad a range of options they could choose from and how easy it was to move in their dresses.

The number of flounces and ruffles on the skirt increased, making the skirt look wider (see the c. 1855 day ensemble, right).

==== Neckline ====
[[File:1850's Evening Dress.jpg|thumb|1850s evening dress with a bertha|left]]
With trim and a front closure in the corset and the bodice, the bodice emphasized a distinct V-shape. Necklines of day dresses were sometimes cut into a V-shape, causing a need to cover the bust area with a chemisette. For evening, a wide, low neckline was popular, often with a [[Collar (clothing)|bertha]] (see the 1850s even dress with a bertha, left).&lt;ref name=&quot;h608&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Arnold |first=Janet |title=Patterns of fashion. 2: Englishwomen's dresses and their construction: 1860 - 1940 |date=1993 |publisher=MacMillan |isbn=978-0-89676-027-1 |publication-place=London |page=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Sleeves ====
Pagoda sleeves and under sleeves (''engageants'') continued to be popular for most of the decade.

==== Foundations ====
[[File:1856 Cage Crinoline.jpg|alt=1st patented cage crinoline.Fullness of the skirt is even further emphasised.|thumb|1850s fashionable silhouette and the cage crinoline needed to support it.]]
In 1856, the invention of the first [[Crinoline|cage crinoline]] allowed for even wider skirts. The cage crinoline was constructed by joining thin metal strips together with wires to form a circular cage-like structure that could support a very wide skirt (see 1950s silhouette and cage crinoline, right). Although often ridiculed by journalists and cartoonists of the time as the crinoline swelled in size, this innovation freed women from the heavy weight of petticoats.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Steele |first=Valerie |url=https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee |title=Victorian Fashion. Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-19-503530-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee/page/51 51]–84 |url-access=registration}}&lt;/ref&gt; For a description of the [[Social Victorians/People/Gwladys Robinson#Technological advancement|technological advancement]] that made cage crinolines possible, see below.) Not visible on the outside garment, the cage crinoline was the foundation for the huge dome-shaped skirts that dominated the decade. It was safer and easier to walk in a cage because the hoops held the skirt away from the feet and legs of the wearer.

Without the innumerable petticoats more women began to wear drawers or &quot;pantalettes&quot; for modesty and warmth. The dome shape made possibly by the cage foundation changed the way skirts were cut. Instead of rectangles, gores were cut with one end of the skirt piece wider than the other end,&lt;ref name=&quot;w586&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Arnold |first=Janet |title=Patterns of fashion. 2: Englishwomen's dresses and their construction: 1860 - 1940 |date=1993 |publisher=MacMillan |isbn=0-333-13607-1 |publication-place=London |page=}}&lt;/ref&gt; preventing bulkiness at the waist from gathered fabric and created a skirt bottom much wider than the top. Bloomers, designed by American Amelia Jenks Bloomer,  introduced bifurcated garments for women, essentially trousers or pants with a seam between the legs. Even pantalettes had no seam between the legs; it was simply left open. This experiment failed and women didn’t wear pants until the 20th century.

The 1850s saw two other developments that permanently changed the clothing available to Victorian women (and men). Created in 1856, the first synthetic dyes were much more vivid and vibrant than natural dyes and resisted fading.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (92 [of 298]) Because Victorian photography was black and white, we do not typically see the gaudy and saturated colours that many Victorians loved.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Also, although sewing machines had already been invented, changing the accessibility and value of individual articles of clothing, it was the invention of and widespread sale of &quot;lightweight domestic machines&quot; for home sewing that affected large numbers of women.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (91 [of 298])

Cage crinolines remained popular for perhaps 5 years among the fashion forward and perhaps 10 years for the less adventurous.[[File:Woman's_silk_taffeta_dress_c._1865.jpg|thumb|An 1865 English silk morning dress.]]

[[File:Mrs_Ellinor_Guthrie_by_Frederic_Leighton.jpg|thumb|English dress, 1864, with simple trim.]]
=== 1860s dress style ===

==== Foundations ====
The cage crenoline reached their greatest width during the 1860s. Photographs show that the fashion-forward Empress Eugénie of France, Empress Elisabeth of Austria and Countess Pauline von Metternich had stopped wearing the very large crinoline cages as early as 1862, but most middle- and upper-class women (including Queen Victoria) wore them for much of the rest of the decade.

During the first half of the 1860s, crinolines began decreasing in size at the top, while retaining their volume at the bottom, creating a more pyramidal shape.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877|last=Goldthorpe|first=Caroline|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1988|location=New York|pages=}}&lt;/ref&gt; (26) Then the fullness began to move to the back while the front became flat and close to the body. As the back fullness increased, skirts sometimes lengthened into trains. (The 1865 English silk dress, above right, shows the flattening of the front at the waist and the development of the train.) In order to emphasize the back, the train was gathered together to form soft folds and [[Drapery|draperies]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Making Victorian Costumes for Women|last=Audin|first=Heather|publisher=Crowood|year=2015|pages=45}}&lt;/ref&gt; This line or silhouette would eventually evolve into a bustle in the next decade.

Decoration or trim often appeared only at the bottom of the skirt (see English dress, 1864, below right). Flounces and ruffles diminished as geometric designs in trim gained popularity.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (102 [of 298]) Skirts were also decorated with overskirts of the same fabric or a different shade of the same color. Waistlines were pointed in front below the natural waistline. By mid-century the waist was seated at the natural waistline often with a wide belt and large decorative buckle.  

==== Bodices and Sleeves ====
Bodices often had buttons down the front because both the corset and the bodice opened in the front. Necklines were generally high and rounded. Some dresses were cut without separating the bodice and skirt so it could be buttoned from the neck to the bottom of the skirt. It became popular for dresses to be made as one skirt and two bodices, one for day wear and one for formal wear.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; (43)

Sleeves narrowed but remained loose on the arms and were wrist length. Sometimes the sleeves were full at the shoulder, but they were not very puffed.

==== General Trends ====
A greater and richer variety of fabrics was available to the always upwardly-aspirational middle class, with silk essential in the dress of wealthy middle- and upper-class women. Dresses were cut and pieced together to accommodate the more active life women had in sports, walking and even riding bicycles. The trends that began in the 1860s continued through the 1870s and into the 1880s; the changes were evolutionary.

=== 1870s dress style ===

==== Silhouette ====
[[File:Black_net_ball_dress_1874.png|thumb|A black net ball dress, 1874]]In 1877, dresses moulded to fit the figure, as increasingly slimmer and more restrictive silhouettes were favored. Although dress styles took on a more natural form, corsetry was still required and the now ''de regueur'' train was often supported with a bustle cage.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;{{rp|50}} The armscye, for the first time in the Victorian period, moved from a dropped position up to the shoulders and would remain there for the rest of the era.

The most famous designer of this conservative, very fitted and restrictive style was British-born Frederick Worth, who designed the “princess” construction for dresses, which we still use today, and who popularized and then “killed,” according to his obituary in ''The Lady’s Treasury'',&lt;ref&gt;“‘Death of the Chief Ruler of the Fashionable World’, The Ladies’ Treasury (1 April 1895), p. 274.” In ''Fashioning the Victorians: A Critical Sourcebook''. Ed., Rebecca N. Mitchell. Dress, Body, Culture Series, gen. ed., Joanne B. Eicher. Bloomsbury Visual Arts, 2018. Pp. 487–491 of 565.&lt;/ref&gt; the crinoline cage. The princess construction was named for Alexandra, Princess of Wales, who preferred a lean, tailored style. By 1879 corsets were being built using &quot;princess&quot; seams to support the tailoring of the smooth, straight dresses like the ones designed by Maison Worth.

Because Queen Victoria had been in mourning since 1861, the Princess Alexandra was expected to lead in the haute couture of the day. She set a trend for tailored dresses that was quickly picked up by all classes. Unlike the tailored designs, what Maison Worth created was ornate with many decorative elements, including fringe, which was widely used (along with ribbon, braid, ball fringe, ruching, epaulettes, pieces of the same fabric in a lighter or darker shade, pieces of a different-textured fabric like velvet or velveteen, etc.).

No single silhouette dominated the 1870s, however, because of the different lines created by the bustle, the overskirt and the layers of the polonaise, or a combination of these three skirt treatments. Foundation garments changed very little, although perhaps the greatest change came in corsets. In 1870 women were wearing corsets that came to just below the waist with a pointed center front.

==== Skirts ====
[[File:Woman's_Polonaise_Dress_LACMA_M.2007.211.777a-f_(1_of_4).jpg|left|thumb|An c. 1875 English polonaise]]The trend for wide skirts slowly disappeared during the 1870s, as women started to prefer a slimmer silhouette. Skirts went from their most extreme width to their most narrow, waists went to a natural level and the backside took the point of interest in the ensemble. The back of the dress became the focal point of the design. The relationship between the various skirt treatments was very complex, in part because skirts became architectural.  (The bustle on the 1874 black net ball dress, above right, has been gathered and bunched and would require padding to keep the draping in place. It also has an overskirt.)

The skirt began the decade rather flat in front with most of the fabric pulled to the back and pleated. As the skirt evolved, the gathered fabric draped gracefully at the back. In the next fashion the extra fabric was bunched into large poufs below the waist in back. Then a pad supported the extra fabric, and then by the end of the decade a [[tournure]] or bustle kept the elaborate draping of the back of the skirt and train in place. In general, trains were present on every dress, including day dresses, but they were narrower and longer with tiers and drapes. Petticoats, which could be washed separately, kept the longer trains off the ground.

[[overskirt|Overskirts]] became extremely popular, often tied up into an apron effect at the front with a [[Polonaise (clothing)|polonaise]] or puffed draperies at the back.&lt;ref name=&quot;g4223&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=Cecil Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century |date=1990-05-01 |publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=0-486-26323-1 |publication-place=New York |page=}}&lt;/ref&gt; A revival of an 18th-century romanticization of what a milkmaid might have worn, the 1870s polonaise is a garment featuring both an overskirt and bodice often of the same fabric (see c. 1875 English polonaise, left). Over time, the overskirt shortened into a detached [[Basque (clothing)|basque]], resulting in an elongation of the bodice over the hips. (The early 1870s fashion plate, below right, shows an assortment of ways overskirts were worn, including one for a girl.)[[File:1870's Dress.jpg|alt=Dresses featuring the Bustle &amp; Polonaise|thumb|An early 1870s fashion plate]]

==== Neckline ====
Necklines were high, and lines were sleek and fitted. 

==== Sleeves ====
Pagoda sleeves began to lose their three-decade-long popularity in 1875,&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt;{{rp|102 [of 298]}} but most sleeve treatments were narrow and came to the wrist.

==== General Trends ====
An unusual trend occurred during the 1870s in hairstyles, which grew very large with added braids, buns, coils, poufs and strands. The elaborate hairstyles required multiple hair pieces and featured tiny, over-decorated hats fastened almost vertically on the head. Although women had already been supplementing their own hair, these extremely large styles caused enormous demand in the human hair market.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (152 [of 298]) 

The practice of constructing a dress with one skirt and two bodices (one for day and one for evening wear) continued from the 1860s.

=== 1880s dress style ===
After a period of slim, train-less skirts with heavy decoration, an exaggerated horizontal bustle made a re-appearance in 1883. Due to the additional fullness, drapery moved towards the sides or front panel of the skirt instead. Bodices shortened, now ending above the hips. Skirts were much less full than the last time the bustle was in fashion in the 1870s and instead focused on a slim front with a shelf-like back protrusion. 

The 1880s also saw the growing popularity of austere, menswear-inspired tailoring like that preferred by Alexandra, Princess of Wales.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; The style was not without its critics because it fit did not seem feminine.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (164 [of 298]) Some credited the change in silhouette to the various [[Victorian dress reform]] movements, which arose from several sectors of society over the second half of the century. The [[Artistic Dress]] movement founded in the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood and the [[Victorian dress reform|Rational Dress]] movement of the mid-to-late Victorian era advocated for a natural silhouette, natural dyes and natural fibers, rejecting the traditional foundation garments of corset and cage (both crinoline and bustle). The Rational Dress Movement saw women &quot;handicapped&quot; and their health injured by &quot;tightly laced corsets, cumbersome dress improvers [padding], and unwieldy crinolettes.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:23&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=A Victorian Lady's Guide to Fashion and Beauty|last=Matthews|first=Mimi|publisher=Pen and Sword Books|year=2023|isbn=978 1 52670 504 4|location=Yorkshire, Philadelphia}}&lt;/ref&gt; (69–70) 

Competing with the tailored look was a more traditional, highly feminized look dominated by a large protruding, almost horizontal bustle. This look was heavily decorated and formed a sharp contrast with the simpler, fitted silhouette, the first time in haute couture that &quot;No single style reigned supreme.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:23&quot; /&gt; (62) 
[[File:Frith A Private View.jpg|alt=Old painting of a lot of people in an art gallery|thumb|Frith, A Private View, 1883]]
The [[Artistic Dress movement|Aesthetic Dress]] movement of the end of the century, led in part by Oscar Wilde and parodied by William Powell Frith's 1883 ''A Private View at the Royal Academy, 1881'' (right) saw traditional dress as impeding women's agency. Frith's painting (right) opposed the aesthetic movement to traditional dress, targeting Wilde and his followers. 

These movements were never mainstream enough to garner widespread support, but a less austere, less restrictive version of the tailored look, based perhaps on riding habits, supported those involved in other sports, like cycling and tennis.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; If the bodice was made like a jacket, it was tailored for the individual woman. Some women who wore the tailored look, like the Princess of Wales and Empress Elisabeth of Austria, were accentuating their very thin figures, but for many the semi-masculine look was simply a fashionable style and indicated neither advanced views nor the need for practical clothes.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; [[File:1885 Bustle.jpg|alt=Horizontal protrusion at the back.|thumb|Lobster-tail bustle, c. 1885.]]

==== Silhouette ====
Two silhouettes dominated this decade, a menswear-inspired, fitted line and a heavily decorated, complex line inspired by the first bustle period of the 1870s. The bustles of the second period in the 1880s were different from the evolving bustles of the 1870s. The 1880s bustle was large, extending sharply and horizontally from the backside, and sported a train, even for day wear. Two distinctly different lines competing for dominance in the same era is extremely unusual.

For both looks, the dresses were very fitted, with narrow sleeves, a tight bodice and a straight skirt, but the bustle style was overdecorated, and the tailored style was sometimes austere but sometimes specifically designed to be easier to move in.

The massive hair pieces of the late 1870s gave way to a simple chignon at the base of the neck that later moved to the top of the head.

Beyond the dress reform movements, the 1880s had no significant inventions or events that impacted the fashion or clothing industries.

==== Foundation ====
Both silhouettes demanded a corset that had smooth lines and that went below the waist, often one with princess seams. Presumably, the version of the tailored look that was easer to move in had a less restrictive corset or a corset laced less restrictively. The traditional dresses had narrow, decorative bustles that “were more pronounced, projecting sharply outwards” and '''had no train'''. 162 of 298 They looked like a highly decorated shelf coming out of the backside. In fact, the new bustles were a separate  garment. (an example of what was called a lobster-tail bustle, above, right) [[File:Edward_Hughes_-_Juliette_Gordon_Low_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg|thumb|English evening dress with a V-shaped neckline, higher shoulder placement and simple trims, 1887]]
==== Dresses ====
Some of the tailored dresses were in one piece, buttoning down the front from neckline to hemline with no excess fabric for decorations. More masculinized versions had jackets, vests or waistcoats and even neckties. Some of the tailored dresses had overskirts and separate bodices. The fitted bodices of traditional dresses and the skirts that were straight down in front and on the sides as well as having bustles and trains could make even normal walking difficult.

In the traditional style, the bodice looked more like a suit jacket with a high neckline and a white blouse with a ruffled collar or some kind of feminine neck treatment. Sleeves tightened again during the [[1880s in Western fashion|1880s]] and the armscye moved back up the shoulders.&lt;ref name=&quot;y040&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Severa |first=Joan L. |title=Dressed for the Photographer |date=1995 |publisher=Kent State University Press |isbn=0-87338-512-8 |publication-place=Kent, Ohio |page=}}&lt;/ref&gt; Necklines became higher again, with a high collar being ubiquitous for daytime, a trend that would continue into the 1890s. For the evening, the bertha fell out of favor, replaced by V-shaped necklines or draped styles due to the new higher shoulder (V-shaped neckline, right).&lt;ref name=&quot;g4223&quot; /&gt; Near the end of the decade sleeves developed more fullness at the shoulder.

=== 1890s dress style ===

==== Silhouette ====
By 1890, the crinoline and bustle were fully abandoned, and skirts flared in an A-line.  

If bustles were the focal point of the ensemble in the 1880s, then sleeves were the focal point in the 1890s. At the beginning of the 1890s a small puff of fullness was seen at the shoulders but increased in size in the middle of the decade to a puffed [[Sleeve|leg-of-mutton]] style. The sleeves grew to a volume rivaling the 1830s and even sometimes required a cushion to retain their fullness. They reached their largest size around 1896 and began to deflate. By 1900 the entire sleeve was  “straight and narrow again.” 198 [of 298] 

Women also adopted the style of the tailored jacket during this period, with menswear influences such as necktie inspired neckwear continuing from the previous decade. 

By 1896 sleeves had reached the peak of fullness while skirts fitted the body more closely, flaring out towards the bottom. 

==== Foundations ====
Corsets were still worn to keep the dress smooth and support the bust. Larger busts were more fashionable, leading to a variety of different kinds of padding to place in the corset and make the bust look bigger.  Corsets continued to reach well beyond the waist, smoothing the front of the dress. 

==== Skirts ====
Bustles were left behind in the 1880s and skirts, cut in gores, were smooth, fitted close to the waist and hips until they flared outward.  Away from the knees, the  gores widened the skirts into an A-line.   

==== Necklines and Sleeves ====
Daywear dresses had very high necks with a kind of Mandarin collar or military band of fabric around the neck. A large brooch could be worn on such a collar. Necklines were high, while sleeves of bodices initially peaked at the shoulders. 

They were huge and round from the natural shoulder line to the elbow and required stuffing or padding to maintain the fullness. From the elbow to the wrist or onto the hand, sleeves were tight fitting. This type of sleeve was known colloquially as “leg-o'-mutton.” 197 of 298  

The fullness of the sleeves stopped at the elbow and sleeves were tightly fitted to the arm below the elbow. The fullness of the sleeves stopped at the elbow and sleeves were tightly fitted to the arm below the elbow. This sleeve style narrowed down towards the end of the decade.

Much of the excess trim disappeared in the 1890s and dresses had a softer, more feminine look. Although they closely fitted the body, dresses were not tight, allowing more freedom of movement. Many more women were participating in sports and other physical activities that required a less structured fit. The new century would let go of boned foundation garments and shorten skirts to a shocking length. The 20th century brought even more radical changes to feminine attire.

==== Old Version ====
[[File:Lady_Beatrice_Pole-Carew.jpg|thumb|English socialite Lady Beatrice Pole-Carew in the mid-1890s, with puffed sleeves.]]

== Hats and headwear ==
[[File:Ford.madox.brown.last.emma.study.jpg|thumb|''Emma Hill'' by [[Ford Madox Brown]] (1853), a woman wearing a later version of the [[poke bonnet]]]]
[[File:Hoed,_objectnr_KA_1237.tif|left|thumb|Perched bonnet style of the early 1870s.]]
Hats were crucial to a respectable appearance for both men and women. To go bareheaded was simply not proper. The top hat, for example, was standard formal wear for upper- and middle-class men.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; For women, the styles of hats changed over time and were designed to match their outfits.

During the early Victorian decades, hats were modest in size and design, straw and fabric bonnets being the popular choice. [[Poke bonnet]]s, which had been worn during the late [[Regency period]], had high, small crowns and brims that grew larger until the 1830s, when the face of a woman wearing a poke bonnet could only be seen directly from the front. They had rounded brims, echoing the rounded form of the bell-shaped hoop skirts.

Bonnets shrunk at the end of the 1860s and moved to a perched position in the early 1870s as hairstyles grew in scale and intricacy. This led to the popularization of hats, which became the headwear of choice for the remainder of the Victorian era.&lt;ref name=&quot;g4223&quot;/&gt;
[[File:The_London_and_Paris_ladies'_magazine_(Apr_1885)_03.png|thumb|Flower pot style hat of 1885.]]
The 1880s saw a hat inspired by the top hat for women known as the flowerpot hat, and the 1890s saw the popularity of the boater. The hats of the late Victorian era were covered with elaborate creations of silk flowers, ribbons, and above all, exotic plumes; hats sometimes included entire exotic birds that had been stuffed. Many of these plumes came from birds in the Florida everglades, which were nearly made entirely extinct by overhunting. By 1899, early environmentalists like [[Adeline Knapp]] were engaged in efforts to curtail the hunting for plumes. By 1900, more than five million birds a year were being slaughtered, and nearly 95 per cent of Florida's shore birds had been killed by [[Plume hunting|plume hunter]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Everglades National Park|url=https://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927085907/http://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 September 2009|publisher=PBS|access-date=7 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Shoes ==
The women's shoes of the early Victorian period were narrow and heelless, in black or white satin. By 1850s and 1860s, they were slightly broader with a low heel and made of leather or cloth. Ankle-length laced or buttoned boots were also popular. From the 1870s to the twentieth century, heels grew higher and toes more pointed. Low-cut pumps were worn for the evening.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;

== Cosmetics ==
[[Victorian-era cosmetics]] were typically minimal, as makeup was associated by the middle classes with promiscuity. However, small amounts of pale face powder or powdered blush were more widely used.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Ruth |title=How to be a Victorian |date=2014 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-670-92136-2 |location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some cosmetics contained toxic or caustic ingredients like lead, mercury, ammonia, and arsenic {{Citation needed|date=October 2025}}.

Hair color

== Men's fashion ==
[[File:Mens Coats 1872 Fashion Plate.jpg|thumb|upright|Drawing of Victorian men 1870s]]

During the [[1840s in fashion|1840s]], men wore tight-fitting, calf length [[frock coat]]s and a [[waistcoat]] or vest. Sleeves were full at the top and waists were tight, creating an hourglass form. Waistcoats were single- or double-breasted, with shawl or notched collars, and might be finished in double points at the lowered waist. For more formal occasions, a cutaway morning coat was worn with light trousers during the daytime, and a dark tail coat and trousers was worn in the evening. Shirts were made of linen or cotton with low collars, occasionally turned down, and were worn with wide [[Cravat (early)|cravat]]s or neck ties. Trousers had fly fronts, and [[breeches]] were used for formal functions and when horseback riding. Men wore [[top hat]]s, with wide brims in sunny weather.

During the [[1850s in fashion|1850s]], men started wearing shirts with high upstanding or turnover [[collar (clothing)|collars]] and [[necktie#Four-in-hand|four-in-hand necktie]]s tied in a bow, or tied in a knot with the pointed ends sticking out like &quot;wings&quot;. The upper-class continued to wear top hats, and [[bowler hat]]s were worn by the working class.

In the [[1860s in fashion|1860s]], men started wearing wider neckties that were tied in a bow or looped into a loose knot and fastened with a stickpin. Frock coats were shortened to knee-length and were worn for business, while the mid-thigh length [[sack coat]] slowly displaced the frock coat for less-formal occasions, with the overall effect of a looser silhouette. Top hats briefly became the very tall &quot;stovepipe&quot; shape, but a variety of other hat shapes were popular.

During the [[1870s in fashion|1870s]], three-piece suits grew in popularity along with patterned fabrics for shirts. Neckties were the four-in-hand and, later, the [[Ascot tie]]s. A narrow ribbon tie was an alternative for tropical climates, especially in the Americas. Both frock coats and sack coats became shorter and more form fitting. Flat straw boaters were worn when boating.

During the [[1880s in fashion|1880s]], formal evening dress remained a dark tail coat and trousers with a dark waistcoat, a white bow tie, and a shirt with a winged collar. In mid-decade, the dinner jacket or [[tuxedo]], was used in more relaxed formal occasions. The [[Norfolk jacket]] and tweed or woolen breeches were used for rugged outdoor pursuits such as shooting. Knee-length topcoats, often with contrasting velvet or fur collars, and calf-length overcoats were worn in winter. Men's shoes had higher heels and a narrow toe.

Starting from the [[1890s in fashion|1890s]], the [[blazer]] was introduced, and was worn for sports, sailing, and other casual activities.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Landow|first=George|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/90s/2.html|title=Men's informal sporting dress, late 1880s and '90s}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Throughout much of the Victorian era most men wore fairly short hair.  This was often accompanied by various forms of facial hair including moustaches, side-burns, and full beards.  A clean-shaven face did not come back into fashion until the end of the 1880s and early 1890s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/nunn21.html|title=Victorian Men's Fashions, 1850–1900: Hair}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Distinguishing what men really wore from what was marketed to them in periodicals and advertisements is difficult, as reliable records do not exist.&lt;ref name=&quot;shannon597&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Shannon|first=Brent|title=Refashioning Men: Fashion, Masculinity, and the Cultivation of the Male Consumer in Britain, 1860–1914|journal=Victorian Studies|year=2004|volume=46|issue=4|pages=597–630|doi=10.1353/vic.2005.0022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Influence of Bertie, Albert Edward, Prince of Wales

==Mourning black==
{{See also |Mourning stationery}}
[[File:The royal children in mourning Mar 1862.jpg|thumb|Victoria's five daughters (Alice, Helena, Beatrice, Victoria and Louise), photographed wearing mourning black beneath a bust of their late father, Prince Albert (1862)]]
[[File:Mourning dress MET 50.40.3a-b front CP4.jpg|alt=Black Victorian mourning dress|thumb|Mourning Dress, 1894–95]]

In Britain, black is the colour traditionally associated with mourning for the dead. The customs and etiquette expected of men, and especially women, were rigid during much of the Victorian era. The expectations depended on a complex hierarchy of close or distant relationship with the deceased. The closer the relationship, the longer the mourning period and the wearing of black. The wearing of full black was known as First Mourning, which had its own expected attire, including fabrics, and an expected duration of 4 to 18 months. Following the initial period of First Mourning, the mourner would progress to Second Mourning, a transition period of wearing less black, which was followed by Ordinary Mourning, and then Half-mourning. Some of these stages of mourning were shortened or skipped completely if the mourner's relationship to the deceased was more distant. Half-mourning was a transition period when black was replaced by acceptable colours such as lavender and mauve, possibly considered acceptable transition colours because of the tradition of [[Church of England]] (and [[Catholic Church|Catholic]]) clergy wearing lavender or mauve [[Stole (vestment)|stoles]] for funeral services, to represent the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion of Christ]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=The Colors of the Church Year|url=http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|publisher=Consortium of Country Churches|access-date=6 November 2011|archive-date=13 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113075214/http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The mourning dress on the right was worn by Queen Victoria, &quot;it shows the traditional touches of mourning attire, which she wore from the death of her husband, Prince Albert (1819–1861), until her own death.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/155839?&amp;searchField=All&amp;sortBy=Relevance&amp;deptids=8&amp;ft=queen+victoria&amp;offset=0&amp;rpp=20&amp;amp;pos=2|title=Mourning Dress, 1894–95|last=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|date=7 September 2019|website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|access-date=7 September 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Norms for mourning===

''Manners and Rules of Good Society, or, Solecisms to be Avoided'' (London, Frederick Warne &amp; Co., 1887) gives clear instructions, such as the following:&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–83}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Relationship to deceased !! First mourning !! Second mourning !! Ordinary mourning !! Half-mourning
|-
| Wife for husband || 1-year, 1-month; [[bombazine]] fabric covered with [[Crape|crepe]]; [[widow's cap]], [[lawn cuff]]s, collars || 6 months: less crepe || 6 months: no crepe, silk or wool replaces bombazine; in last 3 months jet jewellery and ribbons can be added || 6 months: colours permitted are grey, lavender, mauve, and black-and-grey
|-
| Daughter for parent || 6 months: black with black or white crepe (for young girls); no linen cuffs and collars; no jewellery for first 2 months || 4 months: less crepe ||  –  || 2 months as above
|-
| Wife for husband's parents || 18 months in black bombazine with crepe || – || 3 months in black || 3 months as above
|-
| Parent for son- or daughter-in-law's parent || – Black armband in representation of someone lost || – || 1-month black || –
|-
| Second wife for parent of a first wife || – || – || 3 months black || –
|}

The complexity of these etiquette rules extends to specific mourning periods and attire for siblings, step-parents, aunts and uncles distinguished by blood and by marriage, nieces, nephews, first and second cousins, children, infants, and &quot;connections&quot; (who were entitled to ordinary mourning for a period of &quot;1–3 weeks, depending on level of intimacy&quot;). Men were expected to wear mourning black to a lesser extent than women, and for a shorter mourning period. After the mid-19th century, men would wear a black hatband and black suit, but for only half the prescribed period of mourning expected of women. Widowers were expected to mourn for a mere three months, whereas the proper mourning period expected for widows was up to four years.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–9}}&lt;/ref&gt; Women who mourned in black for longer periods were accorded great respect in public for their devotion to the departed, the most prominent example being Queen Victoria herself.

Women with lesser financial means tried to keep up with the example being set by the middle and upper classes by dyeing their daily dress. Dyers made most of their income during the Victorian period by dyeing clothes black for mourning.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|page=341}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Technological advancement ==
The technological changes that affected the manufacture and consumption of clothing in the Victorian age included the following:

* the mass production of fabrics — for example, &quot;by the early 1850s there were thousands of steam-powered looms churning out millions of miles of fabric every year&quot;  [62]
* the invention of aniline dyes, which were much more vibrantly colored and resistant to fading than the natural dyes that had been used. — . Invented by chemist [[William Henry Perkin]] in 1856, the first aniline dye mauveine (or mauve) &quot;wash[ed] the fashionable landscape in a haze of purple.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Dress Diary: Secrets from a Victorian Woman's Wardrobe|last=Strasdin|first=Kate|publisher=Pegasus Books|year=2023|location=New York, New York}}&lt;/ref&gt; (247) Other intense and, to the Victorians, intensely exciting colors followed, but the new synthetic additions to fabric sometimes included chemicals harmful to their wearers. For example, a &quot;bright-magenta hue was achieved by adding arsenical-based chemicals to existing aniline dyes, brightening the already luminous shades – but these left residues themselves, along with a toxic labour trail in their wake.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot; /&gt; (255) Perhaps the most famous of these is arsenic green, used on fabrics, wallpapers, and trim: &quot;The craze for artificial foliage to adorn the heads and dresses of women of fashion in the mid-nineteenth century had seen the proliferation of flower workshops, where young women in their hundreds laboured to produce the lifelike green leaves and blooms that would make a fetching headdress or would trail becomingly across the bodice of a gown. The lushness of the green was achieved by the application of a powder, a pigment that was created by mixing copper and the highly toxic chemical, arsenic trioxide. The physical effects of working with this poisonous compound were horrific. Contemporary medical drawings depict the green hue of the skin and dreadful open lesions on the hands of the maker, whilst the daily gradual ingestion of the powder by the flower girls was eventually fatal.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot; /&gt; (255)
* the invention of a sewing machine that could be used in the home. Although sewing machines were already in use in the clothing industry, in 1858 Isaac Merritt Singer began to sell &quot;lightweight domestic machines&quot; for home sewing, radically increasing women's control over their own dress.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (91 [of 298])
* the spread of journalism for women and fashion journalism

Perhaps not at the same scale as these but as important in 1850s designs was a technology that turned iron into steel, which could then be drawn into fine wires.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Steel was refined to a malleable state so that thin blades could be curved into concentric circles (called hoops) and connected with wires to form the cage.

Technological advancements not only influenced the economy but brought a major change in the fashion styles worn by men and women. As the Victorian era was based on the principles of gender, race and class.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Graham|first1=P|title=The Victorian Era|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.261548|journal=Digital Library of India}}&lt;/ref&gt; Much advancement was in favor of the upper class as they were the ones who could afford the latest technology and change their fashion styles accordingly.  In 1830s there was introduction of horse hair crinoline that became a symbol of status and wealth as only the upper-class women could wear it.  In 1850s there were more fashion technological advancements hence 1850s could rightly be called a revolution in the Victorian fashion industry such as the innovation of artificial cage crinoline that gave women an artificial hourglass silhouette without layers of petticoats, which was lighter and more hygienic.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Shrimpton|first1=J|title=Victorian Fashion|publisher=Bloomsbury Shire Publications}}&lt;/ref&gt; Synthetic dyes, such as [[mauveine]] (aniline purple), were introduced in 1856, adding bright colours to garments. In 1855's ''[[Haute couture]]'' was introduced as tailoring became more mainstream in years to follow.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Aspelund|first1=Karl|title=Fashioning Society|publisher=Fairchild Books}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Charles Frederick Worth, a prominent English designer, became popular amongst the upper class though its city of destiny always is Paris. Haute couture became popular at the same time that sewing machines were invented.&lt;ref name=&quot;Haute Couture&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Richard|last2=Koda|first2=Harold|title=Haute Couture|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art}}&lt;/ref&gt; Princess [[Eugénie de Montijo|Eugenie]] of France wore the Englishman dressmaker, Charles Frederick Worth's couture and he instantly became famous in France though he had just arrived in Paris a few years ago. In 1855, Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Britain welcomed [[Napoleon III]] and Eugenie of France to a full state visit to England. Eugenie was considered a fashion icon in France. Queen Victoria, who had been the fashion icon for European high fashion, was inspired by Eugenie's style and the fashions she wore.{{Citation needed|date=October 2025}} Later, Queen Victoria also appointed Charles Frederick Worth as her dress maker and he became a prominent designer amongst the European upper class. Charles Frederick Worth is known as the father of the haute couture as later the concept of labels were also invented in the late 19th century as custom, made to fit tailoring became mainstream.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Saillard|first1=Olivier|last2=Zazzo|first2=Anne|title=Paris Haute Couture|publisher=Skira Flammarion}}&lt;/ref&gt;

By the 1860s, when made-to-fit tailoring was popular in Europe, crinolines were considered impractical. In the 1870s, women preferred more slimmer silhouettes, hence bodices grew longer and the polonaise, a skirt and bodice made together, was introduced. In 1870s the Cuirass Bodice, a piece of armour that covers the torso and functions like a corset, was invented. Towards the end of Victoria's reign, dresses were flared naturally as crinolines were rejected by middle-class women. Designers such as Charles Frederick Worth were also against them. All these inventions and changes in fashion led to women's liberation as tailored looks improved posture and were more practical.&lt;ref name=&quot;Haute Couture&quot;/&gt;

dressmakers, couturiers, modistes

== Home decor ==
{{main|Victorian decorative arts}}

Home decor started spare, veered into the elaborately draped and decorated style we today regard as Victorian, then embraced the retro-chic of [[William Morris]] as well as pseudo-[[Japonaiserie]].

== Myths and Oversimplifications ==

=== Modesty ===
{{main|Victorian morality}}
{{Original research|section|date=May 2008}}
[[File:1868-skirt-lengths-girl-ages-Harpers-Bazar.gif|thumb|upright|&quot;The proper length for little girls' skirts at various ages&quot;, from ''[[Harper's Bazaar]]'', showing a 1900 idea of how the hemline should descend towards the ankle as a girl got older]]Many myths and exaggerations about the period persist to the modern day. Examples include the idea of men's clothing is seen as formal and stiff, women's as elaborate and over-done; clothing covered the entire body, and even the glimpse of an ankle was scandalous. Critics contend that [[corset]]s constricted women's bodies and lives. Homes are described as gloomy, dark, cluttered with massive and over-ornate furniture and proliferating [[bric-a-brac]]. Myth has it that even piano legs were scandalous, and covered with tiny [[pantalette]]s.

=== Tight Lacing ===
Tight-lacing, which was not possible until the development of the grommet in 1828, was famously controversial in the Victorian age, generating many column inches of profitable newspaper copy, in part because it was (and still is) fetishistic and subversive in that adolescent girls used it as a means of rebellion and upper-working- or lower-middle-class shop girls saw it as a means of upward mobility.&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Fashion and Fetishism: Corsets, Tight-Lacing and Other Forms of Body-sculpture|last=Kunzle|first=David|publisher=History Press|year=2013|isbn=978 0 7524 9545 3|location=Stroud, Gloucestershire|pages=}}&lt;/ref&gt; (71 [of 1182]) No evidence exists that tight lacing was widespread or particularly dangerous.&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt; ()


In truth, men's formal clothing may have been less colourful than it was in the previous century, but brilliant [[waistcoat]]s and [[cummerbund]]s provided a touch of colour, and [[smoking jacket]]s and [[robe|dressing gown]]s were often of rich Oriental [[brocade]]s. This phenomenon was the result of the growing textile manufacturing sector, developing mass production processes, and increasing attempts to market fashion to men.&lt;ref name=&quot;shannon597&quot;/&gt; Corsets stressed a woman's sexuality, exaggerating hips and bust by contrast with a tiny waist. Women's [[evening gown]]s bared the shoulders and the tops of the breasts. The [[jersey dress]]es of the 1880s may have covered the body, but the stretchy novel fabric fit the body like a glove.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Gernsheim |first=Alison |title=Victorian &amp; Edwardian Fashion: A Photographic Survey |year=1981 |publisher=Dover Publications |location=New York |page=65|edition=New |isbn=0-486-24205-6}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Home furnishing was not necessarily ornate or overstuffed. However, those who could afford lavish draperies and expensive ornaments, and wanted to display their wealth, would often do so. Since the Victorian era was one of increased social mobility, there were ever more ''[[nouveaux riches]]'' making a rich show.

The items used in decoration may also have been darker and heavier than those used today, simply as a matter of practicality. London was noisy and its air was full of [[soot]] from countless coal fires. Hence those who could afford it draped their windows in heavy, sound-muffling curtains, and chose colours that didn't show soot quickly. When all washing was done by hand, curtains were not washed as frequently as they might be today.

There is no actual evidence that piano legs were considered scandalous. Pianos and tables were often draped with [[shawl]]s or cloths—but if the shawls hid anything, it was the cheapness of the furniture. There are references to lower-middle-class families covering up their [[pine]] tables rather than show that they couldn't afford [[mahogany]]. The piano leg story seems to have originated in the 1839 book, ''A Diary in America'' written by Captain [[Frederick Marryat]], as a satirical comment on American prissiness.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Marryat |first1=C.B. |title=A Diary in America: With Remarks on Its Institutions |date=1839 |publisher=Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longmans |location=London, England |volume=2 |pages=246–247 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2-VEAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA246}} From pp. 246-247:  &quot;I was requested by a lady to escort her to a seminary for young ladies, and on being ushered into the reception-room, conceive my astonishment at beholding a square piano-forte with four ''limbs''. However, that the ladies who visited their daughters, might feel in its full force the extreme delicacy of the mistress of the establishment, and her care to preserve in their utmost purity the ideas of the young ladies under her charge, she had dressed all these four limbs in modest little trousers, with frills at the bottom of them!&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;

Victorian manners may have been as strict as imagined—on the surface. One simply did not speak publicly about sex, childbirth, and such matters, at least in the respectable middle and upper classes. However, as is well known, discretion covered a multitude of sins. Prostitution flourished. Upper-class men and women indulged in [[adultery|adulterous]] liaisons.

== Gallery ==
{{gallery
|2=A mid-Victorian interior: ''Hide and Seek'' by [[James Tissot]], c. 1877
Image:Winterhalter Elisabeth.jpg|3=Dress designed by [[Charles Frederick Worth]] for [[Elisabeth of Bavaria|Elisabeth of Austria]] painted by [[Franz Xaver Winterhalter]].|4=File:Frith A Private View detail.jpg|5=[[William Powell Frith]]'s painting of 1883 contrasts women's [[Aesthetic dress]] (left and right) with fashionable attire (center).|6=File:Tissot lilacs 1875.jpg|7=Day dress, c. 1875 [[James Tissot]] painting.|8=File:James Abbot McNeill Whistler 011.jpg|9=[[James McNeill Whistler|Whistler]]'s [[Portrait of Lady Meux]], 1882
Image:Jeanna_Samary-Renoir.png|10=[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir|Renoir]]'s portrait of [[Jeanne Samary]] in an [[evening gown]], 1878|11=File:Melville_-_Queen_Victoria.jpg|12=Portrait by [[Alexander Melville (artist)|Alexander Melville]] of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], 1845|13=File:Henry Treffry Dunn Rossetti and Dunton at 16 Cheyne Walk.jpg|14=An artistic interior: [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] reading to [[Theodore Watts-Dunton]] in the drawing room at No. 16 [[Cheyne Walk]], 1882|15=File:Punch - Masculine beauty retouched1.png|16=Men's swimwear: Cartoon from ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]'' by [[George du Maurier]]}}

== See also ==
* [[Emily Clapham]]
* [[Victorian decorative arts]]
* [[Victorian dress reform]]
* [[Victorian morality]]
* [[Victoriana]]
* [[Women in the Victorian Era]]
* [[Charles Frederick Worth]]

=== Time periods ===
* [[1830s in fashion]]
* [[1840s in fashion]]
* [[1850s in fashion]]
* [[1860s in fashion]]
* [[1870s in fashion]]
* [[1880s in fashion]]
* [[1890s in fashion]]

=== Women's clothing ===
* [[Corset]]
* [[Corset controversy]]
* [[Tightlacing]]
* [[Bloomers (clothing)|Bloomers]]
* [[Bodice]]

=== Contemporary interpretations ===
* [[Steampunk]]
* [[Neo-Victorian]]
* [[Lolita Fashion|Lolita]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
*{{cite book |author=Phipps, Elena| title= ''From Queen to Empress: Victorian dress 1837-1877'' | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1988 | isbn=0870995340| url= http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/69547/rec/235 | display-authors=etal}}
* Sweet, Matthew – ''Inventing the Victorians'', St. Martin's Press, 2001 {{ISBN|0-312-28326-1}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion Victorian Fashion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407223711/http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion |date=7 April 2018 }}
* [https://www.victorianvoices.net/topics/fashion/index.shtml VictorianVoices.net] – Fashion articles and illustrations from Victorian periodicals; extensive fashion image gallery
* [http://www.cracked.com/article_19575_5-ridiculous-sex-myths-from-history-you-probably-believe.html Victorian myths]
* [http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm Victorian fashion, etiquette, and sports] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103162620/http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm |date=3 January 2018 }}
* [http://www.thesmartset.com/article/article12180701.aspx Background on &quot;A Diary in America&quot;]
* [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/VQ_P2_17_EN.html Form and Fashion] —  the evolution of women's dress during the 19th century (many photographs)
* [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/games/jeu2/ Educational Game: Mix and Match] — build a 19th-century dress using a virtual mannequin
* {{cite web |publisher= [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]
 |url= http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/v/victorian-dress-at-v-and-a/
 |title= Victorian Dress
 |work= Fashion, Jewellery &amp; Accessories
 |date= 14 January 2011
 |access-date= 2011-04-03}}
*[http://cv.vic.gov.au/stories/creative-life/fashion-detective-fashion-fiction-and-forensics/ Fashion detective: Fashion, Fiction and Forensics in nineteenth century Australian fashion] on Culture Victoria

{{Timeline of clothing and fashion|state=collapsed}}{{Victorian era|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Victorian fashion| ]]
[[Category:19th-century fashion|*]]
[[Category:1900s fashion]]
[[Category:History of Western fashion]]
[[Category:19th century in the arts]]

=From ''Women in the Victorian era''=
===Victorian women's fashion===
{{Multiple issues|{{tone|date=March 2023}}
{{more footnotes needed|date=March 2023}}|section=y}}{{Further|Victorian fashion}}
The ideal Victorian woman was pure, chaste, refined, and modest. This ideal was supported by etiquette and manners. The etiquette extended to the pretension of never acknowledging the use of undergarments (sometimes generically referred to as &quot;unmentionables&quot;). The discussion of such a topic, it was feared, would gravitate towards unhealthy attention on anatomical details. As one Victorian lady expressed it: &quot;[those] are not things, my dear, that we speak of; indeed, we try not even to think of them&quot;, in contrast to current norms.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=20}}&lt;/ref&gt; The pretence of avoiding acknowledgement of anatomical realities met with embarrassing failure on occasion. In 1859, the Hon. Eleanor Stanley wrote about an incident where the [[Louisa Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire|Duchess of Manchester]] moved too quickly while manoeuvring over a [[stile]], tripping over her large [[hoop skirt]]:

{{blockquote|[the Duchess] caught a hoop of her cage in it and went regularly head over heels lighting on her feet with her cage and whole petticoats above, above her head. They say there was never such a thing seen – and the other ladies hardly knew whether to be thankful or not that a part of her undergarments consisted in a pair of scarlet tartan [[knickerbockers (clothing)|knickerbockers]] (the things Charlie shoots in) which were revealed to the view of all the world in general and the [[Aimable Pélissier|Duc de Malakoff]] in particular&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Cunnington|first=C. Willett|title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations|year=1990|publisher=Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-26323-6|pages=20–1}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

However, despite the fact that Victorians considered the mention of women's undergarments in mixed company unacceptable, men's entertainment made great comedic material out of the topic of ladies' [[bloomers (clothing)|bloomers]], including men's magazines and music hall skits.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=22}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Victorian women's clothing followed trends that emphasised elaborate dresses, skirts with wide volume created by the use of layered material such as [[crinoline]]s, hoop skirt frames, and heavy fabrics. Because of the impracticality and health impact of the era's fashions, a [[Victorian dress reform|dress reform movement]] began among women.

The ideal silhouette of the time demanded a narrow waist, which was accomplished by constricting the abdomen with a laced [[corset]]. While the silhouette was striking, and the dresses themselves were often exquisitely detailed creations, the fashions were cumbersome. At best, they restricted women's movements and at worst, they had a harmful effect on women's health. Physicians turned their attention to the use of corsets and determined that they caused several medical problems: compression of the thorax, restricted breathing, organ displacement, poor circulation, and prolapsed uterus.&lt;ref name=&quot;O'Connor&quot;/&gt;

Articles advocating the reform of women's clothing by the British National Health Society, the Ladies' Dress Association, and the [[Rational Dress Society]] were reprinted in ''The Canada Lancet'', Canada's medical journal. In 1884, Dr J. Algernon Temple of Toronto even voiced concern that the fashions were having a negative impact on the health of young women from the working classes. He pointed out that a young working-class woman was likely to spend a large part of her earnings on fine hats and shawls, while &quot;her feet are improperly protected, and she wears no flannel petticoat or woollen stockings&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;O'Connor&quot;/&gt;
[[File:Bloomers.jpg|thumb|1850s illustration of a woman wearing [[bloomers]]]]
[[Florence Pomeroy]], Lady Haberton, was president of the Rational Dress movement in Britain. At a National Health Society exhibition held in 1882, Viscountess Haliburton presented her invention of a &quot;[[divided skirt]]&quot;, which was a long skirt that cleared the ground, with separate halves at the bottom made with material attached to the bottom of the skirt. She hoped that her invention would become popular by supporting women's freedom of physical movement, but the British public was not impressed by the invention, perhaps because of the negative &quot;unwomanly&quot; association of the style with the American [[Bloomers]] movement.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Murray|first=Janet Horowitz|title=Strong-Minded Women and Other Lost Voices from 19th Century England|year=1982|publisher=Pantheon Books|location=New York|isbn=0-394-71044-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68 68–70]|url=https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Amelia Jenks Bloomer]] had encouraged the wearing of visible bloomers by feminists to assert their right to wear comfortable and practical clothing, but it was no more than a passing fashion itself among radical feminists. The movement to reform women's dress would persist and have long-term success, however; by the 1920s, [[Coco Chanel]] was successful at selling a progressive, far less restrictive silhouette that abandoned the corset and raised hemlines. The new silhouette symbolised modernism for trendy young women and became the 20th century standard. Other Paris designers continued reintroducing pants for women and the trend was gradually adopted over the next century.

Fashion trends, in one sense, travelled &quot;full circle&quot; over the course of the Victorian era. The popular women's styles during the [[Georgian era]], and at the very beginning of Victoria's reign, emphasized a simple style influenced by flowing gowns worn by women in [[Ancient Greek clothing|Ancient Greece]] and [[Clothing in ancient Rome|Rome]]. The [[Empire waist]] silhouette was replaced by a trend towards ornate styles and an artificial silhouette, with the restrictiveness of women's clothing reaching its low point during the mid-century passion for narrow corseted waists and hoop skirts. The iconic wide-brimmed women's hats of the later Victorian era also followed the trend towards ostentatious display. Hats began the Victorian era as simple [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnets]]. By the 1880s, milliners were tested by the competition among women to top their outfits with the most creative (and extravagant) hats, designed with expensive materials such as silk flowers and exotic plumes such as ostrich and peacock. As the Victorian era drew to a close, however, fashions were showing indications of a popular backlash against excessive styles. Model, actress and socialite [[Lillie Langtry]] took London by storm in the 1870s, attracting notice for wearing simple black dresses to social events. Combined with her natural beauty, the style appeared dramatic. Fashions followed her example (as well as Queen Victoria's wearing of mourning black later in her reign). According to [[Harold Koda]], the former Curator-in-chief of the [[Costume Institute at The Met|Metropolitan Museum of Art's Costume Institute]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/about-the-museum/press-room/exhibitions/2014/death-becomes-her|title=Death Becomes Her: A Century of Mourning Attire : October 21, 2014-February 1, 2015|website=Metmuseuim.org|access-date=7 November 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The predominantly black palette of [[mourning]] dramatizes the evolution of period silhouettes and the increasing absorption of fashion ideals into this most codified of etiquettes,&quot; said Koda, &quot;The veiled widow could elicit sympathy as well as predatory male advances. As a woman of sexual experience without marital constraints, she was often imagined as a potential threat to the social order.&quot;

====Evolution of Victorian women's fashion====
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Fashion plate December 1844.jpg|Ladies' December Fashions (1844). Hand-coloured steel engraving from a women's magazine.
File:Thegalleryofhmscalcutta james tissot 1876.jpg|''[[The Gallery of HMS Calcutta]]'' by [[James Tissot]] (1876). [[Bustle]]s were fashionable in the 1870s and 1880s.
File:Mrs lillie langtry george frederic watts 1880.jpg|''Mrs. Lillie Langtry'' by [[George Frederic Watts]] (1880).
File:Five-women-on-queenslander-steps-r.jpg|Fashionable women in [[Queensland]], Australia around 1900.
&lt;/gallery&gt;


{{Short description|Irish writer (born 1963)}}
{{Use Irish English|date=August 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Infobox writer
| name               = Darach Ó Scolaí
| image              = Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG
| alt                = Man holding prize-winning book
| caption            = Ó Scolaí in 2019
| birth_name         = Darach Ó Scolaí
| birth_date         = {{Birth date and age|1963|df=y}}
| birth_place        = [[County Galway]], The Republic of Ireland
| death_date         = 
| death_place        = 
| occupation         = Writer, artist, publisher
| alma_mater         = [[University of Galway]]
| years_active       = 1998–present
| genre            = Novel, retelling, translation, play, screenplay, illustrated book for children and adults
| other_names        = 
| spouse             = 
| children           = 3
| awards             = [[Awards and Honors received by Darach Ó Scolaí|Awards and Honors]]
| signature          = 
| website            = 
}}[[File:Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG|thumb|Darach Ó Scolaí, holding ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (his translation of Robert Louis Stevenson's ''Treasure Island'')]]


== Darach Ó Scolaí ==
Darach Ó Scolaí (&lt;small&gt;Irish:&lt;/small&gt; [/ˈda.rax/ /oː/ /sˠkˠoː/l̪ˠəi/]; born 1963&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://portraidi.ie/en/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=20 October 2017|website=Portráidí (Portraits of Irish-Language Writers)|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;) is an Irish author who works in a number of genres, from novels, plays and screenplays to illustrated books for children and adults. He began his literary career in 1998 writing screenplays, stage plays, retellings and translations; he began to publish novels in 2008. Ó Scolaí is widely recognized as a leading figure in contemporary Irish literature, known as “one of the most important Irish language writers of his generation”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=2022|title=? Suil an Daill: Constant Tensions and Shifting Allegiances|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/suil-an-daill-constant-tensions-and-shifting-allegiances/|journal=Books Ireland}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &quot;one of the great Irish language novelists [duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge].&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt; His writing has been called “the high literature of the Irish language.”&lt;ref&gt;Ó Coimín, Maitiú. ''Nós'' 2 February 2018). Qtd. in &quot;Táin Bó Cuailnge.&quot; ''Leabhar Breac''. Retrieved 25 August 2025.&lt;/ref&gt;

Much of his fiction is based on a knowledge of traditional Irish tales and narrative practices as well as Irish history. He specializes in literary and [[wikipedia:Historical_fiction|historical fiction]], or as novelist Alan Titley says, Ó Scolaí’s “peak (for now), or at least his greatest imaginative interest, is the historical novel [tá an chuma air gurb é a bhuaic (go fóill), nó ar a laghad, a mhórspéis samhlaíochta, an t-úrscéal staire].”&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=Fall 2020|title=An Stíl Go Deo!: Soather Dharach Uí Scolaí (The style would be forever!: Worker Darach Ó Scolaí)|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27046090|journal=Comhar|volume=80, No. 10|pages=27|via=JSTOR}}&lt;/ref&gt; His retellings of old stories and tales from their original Middle and Early-Modern Irish into Modern Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]) are respected for their accessibility to students and language learners as well as for their artistry.

Ó Scolaí also regularly reviews books and lectures and writes on literature and culture. 

Beyond his writing, Ó Scolaí is a publisher and has co-produced a number of film, television shows and stage plays. 

== Life ==
Ó Scolaí was born in Dublin and raised in the Galway [[wikipedia:Gaeltacht#Galway Gaeltacht|Gaeltacht]] (Irish-speaking) regions of Cois Fharraige on the north shore of Galway Bay, in the Republic of Ireland, where he lives now with his wife and children in Lochán Beag (Indreabhán).&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=30 October 2024|title=Duais don úrscéal liteartha is fearr buaite ag Darach Ó Scolaí ag Oireachtas na Samhna|url=https://tuairisc.ie/duais-don-ursceal-liteartha-is-fearr-buaite-ag-darach-o-scolai-ag-oireachtas-na-samhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ní Scolaí|first=Aifric|date=2024|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://www.taiscecf.ie/ealaiontoiri?category=Scr%C3%ADbhneoir|journal=Taisce Chois Fharraige}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

He graduated the [[wikipedia:University_of_Galway|University of Galway]] (then University College Galway) with a B.A. in 1983.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.linkedin.com/in/darach-ó-scolaí-20026920/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|last=Ó Scolaí|first=Darach|date=August 2025|website=LinkedIn}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Writing and Publishing ===
Ó Scolaí writes in Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]), his native language, and lives in an area defined for the predominant presence of Irish as the vernacular language, the language spoken at home. Irish was the language of his parents' home and is the language of children as well. He is fluent in Irish and English and conversant in French. 

None of his works has been translated into English. 

==== Leabhar Breac ====
In 1995 Darach Ó Scolaí and his brother Caomhán Ó Scolaí — a [[wikipedia:Typography|typographer]] and designer — founded the publishing house Leabhar Breac at Indreabhán (Inverin), County Galway. Their father “Séamas Ó Scolaí was an editor at An Gúm and worked on the Irish-English dictionary team [bhí a n-athair Séamas Ó Scolaí ina eagarthóir sa Ghúm agus d’oibrigh sé ar fhoireann an fhoclóra Gaeilge-Béarla].”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/about-us/|title=About Us|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; Darach Ó Scolaí has been publisher and literary editor at Leabhar Breac since its founding. 

Named for [[wikipedia:An_Leabhar_Breac|An Leabhar Breac (The Speckled Book)]], Leabhar Breac publishing house has more than 140 books in print.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Leabhar Breac aims to publish Irish-language books that meet “a high literary and artistic standard.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Besides the content, Leabhar Breac is known for the typically &quot;superb [thar cionn]&quot; quality of the design and production of the &quot;physical book [leabhar fisiciúil].&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ní Mhuilneoir|first=Gráinne|date=30 July 2024|title=‘Bláthnaid’ – leabhar álainn i sraithín álainn faoi mhná|url=https://tuairisc.ie/blathnaid-leabhar-alainn-i-sraithin-alainn-faoi-mhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}&lt;/ref&gt; Its books regularly win awards for literary and artistic quality. Leabhar Breac also publishes translations for children and adults from various early versions of Irish as well as from French and English (and has published translations of books for young readers from Spanish, Catalan, and Italian as well).

Leabhar Breac prints its books in Ireland.

=== Stage and Screen ===

==== Rosg ====
In 1998 along with Ciarán Ó Cofaigh,&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.rosg.ie/en/about/History_6/|title=About Us: History|date=July 2025|website=Rosg|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ó Scolaí co-founded the film and television production company [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ Rosg] and was co-director until 2006. Rosg produced Ó ScolaÍ’s films ''Cosa Nite'' (1999), ''An Leabhar'' (2001) and ''Na Cloigne'' (2010). He left Rosg in 2006 to devote his time to other artistic activities. 

==== Ealaín ar Oileán ====
In 2004, along with Val Balance, Ó Scolaí co-founded the annual artists' symposium Ealaín ar Oileán (trans., Art on an Island). The Irish-language symposium was held annually in the Áras Éanna arts and cultural center on Inis Oírr ([[wikipedia:Inisheer|Inisheer]], the smallest of the [[wikipedia:Aran_Islands|Aran Islands]]) from 2004 to 2013. Ó Scolaí was its co-director from its founding&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darach_Ó_Scolaí.|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=3 February 2024|website=Vicipéid|access-date=1 July 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; until 2013.

Besides being its co-director, Ó Scolaí has taken part in this conference as an artist&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=16 January 2005|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050116163252/http://bliainiris.com/authors/darach_oscolai.html|journal=Bliainiris}}&lt;/ref&gt; and writer&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|title=The Conference|date=7 September 2013|website=Ealaín ar Oileán|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130907083744/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|archive-date=7 September 2013|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

==== Salamandar ====
In 2006 Ó Scolaí founded the stage production company Salamandar and directed his own play ''An Braon Aníos''. His plays ''An tSeanbhróg'' (2009) and ''Craos'' (2008) were also produced by Salamandar.&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== Works ==

=== Novels ===
* [[wikipedia:An_Cléireach|''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'')]], Leabhar Breac, 2007. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2007; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2008, and &quot;named as ‘the best novel since the turn of the Century’ by Comhar.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-cleireach/|title=An Cléireach - Leabhar Breac - Irish language novel|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-24}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Na Comharthaí'' (trans., ''The Signs''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.
* ''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2019.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/suil-an-daill/|title=Súil an Daill|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Bódléar'', Leabhar Breac, 2024. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2024&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2025; featured in the 2025 Listen-Up Irish Summer Challenge for students of the Irish language.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://connachttribune.ie/novel-approach-helps-people-learn-irish-in-a-creative-way/|title=Novel approach helps people learn Irish in a creative way|last=Murphy|first=Judy|date=3 October 2025|work=Connaught Tribune|access-date=24 October 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Retellings, Translations and Editions ===
The retellings and translations are into modern Irish.

* ''Feis Tigh Chonáin'' (trans., ''The Feast of Conán's House''), Leabhar Breac, 2000; a retelling of a 15&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;-century tale from the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/feis-tigh-chonain/|title=Feis Tigh Chonáin|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach'' (trans., ''The Narrow-Striped Kern''), Leabhar Breac, 2002; a retelling from c. 1500, also illustrated by Darach Ó ScolaÍ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-ceithearnach-caolriabhach/|title=An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), Leabhar Breac, 2017, both a modern edition of an 11th-century epic and an annotated edition.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/tain-bo-cuailnge-2-2/|title=Táin Bó Cuailnge|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;  &quot;''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' won the Aodán Mac Poilín Memorial Prize 2017.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt;
* ''Deirdre'', Leabhar Breac, 2023, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/deirdre/|title=Deirdre|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; Part of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]], ''Deirdre'' is a retelling  of the story of possibly the most widely known Irish figure from the early tales and sagas.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology|last=MacKillop|first=James|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=9780198609674|pages=181}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Bláthnaid'', Leabhar Breac, 2024, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova; “one of the great stories of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]].”&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;
* ''Sadhbh,'' Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers, illustrated by Alé Mercado; a retelling of the medieval tale ''Ceasacht Inghine Ghuile (''trans., ''The Complaint of Guile's Daughter'').&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/tales-of-wonder/|title=Tales of Wonder|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Eoghan Béal'', Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers illustrated by Alé Mercado&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;; a retelling of the medieval tale ''[https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caithr%C3%A9im_Cellaig Cathréim Ceallaigh]'' from ''The Yellow Book of Leacan.''&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;

=== For Young Readers ===
Ó Scolaí has written illustrated books for young readers (8–10 years old) in two series, the Fionn Series and the Scéalta Staire series, and translated a large number of classics and popular books for children of all ages. The number of these written and translated works suggests a commitment to children and their literacy in Irish. 

The Fionn Series “is a retelling ... of the great legends of the Fianna for the young Irish readers of today.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/doiteoir-na-samhna/|title=Dóiteoir na Samhna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[wikipedia:The_Boyhood_Deeds_of_Fionn|Macgnímartha Finn (The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn)]] is a medieval story in the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]].

* ''An Bradán Feasa'' (trans., ''The Salmon of Knowledge''), Leabhar Breac, 2010, “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/an-bradan-feasa/|title=An Bradán Feasa|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Dóiteoir na Samhna'' (trans., ''The Halloween Burner''), 2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
* ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' (trans., ''The Churl in the Dun Coat''), 2011.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/|title=Bodach an Chóta Lachna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Scéalta Staire (Historical Stories) series&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;

* ''Mánas Ó Dónaill'', 2000.
* ''Seán Ó Néill'', Leabhar Breac, 2000.
* ''Gráinne Mhaol Ní Mháille'', Leabhar Breac, 2003.
* ''Tadhg Dall Ó hUiginn'', Leabhar Breac, 2003.

==== Translations ====

* Robert Louis Stevenson, ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (trans. of ''Treasure Island''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-06-19|title=Oireachtas na Gaeilge|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge&amp;oldid=1296394643|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Robert Louis Stevenson, ''An Fuadach'' (trans. of ''Kidnapped''), Leabhar Breac, 2016.
* Clement Clarke Moore, ''Cuairt San Nioclás'' (trans. of ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or &quot;'Twas the Night Before Christmas&quot;), Leabhar Breac, 2022.
'''''The Corto Maltese Graphic Novels'''''

Written in Italian by Hugo Pratt and translated by Ó Scolaí, both adults and teenagers read this series of Italian adventure graphic novels.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-07-01|title=Corto Maltese|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corto_Maltese&amp;oldid=1298285365|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ó Scolaí's '''translation of ''Corto Maltese''''' was listed in 2017 among &quot;The 30 Irish books that Irish people love.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=09/06/2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil [The 30 Irish books that Irish people love]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Port na Farraige Goirt'', Leabhar Breac, 2013.
* Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: The Golden House in Samarkand'', 2014.
* Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Na Liopard-Fhir ó Rufiji'' (trans. of ''Corto: The Leopard Men of Rufiji''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.
* Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: In Ainm Dé Uilthrócairigh'' (trans. of ''Corto: In the Name of God All-Merciful''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.
* Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Tóraíocht Eile'' (trans. of ''Corto: Another Quest''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.
* Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Sa tSibéir'' (trans. of ''Corto: In Siberia''), Leabhar Breac, 2016.
'''''Other Translations for Children'''''

Ó Scolaí has translated into Irish six books from the ''Le Pavillon Noir'' (trans., ''Jolly Roger'') series by Alain Surget; four books from the ''Catalan First Steps'' series by Enric Lluch Girbés and the ''Caitlín &amp; Cormac'' series by Joan Carles; three books from the ''Louisette le Taupe'' series by Bruno Heitz, and three books from the ''Loup'' series by Orianne Lallemand.

=== Plays and Screenplays ===

==== Stage Plays ====
Ó Scolaí was writer and director of the original productions of two plays in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (trans., ''Three Drops'') trilogy; ''Coinneáil Orainn'' was directed by Darach Mac Con Iomaire and staged by An Taibhdhearc. All three plays have been published in book form by Leabhar Breac.

* ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32553|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; The first play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. [[wikipedia:Taibhdhearc_na_Gaillimhe|An Taibhdhearc]], the national Irish-language theatre of Ireland, toured the country in 2005 with ''Coinneáil Orainn''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/coinneail-orainn/|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; Walter Macken Prize, 2005; BBC Stewart Parker Award, 2006.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/person/darach-scola|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Branwen'', 2006, by Darach Ó Scolaí and Ifor ap Glyn, in Irish, Welsh and English, co-produced by Project Arts Centre and Llwyfan Gogledd Cymru, toured the Republic of Ireland and Wales.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32418|title=Branwen|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''An Braon'' Aníos (trans., ''Rising Damp''), 2006, directed by Ó Scolaí.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32461|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; The second play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. “The Salamandar company toured the country in 2006-07 with this play, and Salamandar also produced a radio version of the play for RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta in 2009.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/an-braon-anios/|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Craos'' (trans., ''Gluttony''), 2008, directed by Ó Scolaí.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32867|title=Craos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; The third play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy, it toured to Cork and Belfast.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt; A review of the 2008 Salamander performance in the ''Irish Times'' says, “a humorous play which offers plenty to think about, fine acting, and sparklingly witty dialogue.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/craos-2/|title=Craos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''A+E'', 2008, by Ríonach Ní Néill and Darach Ó Scolaí, &quot;dance and music drama,&quot; co-produced by Ciotóg and Salamandar.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32962|title=A+E|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''An tSeanbhróg'' (trans., ''The Old Shoe''), 2009, produced by Salamander&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=33042|title=An tSeanbhróg|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; and staged in the Axis Arts Centre, Dublin, and the Letterkenny Arts Centre.
* '''In ''Mhuir Fhíondorcha/The Wine-Dark Sea: The Homer Project'', Ó Scolaí's translation of Homer's Cyclops story, performed at the 2019 IMRAM festival'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/imram-a-festival-celebrating-the-irish-language-1.4047610|title=Imram: a festival celebrating the Irish language. Liam Carson reveals the myths and legends appearing in this year’s programme|last=Carson|first=Liam|date=11 October 2019|work=The Irish Times|access-date=15 October 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Screenplays ====

* ''Cosa Nite'' (trans., ''Washed Feet''), short film, 1998 (dir. Dearbhla Walsh, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg); &quot;a prose version of ''Cosa Nite'' was published (Rosg 2000).&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt; Nominated for an Irish Film and Television Award.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=Cosa Nite (Short 1998) - Awards - IMDb|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0191917/awards/|accessdate=2025-08-25|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Na Glúnta'' (trans., ''The Generations''), 2001&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.iftn.ie/production/production_companies/production_sub/feature/?act1=record&amp;aid=70&amp;rid=3917&amp;tpl=filmography_dets&amp;only=1&amp;force=1|title=Na Glúnta {{!}} The Irish Film &amp; Television Network|website=www.iftn.ie|access-date=2025-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;, co-directors Ciarán Ó Cofaigh &amp; Darach Ó Scolaí, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg.
* ''An Leabhar'' (trans., ''The Book''), short film, 2000, (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg) Rosg, 2000.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=An Leabhar|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0963767/|publisher=Bord Scannán na hÉireann / The Irish Film Board, ROSG|accessdate=2025-08-25|first=Robert|last=Quinn|others=Colm O&amp;apos;Maonlai, Peadar O&amp;apos;Treasaigh, Diarmuid Mac an Adhastair}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Na Cloigne'' [trans., The Heads], 3-episide series, 2010 (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg), TG4.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1607924/|title=Na cloigne|date=2010|website=IMDb|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Nonfiction ===
Ó Scolaí's essays and lectures are published and his interviews are broadcast regularly, making for a large body of nonfiction critical and analytical work. Here are a few, almost all published in [https://comhar.ie/iris/scribhneoiri/darach-o-scolai/ Comhar]:

* “Ceol Ciúin na nÉagmaise” (trans., “The Silent Music of Absence ['''the Fall?''']”), an essay on the 2014 Nobel Prize winner for literature, [[wikipedia:Patrick_Modiano|Patrick Modiano]], ''Comhar'', December 2014.
* The Ó Cadhain Lecture: [https://leachtaiuichadhain.clo.ie/leachtai/2014 “Cuimhne agus Díchuimhne (trans., “Memory &amp; Forgetfulness&quot;]), 2014.
* “Rithim agus Réim” (&quot;Rhythm and Register&quot;), a public lecture in the University College Dublin lecture series “Ó Thrácht go Twitter” (trans., &quot;From Talk to Twitter&quot;), 2014.
* Review of Pádraig Ó Cíobháin’s ''Dréachta Chrích Fodla'', '''Comhar?, ??'''.
* “Na Geilt i mBun an Tí” (trans., &quot;The Madmen in Charge&quot;), a talk at the Merriman Winter School, Comhar April 2012.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://darachoscolai.ie/beathaisneis.html|title=Darach Ó Scolaí: Beathaisnéis|website=darachoscolai.ie|access-date=2025-09-26}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* The EFACIS podcast: Síle Ní Choincheannain talks to Darach Ó Scolaí about the historical novel.

== Critical Reception ==
Ó Scolaí’s style has been called “crisp and elegant, and rich in language while being highly readable,”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Heussaf|first=Anna|date=Summer 2025|title=Bláthnaid—A tale of love, violence and sorcery retold for readers today|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/blathnaid-a-tale-of-love-violence-and-sorcery/|journal=Books Ireland}}&lt;/ref&gt; with “an unsurpassed richness and precision of language.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ó Cróinín|first=Breandán|date=Summer 2025|title=unknown|journal=The Limerick Leader}}&lt;/ref&gt; “Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned” is how Éilis Ní Dhuibhne described his writing.&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt;   

=== Original Works ===
Ó Scolaí’s first novel, the 2007 ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') won two prizes and was described as “one of the great historical novels in the Irish language and among the best books written in the language since the beginning of this century.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt; Novelist Alan Titley says, “In ''An Cléireach'' Ó Scolaí creates the Ireland of war in the 17th century more fully than any other Irish writer on the subject of war since ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Ó Thuairisc around 1798 [In ''An Cléireach'' cruthaíonn Ó Scolaí Éire an chogaidh san 17ú haois níos iomláine ná mar a dhein aon scríbhneoir Gaeilge eile ar ábhar cogaidh ó ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Uí Thuairisc timpeall ar 1798].”&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|25, Col. 1a}} Not all the reviews of this first novel were so positive, however; Proinsias O' Drisceoil says for the Irish Times says,&lt;blockquote&gt;This then is a novel in search of a plot, a story that attempts to attain a significance that eludes it.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/a-disaffected-clerk-in-the-confederates-1.943070|title=A disaffected clerk in the confederates|last=O' Drisceoil|first=Proinsias|date=5 July 2008|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; 

In the ''Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction'' Pádraig Ó Siadhail analyzes rather than reviews ''An Cléireach'': &lt;blockquote&gt;In ''An Cléireach'', Ó Scolaí revisits the trauma of Cromwellian Ireland. The primary narrative device is once again the first-hand account, in this case by Tadhg Ó Dúbháin, a clerk and quartermaster in the Confederate Army in 1650. We sample the hardships, the friendships, the tensions, the rivalries, and the petty jealousies amongst comrades in arms, including remnants of the Gaelic literary class, as the Confederate soldiers, increasingly a rabble more than a cohesive unit, retreat in advance of Cromwell’s forces. ''An Cléireach'' concludes with the narrator and his family in exile in continental Europe. But along the retreat route, and central to the novel, members of the Confederate army camp, rest up, and tell versions of a story about the keeper of the treasured manuscript &quot;Saltair an Easpaig&quot; (The Bishop’s Psalter). Their versions raise issues about memory construction, the limitations of individual perspectives, personal agendas, and how minor changes in the telling of a story can alter our understanding of history, Thus, ''An Cléireach'' complements ''Fontenoy'' in moving beyond more realistic recreation of a historical event or period to interrogate the notion of history as construct.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction|last=Ó Siadhail|first=Pádraig|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2020|isbn=9780198754893|editor-last=Harte|editor-first=Liam|pages=598–99|chapter=Contemporary Irish Fiction}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt;

Of ''Súil an Daill,'' in ''Nós'', Cathal Seoighe says, &quot;The book deserves a significant place among the collection of high-quality books published in recent years that would make you feel sorry for someone who does not speak Irish [Tá áit shuntasach ag dul don leabhar i measc an chnuasaigh leabhair ar ardchaighdeán a foilsíodh le roinnt blianta anuas a d’fhágfadh trua agat don té atá gan Ghaeilge].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Seoighe|first=Cathal|date=09/26/2022|title=‘Dar leathmhagairle an diabhail, is leabhar den scoth é seo!’ ['According to the devil’s half-wit, this is a great book!’]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/dar-leathmhagairle-an-diabhail-is-leabhar-den-scoth-e-seo/|journal=Nós}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''Bódléar'', Ó Scolaí's most recent book, is a “beautiful novel. There is magic and craftsmanship in it. A small miracle of a book and it is highly recommended.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/bodlear-mioruilt-bheag-de-leabhar/|title=Bódléar: Míorúilt bheag de leabhar (Bódléar: A Small Miracle of a Book)|last=Ní Ghairbhí|first=Róisín|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; Éilis Ní Dhuibhne in the ''Irish Times'' says,&lt;blockquote&gt;what a gem! An affectionately gentle satire of the Irish poetic scene during one creatively fluid 19th-century year, the story focuses on a Maigue poet and schoolteacher who goes on a trip to France and returns with camembert, a cafetiere, ‘Fleurs du Mal’, and a mission to convert the local traditionalists to la modernité. Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned, it’s absolutely delightful!&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ní Dhuibhne|first=Éilis|date=30 June 2025|title=Éilís Ní Dhuibhne on the best Irish language books of 2025 so far:
Including a history of the Gaeltacht Civil Rights Movements, a gem of a novel by Darach Ó Scolaí and Joe McHugh’s entertaining account of learning Irish|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/review/2025/06/30/eilis-ni-dhuibhne-on-the-best-irish-language-books-of-2025-so-far/|journal=The Irish Times|pages=22}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Retellings and Translations ===

==== ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' ====
''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' [''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''] is a modern edition of an 11th-century epic into modern Irish.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Gearóid Denvir reviewed ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'':&lt;blockquote&gt;Darach Ó Scolaí has ​​achieved a feat in this challenging reworking. He has found a high level of the Irish language to tell his story – as he has done before in his groundbreaking novel An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) and in his other prose works. This book is a decoration of the language, literature and culture of the Irish language, following the path of the old storytellers and writers and presenting material from the tradition to his own generation according to the understandings of his own time. The book will be a classic that will be of great interest to all readers of the Irish language, both ordinary readers, students, scholars and writers, and there should be a copy in every home in the country. [Tá éacht déanta ag Darach Ó Scolaí san athleagan dúshlánach seo. Tá réim ard den teanga Ghaeilge aimsithe aige lena scéal a inseacht – mar a rinne sé cheana ina úrscéal ceannródaíoch An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) agus i saothair eile phróis dá chuid. Is maisiú ar an teanga agus ar litríocht agus cultúr na Gaeilge an leabhar seo a leanas conair na seanscéalaithe agus na seanscríobhaithe agus ábhar de chuid an traidisiúin á chur i láthair a ghlúine féin aige de réir thuiscintí a linne féin. Clasaic a bheas sa leabhar a gcuirfidh léitheoirí uilig na Gaeilge, idir ghnáthléitheoirí, mhic léinn, scoláirí agus scríbhneoirí spéis thar na bearta ann, agus ba cheart cóip a bheith i chuile theach sa tír.]&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Denvir|first=Gearóid|date=April 2018|title=Táin Bó Cuailgne|url=https://comhar.ie/iris/78/4/leirmheas/|journal=Comhar|via=JSTOR}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt;Cathal Poirtéir says, &quot;The freshness and richness of Ó Scolaí’s version are a joy …. The author delights us with the linguistic and stylistic richness of the ancient epic in a modern-Irish version that reflects the original’s spirit and language.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=May/June 2018|title=Leabhair Idir Lámha|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26564180|journal=Books Ireland|pages=46–47|via=JSTOR}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|47}} Novelist and academic Alan Titley calls Ó Scolaí's &quot;a wonderful gutsy telling&quot; of ''Táin Bó Cuailnge''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/2023/03/11/the-tain-retold-maeve-and-ailills-spat-could-be-out-of-a-soap-opera/|title=The Táin retold: ‘Maeve and Ailill’s spat could be out of a soap opera’|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=11 March 2023|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== ''Deirdre'' ====

Marie Whelton, in &quot;Léann Teanga&quot; (&quot;Language Studies&quot;), in the 2024 ''An Reiviú'' says,&lt;blockquote&gt;this version [of ''Deirdre''] by Darach Ó Scolaí succeeds in skillfully capturing and portraying the complexity of gender and power issues in the ‘Deirdre’ tradition [éiríonn leis an leagan seo le Darach Ó Scolaí castacht cheisteanna na hinscne agus na cumhachta i dtraidisiún scéal Dheirdre a ghabháil agus a léiriú go sciliúil]. … There is no doubt that this new version greatly contributes to the legacy of the story and that it revives that legacy thoughtfully and artistically [Níl amhras faoi ach go gcuireann an leagan úr seo go mór le hoidhreacht an scéil agus go ndéanann sé an oidhreacht sin a athbheochan go tuisceanach agus go healaíonta.].&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.tara.tcd.ie/tara8/server/api/core/bitstreams/3c20175a-7631-44b2-8b0f-f454edd712b4/content|title=An Artistic Retelling of Deirdre's Tale and the Defeat of Conor Review of Deirdre or the Ship of Mac Uisnigh by Darach Ó Scolaí [Athinsint Ealaíonta ar Oidhe Dheirdre agus ar Ansmacht Chonchúir Léirmheas ar Deirdre nó Loingeas Mhac Uisnigh le Darach Ó Scolaí]|last=Whelton|first=Marie|date=2024|website=The Review [An Reiviú], Language Studies [Léann Teanga]|access-date=25 September 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
=== Works for Young Readers ===
Meadhbh Ní Eadhra said of ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' that it was &quot;Beautiful Irish, but easy to understand for young readers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ní Eadhra, Meadhbh. In ''Gaelscéal'', qtd. in &quot;Bodach an Chóta Lachna&quot; https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Awards and Honors ==
Ó Scolaí's works are regularly nominated and make the short list for prizes, an honor in itself, but they are generally not listed here unless they are named as the first-place winner in their category.

=== Oireachtas Prize ===
The Oireachtas Prize is the literary prize awarded by [[wikipedia:Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge|Oireachtas na Gaeilge]], the annual arts festival dedicated to Irish language, arts and culture. Darach Ó Scolaí has won the Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction three times, once for ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') in 2007, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'') in 2021 and for ''Bódléar'' in 2024.

* 2007, for ''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'') — “(a special prize commemorating the 400th anniversary of the foundation of Coláiste na nGael in Louvain, awarded under the auspices of the Franciscan Province of Ireland). The prize of €10,000 was the largest prize ever awarded to an Irish language novel [(duais speisialta chomórtha 400 bliain bhunú Choláiste na nGael i Lobháin a bronnadh faoi urraíocht Phroibhinse Phroinsiasach na hÉireann). Ba é an duais €10,000 sin an duais ba mhó a bronnadh riamh ar úrscéal Gaeilge].”&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;
* 2021, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'')
* 2024, for ''Bódléar''

=== Ó Shúilleabháin Award, Irish language “Book of the Year” ===
The first prize of this award includes €5,000 to the publisher and €2,500 to the author of the winning work.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=15 August 2023|title=20 saothar san iomaíocht do ‘Leabhair Ghaeilge na Bliana 2023’|url=https://tuairisc.ie/20-saothar-san-iomaiocht-do-leabhair-ghaeilge-na-bliana-2023/|journal=Tuairisc}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'').&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|title=Eagrán / Edition 19 - 04 11 2008|date=4/11/2008|website=Internet Archive|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525011340/http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|archive-date=25 May 2013|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'', 2018.
* ''Bódléar'', 2025.

==== De Bhaldraithe Award ====
The Gradam de Bhaldraithe is awarded to the best work in translation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;

* ''Cuairt San Nioclás,'' a translation of Clement Clarke Moore's ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or &quot;'Twas the Night Before Christmas.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;

==== Other ====

* Walter Macken Prize, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005
* Bháiteir Uí Mhaicín Memorial Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/gaeilge/tuarascail/duais-oireachtais-1.501571|title=Oireachtas Prize: Over €50,000 was awarded to writers in the Oireachtas Literary Competitions at an event in Dublin last night. Winners… [Duais Oireachtais: Bronnadh breis agus €50,000 ar scríbhneoirí i gComórtais Liteartha an Oireachtais ar ócáid i mBaile Átha Cliath aréir. Bhuaigh…]|work=5 October 2005|access-date=15 October 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* BBC Stewart Parker Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2006
* The Aodán Mac Póilín Commemorative Prize, for ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), 2017

== External Links ==

* Leabhar Breac website: https://leabharbreac.com/en/
* Leabhar Breac Facebook pages:
* Rosg website: [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ &lt;nowiki&gt;http://ww&lt;/nowiki&gt;w.rosg.ie/en/]
* Art on the Island (Ealaín ar Oileán) website, archived at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20130601000520/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ 31 March 2012, 1 June 2013 and 8 January 2014

* Darach Ó Scolaí's website Archived 25 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20150925103456/http://darachoscolai.ie/
* Youtube video of [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OlP2AmSBzXc Breandán Ó Cróinin introducing Deirdre at the book launch] in the pub Tigh Mholly (Molly’s House).

== Primordial Ooze ==

* Known for his sensitivity to language and voices.
* Finish scanning through JSTOR
* Scan through Irish Times, 56 hits
* Check Goodreads
* Check YouTube (In the spring of 2013, the arts programme Imeall interviewed the author on TG4.)
* Check both Wikipedias for pages on the origins of the retold tales (like Deirdre) and link to this article
* Propose link from University of Galway page once Darach’s is up
* Write Irish National Biography (&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.dib.ie&lt;/nowiki&gt;) to propose an article about Darach once the Wikip article is done? See what they say.
* Link to Ó Scolaí from the Wikipedia
* Make sure links '''to''' Wikipedia in the actual encyclopedia work right

=== Not Placed Yet ===

* &quot;So here are the books that Irish people love the most! [Mar sin seo iad na leabhair is gile leis na Gaeil!]&quot; — &quot;32. An Cléireach – Darach Ó Scolaí (2)&quot; [18 books got 2 votes, and then they're alphabetized by author's last name, so the 32 of 34 doesn't signify the specificity it seems to]&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=9 June 2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil. [The 30 best Irish books for Irish people]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* &quot;Below is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers.Here is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers [Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí.Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí].&quot; &quot;Corto Maltese – Hugo Pratt (aistrithe ag Darach Ó Scolaí)&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;
* &quot;Ceann eile de bhuaicphointí na hÉigse a bheidh sa seisiún le Darach Ó Scolaí, duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge, agus duine de chomhbhunaitheoirí teach foilsitheoireachta Leabhar Breac. [Another highlight of the Éigse will be the session with Darach Ó Scolaí, one of the great Irish language novelists, and one of the co-founders of the publishing house Leabhar Breac.]&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Nós|date=4 May 2023|title=Éigse na Bruiséile le filleadh i mí na Bealtaine. [Éigse na Bruséile to return in May]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/eigse-na-bruiseile-le-filleadh-i-mi-na-bealtaine/|journal=Nós}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Things Taken Out for Now ===
“’The play is a comedy about language, lies, bureaucracy and Gaeltacht grants, in the tradition of Myles na Gcopaleen,’ according to Norma-Jean Kenny in the ''Galway Advertizer'', ‘in which the author comments and criticizes the institutions of the Irish language in Ireland without ceasing.’&quot;

Supposedly a quotation by Gearóid Denvir reviewing ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'' (but I don't find it in the article):

This book has long been needed by Irish language readers and there is no doubt that it will become a classic in time and surpass Thomas Kinsella’s English version. This version remains faithful to the language of the original while at the same time finding an appropriate language in today’s Irish. Ó Scolaí masterfully overcomes the difficulties of the original’s rhetorical difficulties and the versions of the original poetic texts are extremely effective.[supposedly &lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;]

“The biggest prize ever awarded for a novel in Irish was presented at a special ceremony in the National Concert Hall in Dublin, today (Thursday, 4 October 2007). Darach Ó Scolaí, writer, artist &amp; playwright from Casla, Co. Galway, was awarded €10,000 for his literary novel, ‘An Ardscoil’. This work, under the new title ‘An Cléireach’, will be launched at Oireachtas na Samhna in Westport in November. This is the first novel from his pen, a story set in the late seventeenth century. This competition was sponsored by the Franciscan Province of Ireland.” (archive, Oireachtas na Gaeilge site, 04 October, 2007)

''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. number 2 in ''Comhar'' literary magazine’s list of best books of 2021. '''{6}.'''

*William Shakespeare, ''Romeo agus Juliet'' (trans. of ''Romeo and Juliet''), Leabhar Breac, 2016.
*Jonathan Swift, ''Camchuairt Ghuilivéir'' (trans. of ''Gulliver's Travels''), Leabhar Breac, 2016.

*Hugo Pratt, ''Corto Maltese''


'''''Flag of Bones (Bratach na gCnámh) Series'''''

Leabhar Breac published the Bratach na gCnámh series of books for young readers. Written in French by Alain Surget, illustrated by Annette Marnat and translated by Darach Ó Scolaí, this series uses the history of Caribbean Sea pirates&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/alain-surget/|title=Alain Surget Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-09-30}}&lt;/ref&gt;:

*Alain Surget, ''Éalú as Páras'' (''Escape from Paris''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011.
* Alain Surget, ''Oilean na Siorcanna'' (''Shark Island''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011.
* Alain Surget, ''Long na dTaibhsi'' (''Ship of the Ghosts''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011.
* Alain Surget, ''San Ochtapas Dubh'' (''In the Black Octopus''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013.
* Alain Surget, ''San Ionsai ar Veracruz'' (''The Attack on Veracruz''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013.
'''''For &quot;First Readers&quot; (children to 6 years old or so)'''''

These books were written originally in Catalan by Spanish author Enric Lluch Girbés and translated into Irish by Ó ScolaÍ:
*Enric Lluch, ''Ag Péinteáil an Tí'' (''Painting the House''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017.
*Enric Lluch, ''An Colúr Bacach'' (''The Lazy Dove''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017.
*Enric Lluch, ''An Phluais'' (''The Cave''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017.
*Enric Lluch, ''Madra Dhaideo'' (''Grandpa's Dog''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017.
*Enric Lluch, ''Fiacail Mháire'' (''Mary's Tooth''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017.
'''''Bruno Heitz'''''

Leabhar Breac published a series of 3 Heitz books for small children. Published originally in French, this series of three comic books is about a blind mole named Cáitín Chaoch in Irish (and ''Louisette la taupe'' in French).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/bruno-heitz-en/|title=Bruno Heitz Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ó Scolaí translated these:

*Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Práinneach'' (''Urgent''), Leabhar Breac, 2020
*Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Preab san Aer'' (''Bounce in the Air''), Leabhar Breac, 2020.

'''''Books for Toddlers'''''

Leabhar Breac has published 14 books written by French author Orianne Lallemand's and illustrated by Eleonore Thuillier, about Lallemmand's popular character Loup, Wolf. These are translated by Ó Scolaí:
*Orianne Lallemand, ''An Mac Tire a Raibh Faitios an Domhain Air'' (trans. of ''The Son Who Saw the World in His Eyes''), Eleonore Thuillier  Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018.
*Orianne Lallemand, ''Macan agus an Goban'' (trans. of ''Macan and the Goblin''), Eleonore Thuillier (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018.
* Orianne Lallemand, ''A Mac Tíre a Chuaigh go Tóin na Farraige'' (trans. of ''The Wolf Who Went to the Bottom of the Sea''), Éléanore Thuillier  (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2019.
'''''Board Books (for babies)'''''

J. C. (Joan Carles) Girbés Aparisi is a Catalan author and editor. These books were written in Catalan and translated by Ó Scolai.
*J. C. Girbés, ''An Phicnic'' (''The Picnic''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013.
* J. C. Girbés, ''An Chóisir'' (''The Party''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013.
*J. C. Girbés, ''Lá Mór Fada'' (''A Long Day''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014.
*J. C. Girbés, ''Tabhair Leat do Leabhar'' (''Bring Your Book''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014.

==== Gradam Réics Carló ====
The Réics Carló prize is awarded for the best book in the Irish language for young readers. It is named for one of the characters of 20th-century writer [[wikipedia:Cathal_Ó_Sándair|Cathal Ó Sándair (Charles Saunders)]].

* ''An Bradán Feasa'' was “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;

== References ==
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      <text bytes="126517" sha1="e9mglwzj7twlomuax6ra151c6kojcj4" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Dress worn by Queen Victoria at her wedding to Prince Albert in 1840}}
= Sandbox =
Page to draft revisions for Wikipedia articles.

For Gwladys Robinson, see Gwladys Lowther Robinson, [[Social Victorians/People/Ripon|Marchioness of Ripon]] and, earlier, [[Social Victorians/People/Lowther|Countess of Lonsdale]]
==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:1840 works]]
[[Category:Royal wedding dresses|Victoria Queen]]
[[Category:1840s fashion]]
[[Category:British royal attire]]
[[Category:Dresses in the Royal Collection of the United Kingdom|Victoria, Wedding]]
[[Category:Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria]]

= Victorian fashion =
'''Victorian fashion''' consists of the various fashions and trends in [[Culture of the United Kingdom|British culture]] that emerged and developed in the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] and the [[British Empire]] throughout the [[Victorian era]], roughly from the 1830s through the 1890s. The period saw many changes in fashion, including changes in styles, fashion technology and the methods of distribution. Various movements in architecture, literature, and the [[decorative arts|decorative]] and [[visual arts]] as well as a changing perception of [[gender roles]] also influenced fashion.

Under [[Queen Victoria]]'s reign, England enjoyed a period of growth along with technological advancement. [[Mass production]] of sewing machines in the 1850s as well as the advent of synthetic dyes introduced major changes in fashion.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Culture of Fashion|last=Breward|first=Christopher|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=1995|pages=145–180}}&lt;/ref&gt; Clothing could be made more quickly and cheaply. Fashion made more extreme and more rapid changes than it had in prior centuries.

Advancement in printing and proliferation of fashion magazines allowed the masses to participate in the evolving trends of high fashion, opening the market of mass consumption and advertising. By 1905, clothing was increasingly factory made and often sold in large, fixed-price department stores, spurring an age of consumerism with the rising middle classes, who benefited from the [[Industrial Revolution|industrial revolution]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

==Women's fashions==
[[File:Fashions.jpg|thumb|upright|Illustration depicting fashions throughout the 19th century]]During the [[Victorian era|Victorian Era]], women generally inhabited the private, domestic sphere.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/gender-roles-in-the-19th-century|title=Gender roles in the 19th century|website=The British Library|access-date=2016-10-21|archive-date=8 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708075142/https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/gender-roles-in-the-19th-century|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Unlike in earlier centuries when women labored with their husbands and brothers or worked in family businesses, during the nineteenth century, gender roles became more rigidly defined. Farm labourers was no longer in such a high demand after the [[Industrial Revolution]], and women were more likely to perform domestic work or, if married, give up paid work entirely. Dress reflected these new lifestyles, and was, for the middle and upper classes, less utilitarian.&lt;p&gt;

Clothes were seen as an expression of women's place in society&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Victorian and Edwardian Fashion - A Photographic Survey|last=Gernsheim|first=Alison|publisher=Dover Publications Inc.|year=1963|location=New York|pages=26}}&lt;/ref&gt; and were differentiated by [[social class]]. Most women wore a  [[corset]] over a [[chemise]], followed by a gown or [[skirt]] paired with a [[bodice]], [[blouse]], or [[chemisette]]. The shape of the skirt would be supported by layers of petticoats or, later in the period, structured support such as cage crinolines or bustles. The clothing of [[Upper class|upper-class women]], who generally did not do paid labor, was often elaborately decorated with more layers and [[Trim (sewing)|trims]]. [[Middle class|Middle-class women]] wore less complex dress styles with less expensive trim. [[Working class|Working-class]] clothing was simpler still, with less expensive fabric, fewer layers still and little trim. Including the undergarments, the amount of fabric in women's clothing made it much heavier and the construction made it much more restrictive than ours, especially in the waist (due to the boning in the corset) and the shoulders (due to the popularity of dropped shoulder seams). The amount, quality and type of fabric were displays of wealth and status.&lt;p&gt;

Throughout the 19th century, journalism targeting women increased enormously and addressed an increasingly more class-diverse audience. According to the ''Dictionary of Nineteenth-Century Journalism'',&lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;p&gt;

The closely allied fashion and women's journals can be divided into three phases: titles such as the ''Lady's Magazine'' continued eighteenth-century models, addressing readers as &quot;ladies&quot; and catering to a leisured, fashionable elite; a more domesticated format by the 1840s, targeting middle-class women with instructive and entertaining content including dressmaking and etiquette articles ...; finally, from the 1870s, a livelier, more engaging style of fashion reporting influenced by the New Journalism was integrated with an increased amount of imagery, including better quality fashion plates ....&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Dictionary of Nineteenth-Century Journalism In Great Britain and Ireland|last=Beetham|first=Margaret Rachel|last2=A|first2=R|publisher=Academia Press and the British Library|year=2009|editor-last=Brake|editor-first=Laurel, and Marysa Demoor|location=Gent|pages=215a–c|chapter=Fashion Journals}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;By the end of the century, women's periodicals were including patterns for dressmaking in their pages, reflecting the presence of middle- and working-class readers as well as technological change like sewing machines for home use and mass-produced fabrics and trim.[[File:1837 Dress.jpg|alt=This dress features a low waistline, and the bodice is worn over the hips to further emphasise the silhouette|thumb|upright|An undressed woman In 1837, featuring a fashionable hairstyle, busked corset, and layers of petticoats.]]It is important not to oversimplify the fashion of the Victorian age. The rate of change in fashion accelerated in the 19th century to the point that styles were distinctly different from one decade to the next (see &quot;When Was That Dress in Fashion?&quot;, above right). The styles of Elizabethan England, in contrast, changed much less extremely over the course of a century.

The most important characteristics for the analysis of 19th-century fashion include silhouette or line, corsets or stays, the neckline and the sleeves. The silhouette in particular but also the color, the variety of available fabrics and the distribution of information and opinion about fashion were the result of [[Social Victorians/People/Gwladys Robinson#Technological advancement|technological changes]] made throughout the century, but centering in the 1850s.[[File:The Engageants sleeves.jpg|thumb|Engageants, worn to fill open sleeves, were made of light fabrics like lace, linen, lawn or cambric.]]

* '''Silhouette''': Silhouette changed over time supported by the evolution of the foundation garments. In fact the line or silhouette of garments changed about every ten years. Just as outer clothing changed, foundation garments were also modified to give the wearer a different silhouette. Over the course of the century most Europeans and some in their colonies wore the same kinds of undergarments and similar outer garments. For example, wide skirts were supported by layers of petticoats that used woven horsehair to stiffen them.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Corsets, crinolines and bustles: fashionable Victorian underwear · V&amp;A |url=https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/corsets-crinolines-and-bustles-fashionable-victorian-underwear |access-date=2025-10-27 |website=Victoria and Albert Museum |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; By 1856 the [[Crinoline|cage crinoline]] (a domed structure using steel bands and wires) replaced the petticoats, making the skirts lighter in weight and easier to walk in. The line of the outer garments was influenced by how full the skirt was, how small the waist was and its location relative to the natural waistline, how the sleeves were shaped, and how deep the neckline went.

* '''Corsets''': [[Corset]]s or stays were ubiquitous, providing adjustable bust and posture support, helping to shape the body into the fashionable silhouette and preventing horizontal creasing in the bodice. Foundation garments were constantly evolving throughout the century. Over the course of the century, almost all women and some men wore corsets. After the late 1850s, an individual could lace a corset without help.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Victorian Fashions for Women|last=Kay|first=Fiona|last2=Storey|first2=Neil R.|publisher=Pen &amp; Sword History|year=2022|isbn=978 1 39900 416 9|location=Yorkshire and Philadelphia|pages=30-31}}&lt;/ref&gt; Most corsets were constructed with a busk, &quot;(a flat length of whalebone, wood or steel) inserted in a channel down the centre to smooth out the front of the dress.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Victorian Fashions for Women|last=Kay|first=Fiona|publisher=Storey|year=Neil R.|isbn=978 1 39900 416 9|location=Yorkshire and Philadelphia|pages=13}}&lt;/ref&gt; The drawing of an undressed woman (above right) shows a self-laced corset with what may be a split busk.
* '''Neckline''': Necklines changed over the course of the century as bodices and sleeves evolved. The less formal daywear had a higher neckline, regardless of class and decade. For formal wear, which varied widely by class and kind of event, the neckline was often lower and off the shoulder and finished with a [[Collar (clothing)|bertha]] (lace collar or flounce) or multiple bands of fabric pleats. This [[décolletage|décolleté evening style]] popularized shawls or [[cape]]lets and required a [[Corsets|corset]] without shoulder straps. The fashion was for dressmakers to produce two bodices with each skirt, one closed décolletage for day and one décolleté for evening.

* '''Sleeves''': Over the course of the century, styles in sleeves changed radically and more than one sleeve style was fashionable at the same time. Some of the most popular styles included gigot, pagoda, ''engageants'' (see right), bishop and leg-of-mutton sleeves. The changes were in the [[armscye]], the wrist treatment, and the fullness at the shoulder, elbow and wrist. For example, as [[crinoline]]s began to appear in the 1850s, sleeves were shaped like large bells known as pagoda sleeves. [[Engageante]]s, or false sleeves, were stitched inside full or open sleeves like pagoda sleeves. They were easy to remove, launder and restitch into position.
Even though the changes in fashion over the century were sometimes rapid and extreme, they were also evolutionary.[[File:Dress - MET 1971.47.3a–e.jpg|thumb|English day dress, c. 1836, with bow details and puffed sleeves]]
=== 1830s dress style ===
[[File:Princess Victoria and Dash by George Hayter.jpg|alt=Old portrait of a teenage girl in a white formal dress, with a dog|thumb|Princess Victoria and her dog Dash, 1833|left]]During the beginning of Queen Victoria's reign in 1837, the fashionable silhouette was an hourglass shape with wide shoulders, emphasized by puffed [[gigot sleeves]], a full skirt, and a slim waist.

Corsets were extended over the abdomen and down towards the hips, and worn with a busk.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877|last=Goldthorpe|first=Caroline|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1988|location=New York|pages=23–24}}&lt;/ref&gt; A chemise was worn under the corset and cut relatively low in the neck so that it could not be seen. Over the corset was a tight-fitting bodice featuring a high, straight waistline. Under the ankle-length skirt were layers of petticoats&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; stiffened with horsehair. (Skirts would not be extremely full for another two decades.) To contrast with the narrow waist, necklines were low and wide. Queen Victoria's 1833 white dress (left) shows an off-the-shoulder neckline, a higher waist and an ankle-length skirt held out by horsehair. The c. 1836 yellow day dress (right) shows gigot sleeves, a higher neckline and a skirt held out by petticoats.

Always a mark of wealth and status, Princess Victoria's white dress shows that she is formally dressed, perhaps for court, although the pose itself suggests some informality as well.

=== 1840s dress style ===
The 1840s saw an increase in domestic magazines targeting women, along with new varieties in the weave of ready-made fabrics as well as new and much more vibrant colors because of the invention of aniline dyes. And the industrial revolution supplied women with more varieties of color and weave in ready-made fabrics. Cotton replaced silk as a basic fabric, especially among middle-class women because silk was expensive, limiting who could afford it. The elements of fashion changed rapidly during this transitional decade.[[File:Magasin för konst, nyheter och moder 1844, illustration nr 8.jpg|thumb|1844 [[fashion plate]] depicting fashionable clothing for men and women, including illustrations of a [[glove]], a fanchon, and [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnets]]]]At the beginning of the 1840s, skirts began to widen and become dome shaped (because the skirt pieces changed from rectangles to gores, which are wider at the bottom). The waistline lowered with a point formed at the bottom of both the bodice and corset, which gave a rather rigid look to the silhouette. During this decade, the amount of trim decreased in general, although trim was still plentiful. In addition to the flowers, feathers, and ribbons many of the decorations on the dress were made of the fabric of the dress (tucks and pleats, flounces, ruffles). At the end of the decades waists rose to the natural waistline.[[File:Woman's_Dress_LACMA_M.2007.211.744_(1_of_7).jpg|left|thumb|English silk day dress of the second half of the 1840s, with dropped shoulder seams, tight sleeves, and a pointed waist.]]Although corsets narrowed the bodices and gave them a point in the early 1840s, by the end of the decade, they returned to the natural waistline. Corsets lost their straps by the end of the decade.  Busks in the front of the corset were split by Jean Julien Joselin in 1829,&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (75 [of 298]) but the corset wouldn’t stay closed until 1848 when Joseph Cooper patented the &quot;slot and stud&quot; which is still in use today.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (75 [of 298])

Necklines remained wide with further use of lace berthas to frame the upper body. At the end of the decade, necklines were raised and remained high.

Dresses were stiffer due to boning in the bodice as well as the corset. Skirts lengthened, while in 1847 widths increased with the introduction of the [http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-bOuPyjWzwT8/TuKx-x1R12I/AAAAAAAAAF0/oRs6AyGH0gw/s1600/CI53.51.15_B1870Amer.Horsehair.jpg horsehair crinoline], which was stiffened with horsehair and starch. The petticoats were numerous and became bulky and heavy and sometimes entangled the feet. Petticoats had another disadvantage: the number of waistbands increased with each additional petticoat. Skirts often had one or two flounces at the bottom that increased the look of fullness (see, for example, the 1844 fashion plate, right).

To achieve the narrow waist, skirts were attached to bodices using very tight organ [[pleat]]s secured at each fold.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Goldthorpe |first=Caroline |title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877 |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=1988 |location=New York |pages=32}}&lt;/ref&gt; .

Sleeves narrowed with smaller decorative additions (see, for example, the English silk day dress, left). They eventually widened at the wrists into open pagoda-type sleeves requiring engageants to cover the forearms.

Shawls were used to convert a simple dress into a more formal outfit. The popularity of shawls grew because of the very soft and beautifully dyed and woven cashmere shawls from India with a paisley design (after the Scottish town that manufactured shawls).&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (48 [of 298]) Head coverings were ''de regeur'', dominated by poke bonnets.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (51 [of 298]) (The mannequin in the English silk day dress, above left, is wearing a poke bonnet.) Cosmetics became more popular, with instructions The Handbook of the Toilette (anonymous, many editions beginning in 1839. Unfortunately many contained toxic elements like calcium oxide (or quicklime) found hair dye that was recommended to stay in the hair for 3 to 8 hours.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (47 [of 298])

By the end of the 1840s skirts were more dome shaped, necklines were higher and wider and sleeves broadened at the bottom. 
=== 1850s dress style ===
The 1850s saw revolutionary [[Social Victorians/People/Gwladys Robinson#Technological advancement|changes in technologies]] affecting the manufacture and consumption of clothing, especially

* the mass production of fabrics
* the invention of synthetic dyes
* the manufacture of inexpensive, flexible and lightweight steel
* the invention of a sewing machine that could be used in the home
* the spread of fashion journalism and journalism for women

According to the ''Dictionary of Nineteenth-Century Journalism'', &quot;The 1850s and 1860s saw the eclipse of the older ladies' journals [that began in the 18th century and targeted upper-class women] and the emergence of the magazine for middle-class ... women.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Dictionary of Nineteenth-Century Journalism In Great Britain and Ireland.|last=Beetham|first=Margaret Rachel|publisher=Academia Press and the British Library|year=2009|editor-last=Brake|editor-first=Laurel, and Marysa Demoor|location=Gent|pages=683–684|chapter=Women's Periodicals}}&lt;/ref&gt; (684) Nine fashion magazines were being published in London by 1850 and fourteen by 1859 as part of the burgeoning collection of magazines for women, both domestic magazines aimed at middle-class women and journalism focused mostly on fashion.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (63 [of 298]) The journalism aimed at middle-class women introduced haute couture, making the styles, names of couturiers and fashion houses familiar to them for the first time.

These technological changes were revolutionary because of the impact they had on fashion over the course of the rest of the century. Their impact on fashion arises largely because most women were taught a wide range of seamstress skills and, due to reforms in education over the century, more women could read.[[File:Ensemble_MET_DT6845.jpg|thumb|A day ensemble c. 1855, featuring tiers of ruffles and pagoda style sleeves.]]
==== Silhouette ====
The 1850s are considered a transitional decade in 19th-century fashion because little changed in the silhouette and appearance of clothing, but technological changes would make increasingly important structural differences in what was available for people to wear.

Skirts widened with the disappearance of the many layers of petticoats but did not change their basic shape. Beyond the silhouette, the design elements of the dress (like sleeves, neckline, or skirt) were barely changed as they evolved from the 1840s to the 1860s.

While the silhouette and elements of design did not change significantly, the effect of the technological changes related to the manufacture and consumption of clothing was to give individual (and especially middle-class women) more agency over how their dresses got made and who made them, what fabrics their dresses were made of, how broad a range of options they could choose from and how easy it was to move in their dresses.

The number of flounces and ruffles on the skirt increased, making the skirt look wider (see the c. 1855 day ensemble, right).

==== Neckline ====
[[File:1850's Evening Dress.jpg|thumb|1850s evening dress with a bertha|left]]
With trim and a front closure in the corset and the bodice, the bodice emphasized a distinct V-shape. Necklines of day dresses were sometimes cut into a V-shape, causing a need to cover the bust area with a chemisette. For evening, a wide, low neckline was popular, often with a [[Collar (clothing)|bertha]] (see the 1850s even dress with a bertha, left).&lt;ref name=&quot;h608&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Arnold |first=Janet |title=Patterns of fashion. 2: Englishwomen's dresses and their construction: 1860 - 1940 |date=1993 |publisher=MacMillan |isbn=978-0-89676-027-1 |publication-place=London |page=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Sleeves ====
Pagoda sleeves and under sleeves (''engageants'') continued to be popular for most of the decade.

==== Foundations ====
[[File:1856 Cage Crinoline.jpg|alt=1st patented cage crinoline.Fullness of the skirt is even further emphasised.|thumb|1850s fashionable silhouette and the cage crinoline needed to support it.]]
In 1856, the invention of the first [[Crinoline|cage crinoline]] allowed for even wider skirts. The cage crinoline was constructed by joining thin metal strips together with wires to form a circular cage-like structure that could support a very wide skirt (see 1950s silhouette and cage crinoline, right). Although often ridiculed by journalists and cartoonists of the time as the crinoline swelled in size, this innovation freed women from the heavy weight of petticoats.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Steele |first=Valerie |url=https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee |title=Victorian Fashion. Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-19-503530-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee/page/51 51]–84 |url-access=registration}}&lt;/ref&gt; For a description of the [[Social Victorians/People/Gwladys Robinson#Technological advancement|technological advancement]] that made cage crinolines possible, see below.) Not visible on the outside garment, the cage crinoline was the foundation for the huge dome-shaped skirts that dominated the decade. It was safer and easier to walk in a cage because the hoops held the skirt away from the feet and legs of the wearer.

Without the innumerable petticoats more women began to wear drawers or &quot;pantalettes&quot; for modesty and warmth. The dome shape made possibly by the cage foundation changed the way skirts were cut. Instead of rectangles, gores were cut with one end of the skirt piece wider than the other end,&lt;ref name=&quot;w586&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Arnold |first=Janet |title=Patterns of fashion. 2: Englishwomen's dresses and their construction: 1860 - 1940 |date=1993 |publisher=MacMillan |isbn=0-333-13607-1 |publication-place=London |page=}}&lt;/ref&gt; preventing bulkiness at the waist from gathered fabric and created a skirt bottom much wider than the top. Bloomers, designed by American Amelia Jenks Bloomer,  introduced bifurcated garments for women, essentially trousers or pants with a seam between the legs. Even pantalettes had no seam between the legs; it was simply left open. This experiment failed and women didn’t wear pants until the 20th century.

The 1850s saw two other developments that permanently changed the clothing available to Victorian women (and men). Created in 1856, the first synthetic dyes were much more vivid and vibrant than natural dyes and resisted fading.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (92 [of 298]) Because Victorian photography was black and white, we do not typically see the gaudy and saturated colours that many Victorians loved.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Also, although sewing machines had already been invented, changing the accessibility and value of individual articles of clothing, it was the invention of and widespread sale of &quot;lightweight domestic machines&quot; for home sewing that affected large numbers of women.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (91 [of 298])

Cage crinolines remained popular for perhaps 5 years among the fashion forward and perhaps 10 years for the less adventurous.[[File:Woman's_silk_taffeta_dress_c._1865.jpg|thumb|An 1865 English silk morning dress.]]

[[File:Mrs_Ellinor_Guthrie_by_Frederic_Leighton.jpg|thumb|English dress, 1864, with simple trim.]]
=== 1860s dress style ===

==== Foundations ====
The cage crenoline reached their greatest width during the 1860s. Photographs show that the fashion-forward Empress Eugénie of France, Empress Elisabeth of Austria and Countess Pauline von Metternich had stopped wearing the very large crinoline cages as early as 1862, but most middle- and upper-class women (including Queen Victoria) wore them for much of the rest of the decade.

During the first half of the 1860s, crinolines began decreasing in size at the top, while retaining their volume at the bottom, creating a more pyramidal shape.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877|last=Goldthorpe|first=Caroline|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1988|location=New York|pages=}}&lt;/ref&gt; (26) Then the fullness began to move to the back while the front became flat and close to the body. As the back fullness increased, skirts sometimes lengthened into trains. (The 1865 English silk dress, above right, shows the flattening of the front at the waist and the development of the train.) In order to emphasize the back, the train was gathered together to form soft folds and [[Drapery|draperies]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Making Victorian Costumes for Women|last=Audin|first=Heather|publisher=Crowood|year=2015|pages=45}}&lt;/ref&gt; This line or silhouette would eventually evolve into a bustle in the next decade.

Decoration or trim often appeared only at the bottom of the skirt (see English dress, 1864, below right). Flounces and ruffles diminished as geometric designs in trim gained popularity.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (102 [of 298]) Skirts were also decorated with overskirts of the same fabric or a different shade of the same color. Waistlines were pointed in front below the natural waistline. By mid-century the waist was seated at the natural waistline often with a wide belt and large decorative buckle.  

==== Bodices and Sleeves ====
Bodices often had buttons down the front because both the corset and the bodice opened in the front. Necklines were generally high and rounded. Some dresses were cut without separating the bodice and skirt so it could be buttoned from the neck to the bottom of the skirt. It became popular for dresses to be made as one skirt and two bodices, one for day wear and one for formal wear.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; (43)

Sleeves narrowed but remained loose on the arms and were wrist length. Sometimes the sleeves were full at the shoulder, but they were not very puffed.

==== General Trends ====
A greater and richer variety of fabrics was available to the always upwardly-aspirational middle class, with silk essential in the dress of wealthy middle- and upper-class women. Dresses were cut and pieced together to accommodate the more active life women had in sports, walking and even riding bicycles. The trends that began in the 1860s continued through the 1870s and into the 1880s; the changes were evolutionary.

=== 1870s dress style ===

==== Silhouette ====
[[File:Black_net_ball_dress_1874.png|thumb|A black net ball dress, 1874]]In 1877, dresses moulded to fit the figure, as increasingly slimmer and more restrictive silhouettes were favored. Although dress styles took on a more natural form, corsetry was still required and the now ''de regueur'' train was often supported with a bustle cage.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;{{rp|50}} The armscye, for the first time in the Victorian period, moved from a dropped position up to the shoulders and would remain there for the rest of the era.

The most famous designer of this conservative, very fitted and restrictive style was British-born Frederick Worth, who designed the “princess” construction for dresses, which we still use today, and who popularized and then “killed,” according to his obituary in ''The Lady’s Treasury'',&lt;ref&gt;“‘Death of the Chief Ruler of the Fashionable World’, The Ladies’ Treasury (1 April 1895), p. 274.” In ''Fashioning the Victorians: A Critical Sourcebook''. Ed., Rebecca N. Mitchell. Dress, Body, Culture Series, gen. ed., Joanne B. Eicher. Bloomsbury Visual Arts, 2018. Pp. 487–491 of 565.&lt;/ref&gt; the crinoline cage. The princess construction was named for Alexandra, Princess of Wales, who preferred a lean, tailored style. By 1879 corsets were being built using &quot;princess&quot; seams to support the tailoring of the smooth, straight dresses like the ones designed by Maison Worth.

Because Queen Victoria had been in mourning since 1861, the Princess Alexandra was expected to lead in the haute couture of the day. She set a trend for tailored dresses that was quickly picked up by all classes. Unlike the tailored designs, what Maison Worth created was ornate with many decorative elements, including fringe, which was widely used (along with ribbon, braid, ball fringe, ruching, epaulettes, pieces of the same fabric in a lighter or darker shade, pieces of a different-textured fabric like velvet or velveteen, etc.).

No single silhouette dominated the 1870s, however, because of the different lines created by the bustle, the overskirt and the layers of the polonaise, or a combination of these three skirt treatments. Foundation garments changed very little, although perhaps the greatest change came in corsets. In 1870 women were wearing corsets that came to just below the waist with a pointed center front.

==== Skirts ====
[[File:Woman's_Polonaise_Dress_LACMA_M.2007.211.777a-f_(1_of_4).jpg|left|thumb|An c. 1875 English polonaise]]The trend for wide skirts slowly disappeared during the 1870s, as women started to prefer a slimmer silhouette. Skirts went from their most extreme width to their most narrow, waists went to a natural level and the backside took the point of interest in the ensemble. The back of the dress became the focal point of the design. The relationship between the various skirt treatments was very complex, in part because skirts became architectural. (The bustle on the 1874 black net ball dress, above right, has been gathered and bunched and would require padding to keep the draping in place. It also has an overskirt.)

The skirt began the decade rather flat in front with most of the fabric pulled to the back and pleated. As the skirt evolved, the gathered fabric draped gracefully at the back. In the next fashion the extra fabric was bunched into large poufs below the waist in back. Then a pad supported the extra fabric, and then by the end of the decade a [[tournure]] or bustle kept the elaborate draping of the back of the skirt and train in place. In general, trains were present on every dress, including day dresses, but they were narrower and longer with tiers and drapes. Petticoats, which could be washed separately, kept the longer trains off the ground.

[[overskirt|Overskirts]] became extremely popular, often tied up into an apron effect at the front with a [[Polonaise (clothing)|polonaise]] or puffed draperies at the back.&lt;ref name=&quot;g4223&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=Cecil Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century |date=1990-05-01 |publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=0-486-26323-1 |publication-place=New York |page=}}&lt;/ref&gt; A revival of an 18th-century romanticization of what a milkmaid might have worn, the 1870s polonaise is a garment featuring both an overskirt and bodice often of the same fabric (see c. 1875 English polonaise, left). Over time, the overskirt shortened into a detached [[Basque (clothing)|basque]], resulting in an elongation of the bodice over the hips. (The early 1870s fashion plate, below right, shows an assortment of ways overskirts were worn, including one for a girl.)[[File:1870's Dress.jpg|alt=Dresses featuring the Bustle &amp; Polonaise|thumb|An early 1870s fashion plate]]

==== Neckline ====
Necklines were high, and lines were sleek and fitted. 

==== Sleeves ====
Pagoda sleeves began to lose their three-decade-long popularity in 1875,&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt;{{rp|102 [of 298]}} but most sleeve treatments were narrow and came to the wrist.

==== General Trends ====
An unusual trend occurred during the 1870s in hairstyles, which grew very large with added braids, buns, coils, poufs and strands. The elaborate hairstyles required multiple hair pieces and featured tiny, over-decorated hats fastened almost vertically on the head. Although women had already been supplementing their own hair, these extremely large styles caused enormous demand in the human hair market.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (152 [of 298]) 

The practice of constructing a dress with one skirt and two bodices (one for day and one for evening wear) continued from the 1860s.

=== 1880s dress style ===
After a period of slim, train-less skirts with heavy decoration, an exaggerated horizontal bustle made a re-appearance in 1883. Due to the additional fullness, drapery moved towards the sides or front panel of the skirt instead. Bodices shortened, now ending above the hips. Skirts were much less full than the last time the bustle was in fashion in the 1870s and instead focused on a slim front with a shelf-like back protrusion. 

The 1880s also saw the growing popularity of austere, menswear-inspired tailoring like that preferred by Alexandra, Princess of Wales.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; The style was not without its critics because it fit did not seem feminine.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (164 [of 298]) Some credited the change in silhouette to the various [[Victorian dress reform]] movements, which arose from several sectors of society over the second half of the century. The [[Artistic Dress]] movement founded in the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood and the [[Victorian dress reform|Rational Dress]] movement of the mid-to-late Victorian era advocated for a natural silhouette, natural dyes and natural fibers, rejecting the traditional foundation garments of corset and cage (both crinoline and bustle). The Rational Dress Movement saw women &quot;handicapped&quot; and their health injured by &quot;tightly laced corsets, cumbersome dress improvers [padding], and unwieldy crinolettes.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:23&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=A Victorian Lady's Guide to Fashion and Beauty|last=Matthews|first=Mimi|publisher=Pen and Sword Books|year=2023|isbn=978 1 52670 504 4|location=Yorkshire, Philadelphia}}&lt;/ref&gt; (69–70) 

Competing with the tailored look was a more traditional, highly feminized look dominated by a large protruding, almost horizontal bustle. This look was heavily decorated and formed a sharp contrast with the simpler, fitted silhouette, the first time in haute couture that &quot;No single style reigned supreme.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:23&quot; /&gt; (62) 
[[File:Frith A Private View.jpg|alt=Old painting of a lot of people in an art gallery|thumb|Frith, A Private View, 1883]]
The [[Artistic Dress movement|Aesthetic Dress]] movement of the end of the century, led in part by Oscar Wilde and parodied by William Powell Frith's 1883 ''A Private View at the Royal Academy, 1881'' (right) saw traditional dress as impeding women's agency. Frith's painting (right) opposed the aesthetic movement to traditional dress, targeting Wilde and his followers. 

These movements were never mainstream enough to garner widespread support, but a less austere, less restrictive version of the tailored look, based perhaps on riding habits, supported those involved in other sports, like cycling and tennis.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; If the bodice was made like a jacket, it was tailored for the individual woman. Some women who wore the tailored look, like the Princess of Wales and Empress Elisabeth of Austria, were accentuating their very thin figures, but for many the semi-masculine look was simply a fashionable style and indicated neither advanced views nor the need for practical clothes.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; [[File:1885 Bustle.jpg|alt=Horizontal protrusion at the back.|thumb|Lobster-tail bustle, c. 1885.]]

==== Silhouette ====
Two silhouettes dominated this decade, a menswear-inspired, fitted line and a heavily decorated, complex line inspired by the first bustle period of the 1870s. The bustles of the second period in the 1880s were different from the evolving bustles of the 1870s. The 1880s bustle was large, extending sharply and horizontally from the backside, and sported a train, even for day wear. Two distinctly different lines competing for dominance in the same era is extremely unusual.

For both looks, the dresses were very fitted, with narrow sleeves, a tight bodice and a straight skirt, but the bustle style was overdecorated, and the tailored style was sometimes austere but sometimes specifically designed to be easier to move in.

The massive hair pieces of the late 1870s gave way to a simple chignon at the base of the neck that later moved to the top of the head.

Beyond the dress reform movements, the 1880s had no significant inventions or events that impacted the fashion or clothing industries.

==== Foundation ====
Both silhouettes demanded a corset that had smooth lines and that went below the waist, often one with princess seams. Presumably, the version of the tailored look that was easer to move in had a less restrictive corset or a corset laced less restrictively. The traditional dresses had narrow, decorative bustles that “were more pronounced, projecting sharply outwards” and '''had no train'''. 162 of 298 They looked like a highly decorated shelf coming out of the backside. In fact, the new bustles were a separate  garment. (an example of what was called a lobster-tail bustle, above, right) [[File:Edward_Hughes_-_Juliette_Gordon_Low_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg|thumb|English evening dress with a V-shaped neckline, higher shoulder placement and simple trims, 1887]]
==== Dresses ====
Some of the tailored dresses were in one piece, buttoning down the front from neckline to hemline with no excess fabric for decorations. More masculinized versions had jackets, vests or waistcoats and even neckties. Some of the tailored dresses had overskirts and separate bodices. The fitted bodices of traditional dresses and the skirts that were straight down in front and on the sides as well as having bustles and trains could make even normal walking difficult.

In the traditional style, the bodice looked more like a suit jacket with a high neckline and a white blouse with a ruffled collar or some kind of feminine neck treatment. Sleeves tightened again during the [[1880s in Western fashion|1880s]] and the armscye moved back up the shoulders.&lt;ref name=&quot;y040&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Severa |first=Joan L. |title=Dressed for the Photographer |date=1995 |publisher=Kent State University Press |isbn=0-87338-512-8 |publication-place=Kent, Ohio |page=}}&lt;/ref&gt; Necklines became higher again, with a high collar being ubiquitous for daytime, a trend that would continue into the 1890s. For the evening, the bertha fell out of favor, replaced by V-shaped necklines or draped styles due to the new higher shoulder (V-shaped neckline, right).&lt;ref name=&quot;g4223&quot; /&gt; Near the end of the decade sleeves developed more fullness at the shoulder.

=== 1890s dress style ===

==== Silhouette ====
By 1890, the crinoline and bustle were fully abandoned, and skirts flared in an A-line. If bustles were the focal point of the ensemble in the 1880s, then sleeves were the focal point in the 1890s. Menswear influences like necktie-inspired neckwear continued from the previous decade.  

Much of the excess trim of the tradititonal style of the 1880s disappeared in the 1890s, and dresses had a softer, '''more feminine''' look. Although they closely fitted the body, dresses were not tight, allowing more freedom of movement. Many more women were participating in sports and other physical activities that required a less structured fit. '''Even so, the several simultaneous silhouettes disappeared'''. 

The new century would let go of boned foundation garments altogether and shorten skirts radically and bring even more unprecedented changes to feminine attire. 

==== Foundations ====
Larger busts were more fashionable, leading to a variety of different kinds of padding to place in the corset and make the bust look bigger. Corsets continued to reach well beyond the waist, smoothing the front of the dress. 

==== Skirts ====
Bustles were left behind in the 1880s and skirts, cut in gores, were smooth, fitted close to the waist and hips until they flared outward.  Away from the knees, the gores widened the skirts into an A-line.   

==== Necklines and Sleeves ====
Daywear dresses had very high necks with a kind of Mandarin collar or military band of fabric around the neck. A large brooch could be worn on such a collar. 

At the beginning of the 1890s a small puff of fullness was seen at the shoulders but increased in size in the middle of the decade to a puffed [[Sleeve|leg-of-mutton]] style. (197 [of 298]) From the elbow to the wrist or onto the hand, sleeves were tight fitting. By 1896 sleeves grew to a volume rivaling the 1830s from the natural shoulder line to the elbow and even sometimes required stuffing or padding to retain their fullness. By 1900 the entire sleeve was  “straight and narrow again.” 198 [of 298] [[File:Lady_Beatrice_Pole-Carew.jpg|thumb|English socialite Lady Beatrice Pole-Carew in the mid-1890s, with puffed sleeves.]]

== Hats and headwear ==
[[File:Ford.madox.brown.last.emma.study.jpg|thumb|''Emma Hill'' by [[Ford Madox Brown]] (1853), a woman wearing a later version of the [[poke bonnet]]]]
[[File:Hoed,_objectnr_KA_1237.tif|left|thumb|Perched bonnet style of the early 1870s.]]
Hats were crucial to a respectable appearance for both men and women. To go bareheaded was simply not proper. The top hat, for example, was standard formal wear for upper- and middle-class men.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; For women, the styles of hats changed over time and were designed to match their outfits.

During the early Victorian decades, hats were modest in size and design, straw and fabric bonnets being the popular choice. [[Poke bonnet]]s, which had been worn during the late [[Regency period]], had high, small crowns and brims that grew larger until the 1830s, when the face of a woman wearing a poke bonnet could only be seen directly from the front. They had rounded brims, echoing the rounded form of the bell-shaped hoop skirts.

Bonnets shrunk at the end of the 1860s and moved to a perched position in the early 1870s as hairstyles grew in scale and intricacy. This led to the popularization of hats, which became the headwear of choice for the remainder of the Victorian era.&lt;ref name=&quot;g4223&quot;/&gt;
[[File:The_London_and_Paris_ladies'_magazine_(Apr_1885)_03.png|thumb|Flower pot style hat of 1885.]]
The 1880s saw a hat inspired by the top hat for women known as the flowerpot hat, and the 1890s saw the popularity of the boater. The hats of the late Victorian era were covered with elaborate creations of silk flowers, ribbons, and above all, exotic plumes; hats sometimes included entire exotic birds that had been stuffed. Many of these plumes came from birds in the Florida everglades, which were nearly made entirely extinct by overhunting. By 1899, early environmentalists like [[Adeline Knapp]] were engaged in efforts to curtail the hunting for plumes. By 1900, more than five million birds a year were being slaughtered, and nearly 95 per cent of Florida's shore birds had been killed by [[Plume hunting|plume hunter]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Everglades National Park|url=https://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927085907/http://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 September 2009|publisher=PBS|access-date=7 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Shoes ==
The women's shoes of the early Victorian period were narrow and heelless, in black or white satin. By 1850s and 1860s, they were slightly broader with a low heel and made of leather or cloth. Ankle-length laced or buttoned boots were also popular. From the 1870s to the twentieth century, heels grew higher and toes more pointed. Low-cut pumps were worn for the evening.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;

== Cosmetics ==
[[Victorian-era cosmetics]] were typically minimal, as makeup was associated by the middle classes with promiscuity. However, small amounts of pale face powder or powdered blush were more widely used.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Ruth |title=How to be a Victorian |date=2014 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-670-92136-2 |location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some cosmetics contained toxic or caustic ingredients like lead, mercury, ammonia, and arsenic {{Citation needed|date=October 2025}}.

Hair color

== Men's fashion ==
[[File:Mens Coats 1872 Fashion Plate.jpg|thumb|upright|Drawing of Victorian men 1870s]]

During the [[1840s in fashion|1840s]], men wore tight-fitting, calf length [[frock coat]]s and a [[waistcoat]] or vest. Sleeves were full at the top and waists were tight, creating an hourglass form. Waistcoats were single- or double-breasted, with shawl or notched collars, and might be finished in double points at the lowered waist. For more formal occasions, a cutaway morning coat was worn with light trousers during the daytime, and a dark tail coat and trousers was worn in the evening. Shirts were made of linen or cotton with low collars, occasionally turned down, and were worn with wide [[Cravat (early)|cravat]]s or neck ties. Trousers had fly fronts, and [[breeches]] were used for formal functions and when horseback riding. Men wore [[top hat]]s, with wide brims in sunny weather.

During the [[1850s in fashion|1850s]], men started wearing shirts with high upstanding or turnover [[collar (clothing)|collars]] and [[necktie#Four-in-hand|four-in-hand necktie]]s tied in a bow, or tied in a knot with the pointed ends sticking out like &quot;wings&quot;. The upper-class continued to wear top hats, and [[bowler hat]]s were worn by the working class.

In the [[1860s in fashion|1860s]], men started wearing wider neckties that were tied in a bow or looped into a loose knot and fastened with a stickpin. Frock coats were shortened to knee-length and were worn for business, while the mid-thigh length [[sack coat]] slowly displaced the frock coat for less-formal occasions, with the overall effect of a looser silhouette. Top hats briefly became the very tall &quot;stovepipe&quot; shape, but a variety of other hat shapes were popular.

During the [[1870s in fashion|1870s]], three-piece suits grew in popularity along with patterned fabrics for shirts. Neckties were the four-in-hand and, later, the [[Ascot tie]]s. A narrow ribbon tie was an alternative for tropical climates, especially in the Americas. Both frock coats and sack coats became shorter and more form fitting. Flat straw boaters were worn when boating.

During the [[1880s in fashion|1880s]], formal evening dress remained a dark tail coat and trousers with a dark waistcoat, a white bow tie, and a shirt with a winged collar. In mid-decade, the dinner jacket or [[tuxedo]], was used in more relaxed formal occasions. The [[Norfolk jacket]] and tweed or woolen breeches were used for rugged outdoor pursuits such as shooting. Knee-length topcoats, often with contrasting velvet or fur collars, and calf-length overcoats were worn in winter. Men's shoes had higher heels and a narrow toe.

Starting from the [[1890s in fashion|1890s]], the [[blazer]] was introduced, and was worn for sports, sailing, and other casual activities.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Landow|first=George|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/90s/2.html|title=Men's informal sporting dress, late 1880s and '90s}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Throughout much of the Victorian era most men wore fairly short hair.  This was often accompanied by various forms of facial hair including moustaches, side-burns, and full beards.  A clean-shaven face did not come back into fashion until the end of the 1880s and early 1890s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/nunn21.html|title=Victorian Men's Fashions, 1850–1900: Hair}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Distinguishing what men really wore from what was marketed to them in periodicals and advertisements is difficult, as reliable records do not exist.&lt;ref name=&quot;shannon597&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Shannon|first=Brent|title=Refashioning Men: Fashion, Masculinity, and the Cultivation of the Male Consumer in Britain, 1860–1914|journal=Victorian Studies|year=2004|volume=46|issue=4|pages=597–630|doi=10.1353/vic.2005.0022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Influence of Bertie, Albert Edward, Prince of Wales

==Mourning black==
{{See also |Mourning stationery}}
[[File:The royal children in mourning Mar 1862.jpg|thumb|Victoria's five daughters (Alice, Helena, Beatrice, Victoria and Louise), photographed wearing mourning black beneath a bust of their late father, Prince Albert (1862)]]
[[File:Mourning dress MET 50.40.3a-b front CP4.jpg|alt=Black Victorian mourning dress|thumb|Mourning Dress, 1894–95]]

In Britain, black is the colour traditionally associated with mourning for the dead. The customs and etiquette expected of men, and especially women, were rigid during much of the Victorian era. The expectations depended on a complex hierarchy of close or distant relationship with the deceased. The closer the relationship, the longer the mourning period and the wearing of black. The wearing of full black was known as First Mourning, which had its own expected attire, including fabrics, and an expected duration of 4 to 18 months. Following the initial period of First Mourning, the mourner would progress to Second Mourning, a transition period of wearing less black, which was followed by Ordinary Mourning, and then Half-mourning. Some of these stages of mourning were shortened or skipped completely if the mourner's relationship to the deceased was more distant. Half-mourning was a transition period when black was replaced by acceptable colours such as lavender and mauve, possibly considered acceptable transition colours because of the tradition of [[Church of England]] (and [[Catholic Church|Catholic]]) clergy wearing lavender or mauve [[Stole (vestment)|stoles]] for funeral services, to represent the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion of Christ]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=The Colors of the Church Year|url=http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|publisher=Consortium of Country Churches|access-date=6 November 2011|archive-date=13 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113075214/http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The mourning dress on the right was worn by Queen Victoria, &quot;it shows the traditional touches of mourning attire, which she wore from the death of her husband, Prince Albert (1819–1861), until her own death.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/155839?&amp;searchField=All&amp;sortBy=Relevance&amp;deptids=8&amp;ft=queen+victoria&amp;offset=0&amp;rpp=20&amp;amp;pos=2|title=Mourning Dress, 1894–95|last=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|date=7 September 2019|website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|access-date=7 September 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Norms for mourning===

''Manners and Rules of Good Society, or, Solecisms to be Avoided'' (London, Frederick Warne &amp; Co., 1887) gives clear instructions, such as the following:&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–83}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Relationship to deceased !! First mourning !! Second mourning !! Ordinary mourning !! Half-mourning
|-
| Wife for husband || 1-year, 1-month; [[bombazine]] fabric covered with [[Crape|crepe]]; [[widow's cap]], [[lawn cuff]]s, collars || 6 months: less crepe || 6 months: no crepe, silk or wool replaces bombazine; in last 3 months jet jewellery and ribbons can be added || 6 months: colours permitted are grey, lavender, mauve, and black-and-grey
|-
| Daughter for parent || 6 months: black with black or white crepe (for young girls); no linen cuffs and collars; no jewellery for first 2 months || 4 months: less crepe ||  –  || 2 months as above
|-
| Wife for husband's parents || 18 months in black bombazine with crepe || – || 3 months in black || 3 months as above
|-
| Parent for son- or daughter-in-law's parent || – Black armband in representation of someone lost || – || 1-month black || –
|-
| Second wife for parent of a first wife || – || – || 3 months black || –
|}

The complexity of these etiquette rules extends to specific mourning periods and attire for siblings, step-parents, aunts and uncles distinguished by blood and by marriage, nieces, nephews, first and second cousins, children, infants, and &quot;connections&quot; (who were entitled to ordinary mourning for a period of &quot;1–3 weeks, depending on level of intimacy&quot;). Men were expected to wear mourning black to a lesser extent than women, and for a shorter mourning period. After the mid-19th century, men would wear a black hatband and black suit, but for only half the prescribed period of mourning expected of women. Widowers were expected to mourn for a mere three months, whereas the proper mourning period expected for widows was up to four years.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–9}}&lt;/ref&gt; Women who mourned in black for longer periods were accorded great respect in public for their devotion to the departed, the most prominent example being Queen Victoria herself.

Women with lesser financial means tried to keep up with the example being set by the middle and upper classes by dyeing their daily dress. Dyers made most of their income during the Victorian period by dyeing clothes black for mourning.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|page=341}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Technological advancement ==
The technological changes that affected the manufacture and consumption of clothing in the Victorian age included the following:

* the mass production of fabrics — for example, &quot;by the early 1850s there were thousands of steam-powered looms churning out millions of miles of fabric every year&quot;  [62]
* the invention of aniline dyes, which were much more vibrantly colored and resistant to fading than the natural dyes that had been used. — . Invented by chemist [[William Henry Perkin]] in 1856, the first aniline dye mauveine (or mauve) &quot;wash[ed] the fashionable landscape in a haze of purple.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Dress Diary: Secrets from a Victorian Woman's Wardrobe|last=Strasdin|first=Kate|publisher=Pegasus Books|year=2023|location=New York, New York}}&lt;/ref&gt; (247) Other intense and, to the Victorians, intensely exciting colors followed, but the new synthetic additions to fabric sometimes included chemicals harmful to their wearers. For example, a &quot;bright-magenta hue was achieved by adding arsenical-based chemicals to existing aniline dyes, brightening the already luminous shades – but these left residues themselves, along with a toxic labour trail in their wake.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot; /&gt; (255) Perhaps the most famous of these is arsenic green, used on fabrics, wallpapers, and trim: &quot;The craze for artificial foliage to adorn the heads and dresses of women of fashion in the mid-nineteenth century had seen the proliferation of flower workshops, where young women in their hundreds laboured to produce the lifelike green leaves and blooms that would make a fetching headdress or would trail becomingly across the bodice of a gown. The lushness of the green was achieved by the application of a powder, a pigment that was created by mixing copper and the highly toxic chemical, arsenic trioxide. The physical effects of working with this poisonous compound were horrific. Contemporary medical drawings depict the green hue of the skin and dreadful open lesions on the hands of the maker, whilst the daily gradual ingestion of the powder by the flower girls was eventually fatal.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot; /&gt; (255)
* the invention of a sewing machine that could be used in the home. Although sewing machines were already in use in the clothing industry, in 1858 Isaac Merritt Singer began to sell &quot;lightweight domestic machines&quot; for home sewing, radically increasing women's control over their own dress.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (91 [of 298])
* the spread of journalism for women and fashion journalism

Perhaps not at the same scale as these but as important in 1850s designs was a technology that turned iron into steel, which could then be drawn into fine wires.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Steel was refined to a malleable state so that thin blades could be curved into concentric circles (called hoops) and connected with wires to form the cage.

Technological advancements not only influenced the economy but brought a major change in the fashion styles worn by men and women. As the Victorian era was based on the principles of gender, race and class.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Graham|first1=P|title=The Victorian Era|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.261548|journal=Digital Library of India}}&lt;/ref&gt; Much advancement was in favor of the upper class as they were the ones who could afford the latest technology and change their fashion styles accordingly.  In 1830s there was introduction of horse hair crinoline that became a symbol of status and wealth as only the upper-class women could wear it.  In 1850s there were more fashion technological advancements hence 1850s could rightly be called a revolution in the Victorian fashion industry such as the innovation of artificial cage crinoline that gave women an artificial hourglass silhouette without layers of petticoats, which was lighter and more hygienic.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Shrimpton|first1=J|title=Victorian Fashion|publisher=Bloomsbury Shire Publications}}&lt;/ref&gt; Synthetic dyes, such as [[mauveine]] (aniline purple), were introduced in 1856, adding bright colours to garments. In 1855's ''[[Haute couture]]'' was introduced as tailoring became more mainstream in years to follow.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Aspelund|first1=Karl|title=Fashioning Society|publisher=Fairchild Books}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Charles Frederick Worth, a prominent English designer, became popular amongst the upper class though its city of destiny always is Paris. Haute couture became popular at the same time that sewing machines were invented.&lt;ref name=&quot;Haute Couture&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Richard|last2=Koda|first2=Harold|title=Haute Couture|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art}}&lt;/ref&gt; Princess [[Eugénie de Montijo|Eugenie]] of France wore the Englishman dressmaker, Charles Frederick Worth's couture and he instantly became famous in France though he had just arrived in Paris a few years ago. In 1855, Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Britain welcomed [[Napoleon III]] and Eugenie of France to a full state visit to England. Eugenie was considered a fashion icon in France. Queen Victoria, who had been the fashion icon for European high fashion, was inspired by Eugenie's style and the fashions she wore.{{Citation needed|date=October 2025}} Later, Queen Victoria also appointed Charles Frederick Worth as her dress maker and he became a prominent designer amongst the European upper class. Charles Frederick Worth is known as the father of the haute couture as later the concept of labels were also invented in the late 19th century as custom, made to fit tailoring became mainstream.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Saillard|first1=Olivier|last2=Zazzo|first2=Anne|title=Paris Haute Couture|publisher=Skira Flammarion}}&lt;/ref&gt;

By the 1860s, when made-to-fit tailoring was popular in Europe, crinolines were considered impractical. In the 1870s, women preferred more slimmer silhouettes, hence bodices grew longer and the polonaise, a skirt and bodice made together, was introduced. In 1870s the Cuirass Bodice, a piece of armour that covers the torso and functions like a corset, was invented. Towards the end of Victoria's reign, dresses were flared naturally as crinolines were rejected by middle-class women. Designers such as Charles Frederick Worth were also against them. All these inventions and changes in fashion led to women's liberation as tailored looks improved posture and were more practical.&lt;ref name=&quot;Haute Couture&quot;/&gt;

dressmakers, couturiers, modistes

== Home decor ==
{{main|Victorian decorative arts}}

Home decor started spare, veered into the elaborately draped and decorated style we today regard as Victorian, then embraced the retro-chic of [[William Morris]] as well as pseudo-[[Japonaiserie]].

== Myths and Oversimplifications ==

=== Modesty ===
{{main|Victorian morality}}
{{Original research|section|date=May 2008}}
[[File:1868-skirt-lengths-girl-ages-Harpers-Bazar.gif|thumb|upright|&quot;The proper length for little girls' skirts at various ages&quot;, from ''[[Harper's Bazaar]]'', showing a 1900 idea of how the hemline should descend towards the ankle as a girl got older]]Many myths and exaggerations about the period persist to the modern day. Examples include the idea of men's clothing is seen as formal and stiff, women's as elaborate and over-done; clothing covered the entire body, and even the glimpse of an ankle was scandalous. Critics contend that [[corset]]s constricted women's bodies and lives. Homes are described as gloomy, dark, cluttered with massive and over-ornate furniture and proliferating [[bric-a-brac]]. Myth has it that even piano legs were scandalous, and covered with tiny [[pantalette]]s.

=== Tight Lacing ===
Tight-lacing, which was not possible until the development of the grommet in 1828, was famously controversial in the Victorian age, generating many column inches of profitable newspaper copy, in part because it was (and still is) fetishistic and subversive in that adolescent girls used it as a means of rebellion and upper-working- or lower-middle-class shop girls saw it as a means of upward mobility.&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Fashion and Fetishism: Corsets, Tight-Lacing and Other Forms of Body-sculpture|last=Kunzle|first=David|publisher=History Press|year=2013|isbn=978 0 7524 9545 3|location=Stroud, Gloucestershire|pages=}}&lt;/ref&gt; (71 [of 1182]) No evidence exists that tight lacing was widespread or particularly dangerous.&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt; ()


In truth, men's formal clothing may have been less colourful than it was in the previous century, but brilliant [[waistcoat]]s and [[cummerbund]]s provided a touch of colour, and [[smoking jacket]]s and [[robe|dressing gown]]s were often of rich Oriental [[brocade]]s. This phenomenon was the result of the growing textile manufacturing sector, developing mass production processes, and increasing attempts to market fashion to men.&lt;ref name=&quot;shannon597&quot;/&gt; Corsets stressed a woman's sexuality, exaggerating hips and bust by contrast with a tiny waist. Women's [[evening gown]]s bared the shoulders and the tops of the breasts. The [[jersey dress]]es of the 1880s may have covered the body, but the stretchy novel fabric fit the body like a glove.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Gernsheim |first=Alison |title=Victorian &amp; Edwardian Fashion: A Photographic Survey |year=1981 |publisher=Dover Publications |location=New York |page=65|edition=New |isbn=0-486-24205-6}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Home furnishing was not necessarily ornate or overstuffed. However, those who could afford lavish draperies and expensive ornaments, and wanted to display their wealth, would often do so. Since the Victorian era was one of increased social mobility, there were ever more ''[[nouveaux riches]]'' making a rich show.

The items used in decoration may also have been darker and heavier than those used today, simply as a matter of practicality. London was noisy and its air was full of [[soot]] from countless coal fires. Hence those who could afford it draped their windows in heavy, sound-muffling curtains, and chose colours that didn't show soot quickly. When all washing was done by hand, curtains were not washed as frequently as they might be today.

There is no actual evidence that piano legs were considered scandalous. Pianos and tables were often draped with [[shawl]]s or cloths—but if the shawls hid anything, it was the cheapness of the furniture. There are references to lower-middle-class families covering up their [[pine]] tables rather than show that they couldn't afford [[mahogany]]. The piano leg story seems to have originated in the 1839 book, ''A Diary in America'' written by Captain [[Frederick Marryat]], as a satirical comment on American prissiness.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Marryat |first1=C.B. |title=A Diary in America: With Remarks on Its Institutions |date=1839 |publisher=Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longmans |location=London, England |volume=2 |pages=246–247 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2-VEAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA246}} From pp. 246-247:  &quot;I was requested by a lady to escort her to a seminary for young ladies, and on being ushered into the reception-room, conceive my astonishment at beholding a square piano-forte with four ''limbs''. However, that the ladies who visited their daughters, might feel in its full force the extreme delicacy of the mistress of the establishment, and her care to preserve in their utmost purity the ideas of the young ladies under her charge, she had dressed all these four limbs in modest little trousers, with frills at the bottom of them!&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;

Victorian manners may have been as strict as imagined—on the surface. One simply did not speak publicly about sex, childbirth, and such matters, at least in the respectable middle and upper classes. However, as is well known, discretion covered a multitude of sins. Prostitution flourished. Upper-class men and women indulged in [[adultery|adulterous]] liaisons.

== Gallery ==
{{gallery
|2=A mid-Victorian interior: ''Hide and Seek'' by [[James Tissot]], c. 1877
Image:Winterhalter Elisabeth.jpg|3=Dress designed by [[Charles Frederick Worth]] for [[Elisabeth of Bavaria|Elisabeth of Austria]] painted by [[Franz Xaver Winterhalter]].|4=File:Frith A Private View detail.jpg|5=[[William Powell Frith]]'s painting of 1883 contrasts women's [[Aesthetic dress]] (left and right) with fashionable attire (center).|6=File:Tissot lilacs 1875.jpg|7=Day dress, c. 1875 [[James Tissot]] painting.|8=File:James Abbot McNeill Whistler 011.jpg|9=[[James McNeill Whistler|Whistler]]'s [[Portrait of Lady Meux]], 1882
Image:Jeanna_Samary-Renoir.png|10=[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir|Renoir]]'s portrait of [[Jeanne Samary]] in an [[evening gown]], 1878|11=File:Melville_-_Queen_Victoria.jpg|12=Portrait by [[Alexander Melville (artist)|Alexander Melville]] of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], 1845|13=File:Henry Treffry Dunn Rossetti and Dunton at 16 Cheyne Walk.jpg|14=An artistic interior: [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] reading to [[Theodore Watts-Dunton]] in the drawing room at No. 16 [[Cheyne Walk]], 1882|15=File:Punch - Masculine beauty retouched1.png|16=Men's swimwear: Cartoon from ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]'' by [[George du Maurier]]}}

== See also ==
* [[Emily Clapham]]
* [[Victorian decorative arts]]
* [[Victorian dress reform]]
* [[Victorian morality]]
* [[Victoriana]]
* [[Women in the Victorian Era]]
* [[Charles Frederick Worth]]

=== Time periods ===
* [[1830s in fashion]]
* [[1840s in fashion]]
* [[1850s in fashion]]
* [[1860s in fashion]]
* [[1870s in fashion]]
* [[1880s in fashion]]
* [[1890s in fashion]]

=== Women's clothing ===
* [[Corset]]
* [[Corset controversy]]
* [[Tightlacing]]
* [[Bloomers (clothing)|Bloomers]]
* [[Bodice]]

=== Contemporary interpretations ===
* [[Steampunk]]
* [[Neo-Victorian]]
* [[Lolita Fashion|Lolita]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
*{{cite book |author=Phipps, Elena| title= ''From Queen to Empress: Victorian dress 1837-1877'' | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1988 | isbn=0870995340| url= http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/69547/rec/235 | display-authors=etal}}
* Sweet, Matthew – ''Inventing the Victorians'', St. Martin's Press, 2001 {{ISBN|0-312-28326-1}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion Victorian Fashion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407223711/http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion |date=7 April 2018 }}
* [https://www.victorianvoices.net/topics/fashion/index.shtml VictorianVoices.net] – Fashion articles and illustrations from Victorian periodicals; extensive fashion image gallery
* [http://www.cracked.com/article_19575_5-ridiculous-sex-myths-from-history-you-probably-believe.html Victorian myths]
* [http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm Victorian fashion, etiquette, and sports] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103162620/http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm |date=3 January 2018 }}
* [http://www.thesmartset.com/article/article12180701.aspx Background on &quot;A Diary in America&quot;]
* [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/VQ_P2_17_EN.html Form and Fashion] —  the evolution of women's dress during the 19th century (many photographs)
* [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/games/jeu2/ Educational Game: Mix and Match] — build a 19th-century dress using a virtual mannequin
* {{cite web |publisher= [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]
 |url= http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/v/victorian-dress-at-v-and-a/
 |title= Victorian Dress
 |work= Fashion, Jewellery &amp; Accessories
 |date= 14 January 2011
 |access-date= 2011-04-03}}
*[http://cv.vic.gov.au/stories/creative-life/fashion-detective-fashion-fiction-and-forensics/ Fashion detective: Fashion, Fiction and Forensics in nineteenth century Australian fashion] on Culture Victoria

{{Timeline of clothing and fashion|state=collapsed}}{{Victorian era|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Victorian fashion| ]]
[[Category:19th-century fashion|*]]
[[Category:1900s fashion]]
[[Category:History of Western fashion]]
[[Category:19th century in the arts]]

=From ''Women in the Victorian era''=
===Victorian women's fashion===
{{Multiple issues|{{tone|date=March 2023}}
{{more footnotes needed|date=March 2023}}|section=y}}{{Further|Victorian fashion}}
The ideal Victorian woman was pure, chaste, refined, and modest. This ideal was supported by etiquette and manners. The etiquette extended to the pretension of never acknowledging the use of undergarments (sometimes generically referred to as &quot;unmentionables&quot;). The discussion of such a topic, it was feared, would gravitate towards unhealthy attention on anatomical details. As one Victorian lady expressed it: &quot;[those] are not things, my dear, that we speak of; indeed, we try not even to think of them&quot;, in contrast to current norms.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=20}}&lt;/ref&gt; The pretence of avoiding acknowledgement of anatomical realities met with embarrassing failure on occasion. In 1859, the Hon. Eleanor Stanley wrote about an incident where the [[Louisa Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire|Duchess of Manchester]] moved too quickly while manoeuvring over a [[stile]], tripping over her large [[hoop skirt]]:

{{blockquote|[the Duchess] caught a hoop of her cage in it and went regularly head over heels lighting on her feet with her cage and whole petticoats above, above her head. They say there was never such a thing seen – and the other ladies hardly knew whether to be thankful or not that a part of her undergarments consisted in a pair of scarlet tartan [[knickerbockers (clothing)|knickerbockers]] (the things Charlie shoots in) which were revealed to the view of all the world in general and the [[Aimable Pélissier|Duc de Malakoff]] in particular&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Cunnington|first=C. Willett|title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations|year=1990|publisher=Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-26323-6|pages=20–1}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

However, despite the fact that Victorians considered the mention of women's undergarments in mixed company unacceptable, men's entertainment made great comedic material out of the topic of ladies' [[bloomers (clothing)|bloomers]], including men's magazines and music hall skits.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=22}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Victorian women's clothing followed trends that emphasised elaborate dresses, skirts with wide volume created by the use of layered material such as [[crinoline]]s, hoop skirt frames, and heavy fabrics. Because of the impracticality and health impact of the era's fashions, a [[Victorian dress reform|dress reform movement]] began among women.

The ideal silhouette of the time demanded a narrow waist, which was accomplished by constricting the abdomen with a laced [[corset]]. While the silhouette was striking, and the dresses themselves were often exquisitely detailed creations, the fashions were cumbersome. At best, they restricted women's movements and at worst, they had a harmful effect on women's health. Physicians turned their attention to the use of corsets and determined that they caused several medical problems: compression of the thorax, restricted breathing, organ displacement, poor circulation, and prolapsed uterus.&lt;ref name=&quot;O'Connor&quot;/&gt;

Articles advocating the reform of women's clothing by the British National Health Society, the Ladies' Dress Association, and the [[Rational Dress Society]] were reprinted in ''The Canada Lancet'', Canada's medical journal. In 1884, Dr J. Algernon Temple of Toronto even voiced concern that the fashions were having a negative impact on the health of young women from the working classes. He pointed out that a young working-class woman was likely to spend a large part of her earnings on fine hats and shawls, while &quot;her feet are improperly protected, and she wears no flannel petticoat or woollen stockings&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;O'Connor&quot;/&gt;
[[File:Bloomers.jpg|thumb|1850s illustration of a woman wearing [[bloomers]]]]
[[Florence Pomeroy]], Lady Haberton, was president of the Rational Dress movement in Britain. At a National Health Society exhibition held in 1882, Viscountess Haliburton presented her invention of a &quot;[[divided skirt]]&quot;, which was a long skirt that cleared the ground, with separate halves at the bottom made with material attached to the bottom of the skirt. She hoped that her invention would become popular by supporting women's freedom of physical movement, but the British public was not impressed by the invention, perhaps because of the negative &quot;unwomanly&quot; association of the style with the American [[Bloomers]] movement.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Murray|first=Janet Horowitz|title=Strong-Minded Women and Other Lost Voices from 19th Century England|year=1982|publisher=Pantheon Books|location=New York|isbn=0-394-71044-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68 68–70]|url=https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Amelia Jenks Bloomer]] had encouraged the wearing of visible bloomers by feminists to assert their right to wear comfortable and practical clothing, but it was no more than a passing fashion itself among radical feminists. The movement to reform women's dress would persist and have long-term success, however; by the 1920s, [[Coco Chanel]] was successful at selling a progressive, far less restrictive silhouette that abandoned the corset and raised hemlines. The new silhouette symbolised modernism for trendy young women and became the 20th century standard. Other Paris designers continued reintroducing pants for women and the trend was gradually adopted over the next century.

Fashion trends, in one sense, travelled &quot;full circle&quot; over the course of the Victorian era. The popular women's styles during the [[Georgian era]], and at the very beginning of Victoria's reign, emphasized a simple style influenced by flowing gowns worn by women in [[Ancient Greek clothing|Ancient Greece]] and [[Clothing in ancient Rome|Rome]]. The [[Empire waist]] silhouette was replaced by a trend towards ornate styles and an artificial silhouette, with the restrictiveness of women's clothing reaching its low point during the mid-century passion for narrow corseted waists and hoop skirts. The iconic wide-brimmed women's hats of the later Victorian era also followed the trend towards ostentatious display. Hats began the Victorian era as simple [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnets]]. By the 1880s, milliners were tested by the competition among women to top their outfits with the most creative (and extravagant) hats, designed with expensive materials such as silk flowers and exotic plumes such as ostrich and peacock. As the Victorian era drew to a close, however, fashions were showing indications of a popular backlash against excessive styles. Model, actress and socialite [[Lillie Langtry]] took London by storm in the 1870s, attracting notice for wearing simple black dresses to social events. Combined with her natural beauty, the style appeared dramatic. Fashions followed her example (as well as Queen Victoria's wearing of mourning black later in her reign). According to [[Harold Koda]], the former Curator-in-chief of the [[Costume Institute at The Met|Metropolitan Museum of Art's Costume Institute]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/about-the-museum/press-room/exhibitions/2014/death-becomes-her|title=Death Becomes Her: A Century of Mourning Attire : October 21, 2014-February 1, 2015|website=Metmuseuim.org|access-date=7 November 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The predominantly black palette of [[mourning]] dramatizes the evolution of period silhouettes and the increasing absorption of fashion ideals into this most codified of etiquettes,&quot; said Koda, &quot;The veiled widow could elicit sympathy as well as predatory male advances. As a woman of sexual experience without marital constraints, she was often imagined as a potential threat to the social order.&quot;

====Evolution of Victorian women's fashion====
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Fashion plate December 1844.jpg|Ladies' December Fashions (1844). Hand-coloured steel engraving from a women's magazine.
File:Thegalleryofhmscalcutta james tissot 1876.jpg|''[[The Gallery of HMS Calcutta]]'' by [[James Tissot]] (1876). [[Bustle]]s were fashionable in the 1870s and 1880s.
File:Mrs lillie langtry george frederic watts 1880.jpg|''Mrs. Lillie Langtry'' by [[George Frederic Watts]] (1880).
File:Five-women-on-queenslander-steps-r.jpg|Fashionable women in [[Queensland]], Australia around 1900.
&lt;/gallery&gt;


{{Short description|Irish writer (born 1963)}}
{{Use Irish English|date=August 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Infobox writer
| name               = Darach Ó Scolaí
| image              = Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG
| alt                = Man holding prize-winning book
| caption            = Ó Scolaí in 2019
| birth_name         = Darach Ó Scolaí
| birth_date         = {{Birth date and age|1963|df=y}}
| birth_place        = [[County Galway]], The Republic of Ireland
| death_date         = 
| death_place        = 
| occupation         = Writer, artist, publisher
| alma_mater         = [[University of Galway]]
| years_active       = 1998–present
| genre            = Novel, retelling, translation, play, screenplay, illustrated book for children and adults
| other_names        = 
| spouse             = 
| children           = 3
| awards             = [[Awards and Honors received by Darach Ó Scolaí|Awards and Honors]]
| signature          = 
| website            = 
}}[[File:Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG|thumb|Darach Ó Scolaí, holding ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (his translation of Robert Louis Stevenson's ''Treasure Island'')]]


== Darach Ó Scolaí ==
Darach Ó Scolaí (&lt;small&gt;Irish:&lt;/small&gt; [/ˈda.rax/ /oː/ /sˠkˠoː/l̪ˠəi/]; born 1963&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://portraidi.ie/en/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=20 October 2017|website=Portráidí (Portraits of Irish-Language Writers)|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;) is an Irish author who works in a number of genres, from novels, plays and screenplays to illustrated books for children and adults. He began his literary career in 1998 writing screenplays, stage plays, retellings and translations; he began to publish novels in 2008. Ó Scolaí is widely recognized as a leading figure in contemporary Irish literature, known as “one of the most important Irish language writers of his generation”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=2022|title=? Suil an Daill: Constant Tensions and Shifting Allegiances|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/suil-an-daill-constant-tensions-and-shifting-allegiances/|journal=Books Ireland}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &quot;one of the great Irish language novelists [duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge].&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt; His writing has been called “the high literature of the Irish language.”&lt;ref&gt;Ó Coimín, Maitiú. ''Nós'' 2 February 2018). Qtd. in &quot;Táin Bó Cuailnge.&quot; ''Leabhar Breac''. Retrieved 25 August 2025.&lt;/ref&gt;

Much of his fiction is based on a knowledge of traditional Irish tales and narrative practices as well as Irish history. He specializes in literary and [[wikipedia:Historical_fiction|historical fiction]], or as novelist Alan Titley says, Ó Scolaí’s “peak (for now), or at least his greatest imaginative interest, is the historical novel [tá an chuma air gurb é a bhuaic (go fóill), nó ar a laghad, a mhórspéis samhlaíochta, an t-úrscéal staire].”&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=Fall 2020|title=An Stíl Go Deo!: Soather Dharach Uí Scolaí (The style would be forever!: Worker Darach Ó Scolaí)|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27046090|journal=Comhar|volume=80, No. 10|pages=27|via=JSTOR}}&lt;/ref&gt; His retellings of old stories and tales from their original Middle and Early-Modern Irish into Modern Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]) are respected for their accessibility to students and language learners as well as for their artistry.

Ó Scolaí also regularly reviews books and lectures and writes on literature and culture. 

Beyond his writing, Ó Scolaí is a publisher and has co-produced a number of film, television shows and stage plays. 

== Life ==
Ó Scolaí was born in Dublin and raised in the Galway [[wikipedia:Gaeltacht#Galway Gaeltacht|Gaeltacht]] (Irish-speaking) regions of Cois Fharraige on the north shore of Galway Bay, in the Republic of Ireland, where he lives now with his wife and children in Lochán Beag (Indreabhán).&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=30 October 2024|title=Duais don úrscéal liteartha is fearr buaite ag Darach Ó Scolaí ag Oireachtas na Samhna|url=https://tuairisc.ie/duais-don-ursceal-liteartha-is-fearr-buaite-ag-darach-o-scolai-ag-oireachtas-na-samhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ní Scolaí|first=Aifric|date=2024|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://www.taiscecf.ie/ealaiontoiri?category=Scr%C3%ADbhneoir|journal=Taisce Chois Fharraige}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

He graduated the [[wikipedia:University_of_Galway|University of Galway]] (then University College Galway) with a B.A. in 1983.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.linkedin.com/in/darach-ó-scolaí-20026920/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|last=Ó Scolaí|first=Darach|date=August 2025|website=LinkedIn}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Writing and Publishing ===
Ó Scolaí writes in Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]), his native language, and lives in an area defined for the predominant presence of Irish as the vernacular language, the language spoken at home. Irish was the language of his parents' home and is the language of children as well. He is fluent in Irish and English and conversant in French. 

None of his works has been translated into English. 

==== Leabhar Breac ====
In 1995 Darach Ó Scolaí and his brother Caomhán Ó Scolaí — a [[wikipedia:Typography|typographer]] and designer — founded the publishing house Leabhar Breac at Indreabhán (Inverin), County Galway. Their father “Séamas Ó Scolaí was an editor at An Gúm and worked on the Irish-English dictionary team [bhí a n-athair Séamas Ó Scolaí ina eagarthóir sa Ghúm agus d’oibrigh sé ar fhoireann an fhoclóra Gaeilge-Béarla].”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/about-us/|title=About Us|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; Darach Ó Scolaí has been publisher and literary editor at Leabhar Breac since its founding. 

Named for [[wikipedia:An_Leabhar_Breac|An Leabhar Breac (The Speckled Book)]], Leabhar Breac publishing house has more than 140 books in print.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Leabhar Breac aims to publish Irish-language books that meet “a high literary and artistic standard.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Besides the content, Leabhar Breac is known for the typically &quot;superb [thar cionn]&quot; quality of the design and production of the &quot;physical book [leabhar fisiciúil].&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ní Mhuilneoir|first=Gráinne|date=30 July 2024|title=‘Bláthnaid’ – leabhar álainn i sraithín álainn faoi mhná|url=https://tuairisc.ie/blathnaid-leabhar-alainn-i-sraithin-alainn-faoi-mhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}&lt;/ref&gt; Its books regularly win awards for literary and artistic quality. Leabhar Breac also publishes translations for children and adults from various early versions of Irish as well as from French and English (and has published translations of books for young readers from Spanish, Catalan, and Italian as well).

Leabhar Breac prints its books in Ireland.

=== Stage and Screen ===

==== Rosg ====
In 1998 along with Ciarán Ó Cofaigh,&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.rosg.ie/en/about/History_6/|title=About Us: History|date=July 2025|website=Rosg|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ó Scolaí co-founded the film and television production company [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ Rosg] and was co-director until 2006. Rosg produced Ó ScolaÍ’s films ''Cosa Nite'' (1999), ''An Leabhar'' (2001) and ''Na Cloigne'' (2010). He left Rosg in 2006 to devote his time to other artistic activities. 

==== Ealaín ar Oileán ====
In 2004, along with Val Balance, Ó Scolaí co-founded the annual artists' symposium Ealaín ar Oileán (trans., Art on an Island). The Irish-language symposium was held annually in the Áras Éanna arts and cultural center on Inis Oírr ([[wikipedia:Inisheer|Inisheer]], the smallest of the [[wikipedia:Aran_Islands|Aran Islands]]) from 2004 to 2013. Ó Scolaí was its co-director from its founding&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darach_Ó_Scolaí.|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=3 February 2024|website=Vicipéid|access-date=1 July 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; until 2013.

Besides being its co-director, Ó Scolaí has taken part in this conference as an artist&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=16 January 2005|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050116163252/http://bliainiris.com/authors/darach_oscolai.html|journal=Bliainiris}}&lt;/ref&gt; and writer&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|title=The Conference|date=7 September 2013|website=Ealaín ar Oileán|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130907083744/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|archive-date=7 September 2013|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

==== Salamandar ====
In 2006 Ó Scolaí founded the stage production company Salamandar and directed his own play ''An Braon Aníos''. His plays ''An tSeanbhróg'' (2009) and ''Craos'' (2008) were also produced by Salamandar.&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== Works ==

=== Novels ===
* [[wikipedia:An_Cléireach|''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'')]], Leabhar Breac, 2007. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2007; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2008, and &quot;named as ‘the best novel since the turn of the Century’ by Comhar.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-cleireach/|title=An Cléireach - Leabhar Breac - Irish language novel|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-24}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Na Comharthaí'' (trans., ''The Signs''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.
* ''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2019.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/suil-an-daill/|title=Súil an Daill|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Bódléar'', Leabhar Breac, 2024. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2024&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2025; featured in the 2025 Listen-Up Irish Summer Challenge for students of the Irish language.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://connachttribune.ie/novel-approach-helps-people-learn-irish-in-a-creative-way/|title=Novel approach helps people learn Irish in a creative way|last=Murphy|first=Judy|date=3 October 2025|work=Connaught Tribune|access-date=24 October 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Retellings, Translations and Editions ===
The retellings and translations are into modern Irish.

* ''Feis Tigh Chonáin'' (trans., ''The Feast of Conán's House''), Leabhar Breac, 2000; a retelling of a 15&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;-century tale from the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/feis-tigh-chonain/|title=Feis Tigh Chonáin|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach'' (trans., ''The Narrow-Striped Kern''), Leabhar Breac, 2002; a retelling from c. 1500, also illustrated by Darach Ó ScolaÍ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-ceithearnach-caolriabhach/|title=An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), Leabhar Breac, 2017, both a modern edition of an 11th-century epic and an annotated edition.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/tain-bo-cuailnge-2-2/|title=Táin Bó Cuailnge|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;  &quot;''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' won the Aodán Mac Poilín Memorial Prize 2017.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt;
* ''Deirdre'', Leabhar Breac, 2023, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/deirdre/|title=Deirdre|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; Part of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]], ''Deirdre'' is a retelling  of the story of possibly the most widely known Irish figure from the early tales and sagas.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology|last=MacKillop|first=James|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=9780198609674|pages=181}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Bláthnaid'', Leabhar Breac, 2024, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova; “one of the great stories of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]].”&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;
* ''Sadhbh,'' Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers, illustrated by Alé Mercado; a retelling of the medieval tale ''Ceasacht Inghine Ghuile (''trans., ''The Complaint of Guile's Daughter'').&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/tales-of-wonder/|title=Tales of Wonder|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Eoghan Béal'', Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers illustrated by Alé Mercado&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;; a retelling of the medieval tale ''[https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caithr%C3%A9im_Cellaig Cathréim Ceallaigh]'' from ''The Yellow Book of Leacan.''&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;

=== For Young Readers ===
Ó Scolaí has written illustrated books for young readers (8–10 years old) in two series, the Fionn Series and the Scéalta Staire series, and translated a large number of classics and popular books for children of all ages. The number of these written and translated works suggests a commitment to children and their literacy in Irish. 

The Fionn Series “is a retelling ... of the great legends of the Fianna for the young Irish readers of today.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/doiteoir-na-samhna/|title=Dóiteoir na Samhna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[wikipedia:The_Boyhood_Deeds_of_Fionn|Macgnímartha Finn (The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn)]] is a medieval story in the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]].

* ''An Bradán Feasa'' (trans., ''The Salmon of Knowledge''), Leabhar Breac, 2010, “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/an-bradan-feasa/|title=An Bradán Feasa|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Dóiteoir na Samhna'' (trans., ''The Halloween Burner''), 2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
* ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' (trans., ''The Churl in the Dun Coat''), 2011.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/|title=Bodach an Chóta Lachna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Scéalta Staire (Historical Stories) series&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;

* ''Mánas Ó Dónaill'', 2000.
* ''Seán Ó Néill'', Leabhar Breac, 2000.
* ''Gráinne Mhaol Ní Mháille'', Leabhar Breac, 2003.
* ''Tadhg Dall Ó hUiginn'', Leabhar Breac, 2003.

==== Translations ====

* Robert Louis Stevenson, ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (trans. of ''Treasure Island''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-06-19|title=Oireachtas na Gaeilge|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge&amp;oldid=1296394643|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Robert Louis Stevenson, ''An Fuadach'' (trans. of ''Kidnapped''), Leabhar Breac, 2016.
* Clement Clarke Moore, ''Cuairt San Nioclás'' (trans. of ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or &quot;'Twas the Night Before Christmas&quot;), Leabhar Breac, 2022.
'''''The Corto Maltese Graphic Novels'''''

Written in Italian by Hugo Pratt and translated by Ó Scolaí, both adults and teenagers read this series of Italian adventure graphic novels.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-07-01|title=Corto Maltese|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corto_Maltese&amp;oldid=1298285365|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ó Scolaí's '''translation of ''Corto Maltese''''' was listed in 2017 among &quot;The 30 Irish books that Irish people love.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=09/06/2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil [The 30 Irish books that Irish people love]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Port na Farraige Goirt'', Leabhar Breac, 2013.
* Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: The Golden House in Samarkand'', 2014.
* Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Na Liopard-Fhir ó Rufiji'' (trans. of ''Corto: The Leopard Men of Rufiji''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.
* Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: In Ainm Dé Uilthrócairigh'' (trans. of ''Corto: In the Name of God All-Merciful''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.
* Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Tóraíocht Eile'' (trans. of ''Corto: Another Quest''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.
* Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Sa tSibéir'' (trans. of ''Corto: In Siberia''), Leabhar Breac, 2016.
'''''Other Translations for Children'''''

Ó Scolaí has translated into Irish six books from the ''Le Pavillon Noir'' (trans., ''Jolly Roger'') series by Alain Surget; four books from the ''Catalan First Steps'' series by Enric Lluch Girbés and the ''Caitlín &amp; Cormac'' series by Joan Carles; three books from the ''Louisette le Taupe'' series by Bruno Heitz, and three books from the ''Loup'' series by Orianne Lallemand.

=== Plays and Screenplays ===

==== Stage Plays ====
Ó Scolaí was writer and director of the original productions of two plays in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (trans., ''Three Drops'') trilogy; ''Coinneáil Orainn'' was directed by Darach Mac Con Iomaire and staged by An Taibhdhearc. All three plays have been published in book form by Leabhar Breac.

* ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32553|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; The first play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. [[wikipedia:Taibhdhearc_na_Gaillimhe|An Taibhdhearc]], the national Irish-language theatre of Ireland, toured the country in 2005 with ''Coinneáil Orainn''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/coinneail-orainn/|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; Walter Macken Prize, 2005; BBC Stewart Parker Award, 2006.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/person/darach-scola|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Branwen'', 2006, by Darach Ó Scolaí and Ifor ap Glyn, in Irish, Welsh and English, co-produced by Project Arts Centre and Llwyfan Gogledd Cymru, toured the Republic of Ireland and Wales.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32418|title=Branwen|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''An Braon'' Aníos (trans., ''Rising Damp''), 2006, directed by Ó Scolaí.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32461|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; The second play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. “The Salamandar company toured the country in 2006-07 with this play, and Salamandar also produced a radio version of the play for RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta in 2009.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/an-braon-anios/|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Craos'' (trans., ''Gluttony''), 2008, directed by Ó Scolaí.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32867|title=Craos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; The third play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy, it toured to Cork and Belfast.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt; A review of the 2008 Salamander performance in the ''Irish Times'' says, “a humorous play which offers plenty to think about, fine acting, and sparklingly witty dialogue.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/craos-2/|title=Craos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''A+E'', 2008, by Ríonach Ní Néill and Darach Ó Scolaí, &quot;dance and music drama,&quot; co-produced by Ciotóg and Salamandar.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32962|title=A+E|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''An tSeanbhróg'' (trans., ''The Old Shoe''), 2009, produced by Salamander&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=33042|title=An tSeanbhróg|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; and staged in the Axis Arts Centre, Dublin, and the Letterkenny Arts Centre.
* '''In ''Mhuir Fhíondorcha/The Wine-Dark Sea: The Homer Project'', Ó Scolaí's translation of Homer's Cyclops story, performed at the 2019 IMRAM festival'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/imram-a-festival-celebrating-the-irish-language-1.4047610|title=Imram: a festival celebrating the Irish language. Liam Carson reveals the myths and legends appearing in this year’s programme|last=Carson|first=Liam|date=11 October 2019|work=The Irish Times|access-date=15 October 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Screenplays ====

* ''Cosa Nite'' (trans., ''Washed Feet''), short film, 1998 (dir. Dearbhla Walsh, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg); &quot;a prose version of ''Cosa Nite'' was published (Rosg 2000).&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt; Nominated for an Irish Film and Television Award.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=Cosa Nite (Short 1998) - Awards - IMDb|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0191917/awards/|accessdate=2025-08-25|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Na Glúnta'' (trans., ''The Generations''), 2001&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.iftn.ie/production/production_companies/production_sub/feature/?act1=record&amp;aid=70&amp;rid=3917&amp;tpl=filmography_dets&amp;only=1&amp;force=1|title=Na Glúnta {{!}} The Irish Film &amp; Television Network|website=www.iftn.ie|access-date=2025-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;, co-directors Ciarán Ó Cofaigh &amp; Darach Ó Scolaí, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg.
* ''An Leabhar'' (trans., ''The Book''), short film, 2000, (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg) Rosg, 2000.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=An Leabhar|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0963767/|publisher=Bord Scannán na hÉireann / The Irish Film Board, ROSG|accessdate=2025-08-25|first=Robert|last=Quinn|others=Colm O&amp;apos;Maonlai, Peadar O&amp;apos;Treasaigh, Diarmuid Mac an Adhastair}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Na Cloigne'' [trans., The Heads], 3-episide series, 2010 (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg), TG4.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1607924/|title=Na cloigne|date=2010|website=IMDb|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Nonfiction ===
Ó Scolaí's essays and lectures are published and his interviews are broadcast regularly, making for a large body of nonfiction critical and analytical work. Here are a few, almost all published in [https://comhar.ie/iris/scribhneoiri/darach-o-scolai/ Comhar]:

* “Ceol Ciúin na nÉagmaise” (trans., “The Silent Music of Absence ['''the Fall?''']”), an essay on the 2014 Nobel Prize winner for literature, [[wikipedia:Patrick_Modiano|Patrick Modiano]], ''Comhar'', December 2014.
* The Ó Cadhain Lecture: [https://leachtaiuichadhain.clo.ie/leachtai/2014 “Cuimhne agus Díchuimhne (trans., “Memory &amp; Forgetfulness&quot;]), 2014.
* “Rithim agus Réim” (&quot;Rhythm and Register&quot;), a public lecture in the University College Dublin lecture series “Ó Thrácht go Twitter” (trans., &quot;From Talk to Twitter&quot;), 2014.
* Review of Pádraig Ó Cíobháin’s ''Dréachta Chrích Fodla'', '''Comhar?, ??'''.
* “Na Geilt i mBun an Tí” (trans., &quot;The Madmen in Charge&quot;), a talk at the Merriman Winter School, Comhar April 2012.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://darachoscolai.ie/beathaisneis.html|title=Darach Ó Scolaí: Beathaisnéis|website=darachoscolai.ie|access-date=2025-09-26}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* The EFACIS podcast: Síle Ní Choincheannain talks to Darach Ó Scolaí about the historical novel.

== Critical Reception ==
Ó Scolaí’s style has been called “crisp and elegant, and rich in language while being highly readable,”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Heussaf|first=Anna|date=Summer 2025|title=Bláthnaid—A tale of love, violence and sorcery retold for readers today|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/blathnaid-a-tale-of-love-violence-and-sorcery/|journal=Books Ireland}}&lt;/ref&gt; with “an unsurpassed richness and precision of language.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ó Cróinín|first=Breandán|date=Summer 2025|title=unknown|journal=The Limerick Leader}}&lt;/ref&gt; “Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned” is how Éilis Ní Dhuibhne described his writing.&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt;   

=== Original Works ===
Ó Scolaí’s first novel, the 2007 ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') won two prizes and was described as “one of the great historical novels in the Irish language and among the best books written in the language since the beginning of this century.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt; Novelist Alan Titley says, “In ''An Cléireach'' Ó Scolaí creates the Ireland of war in the 17th century more fully than any other Irish writer on the subject of war since ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Ó Thuairisc around 1798 [In ''An Cléireach'' cruthaíonn Ó Scolaí Éire an chogaidh san 17ú haois níos iomláine ná mar a dhein aon scríbhneoir Gaeilge eile ar ábhar cogaidh ó ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Uí Thuairisc timpeall ar 1798].”&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|25, Col. 1a}} Not all the reviews of this first novel were so positive, however; Proinsias O' Drisceoil says for the Irish Times says,&lt;blockquote&gt;This then is a novel in search of a plot, a story that attempts to attain a significance that eludes it.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/a-disaffected-clerk-in-the-confederates-1.943070|title=A disaffected clerk in the confederates|last=O' Drisceoil|first=Proinsias|date=5 July 2008|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; 

In the ''Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction'' Pádraig Ó Siadhail analyzes rather than reviews ''An Cléireach'': &lt;blockquote&gt;In ''An Cléireach'', Ó Scolaí revisits the trauma of Cromwellian Ireland. The primary narrative device is once again the first-hand account, in this case by Tadhg Ó Dúbháin, a clerk and quartermaster in the Confederate Army in 1650. We sample the hardships, the friendships, the tensions, the rivalries, and the petty jealousies amongst comrades in arms, including remnants of the Gaelic literary class, as the Confederate soldiers, increasingly a rabble more than a cohesive unit, retreat in advance of Cromwell’s forces. ''An Cléireach'' concludes with the narrator and his family in exile in continental Europe. But along the retreat route, and central to the novel, members of the Confederate army camp, rest up, and tell versions of a story about the keeper of the treasured manuscript &quot;Saltair an Easpaig&quot; (The Bishop’s Psalter). Their versions raise issues about memory construction, the limitations of individual perspectives, personal agendas, and how minor changes in the telling of a story can alter our understanding of history, Thus, ''An Cléireach'' complements ''Fontenoy'' in moving beyond more realistic recreation of a historical event or period to interrogate the notion of history as construct.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction|last=Ó Siadhail|first=Pádraig|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2020|isbn=9780198754893|editor-last=Harte|editor-first=Liam|pages=598–99|chapter=Contemporary Irish Fiction}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt;

Of ''Súil an Daill,'' in ''Nós'', Cathal Seoighe says, &quot;The book deserves a significant place among the collection of high-quality books published in recent years that would make you feel sorry for someone who does not speak Irish [Tá áit shuntasach ag dul don leabhar i measc an chnuasaigh leabhair ar ardchaighdeán a foilsíodh le roinnt blianta anuas a d’fhágfadh trua agat don té atá gan Ghaeilge].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Seoighe|first=Cathal|date=09/26/2022|title=‘Dar leathmhagairle an diabhail, is leabhar den scoth é seo!’ ['According to the devil’s half-wit, this is a great book!’]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/dar-leathmhagairle-an-diabhail-is-leabhar-den-scoth-e-seo/|journal=Nós}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''Bódléar'', Ó Scolaí's most recent book, is a “beautiful novel. There is magic and craftsmanship in it. A small miracle of a book and it is highly recommended.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/bodlear-mioruilt-bheag-de-leabhar/|title=Bódléar: Míorúilt bheag de leabhar (Bódléar: A Small Miracle of a Book)|last=Ní Ghairbhí|first=Róisín|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; Éilis Ní Dhuibhne in the ''Irish Times'' says,&lt;blockquote&gt;what a gem! An affectionately gentle satire of the Irish poetic scene during one creatively fluid 19th-century year, the story focuses on a Maigue poet and schoolteacher who goes on a trip to France and returns with camembert, a cafetiere, ‘Fleurs du Mal’, and a mission to convert the local traditionalists to la modernité. Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned, it’s absolutely delightful!&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ní Dhuibhne|first=Éilis|date=30 June 2025|title=Éilís Ní Dhuibhne on the best Irish language books of 2025 so far:
Including a history of the Gaeltacht Civil Rights Movements, a gem of a novel by Darach Ó Scolaí and Joe McHugh’s entertaining account of learning Irish|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/review/2025/06/30/eilis-ni-dhuibhne-on-the-best-irish-language-books-of-2025-so-far/|journal=The Irish Times|pages=22}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Retellings and Translations ===

==== ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' ====
''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' [''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''] is a modern edition of an 11th-century epic into modern Irish.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Gearóid Denvir reviewed ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'':&lt;blockquote&gt;Darach Ó Scolaí has ​​achieved a feat in this challenging reworking. He has found a high level of the Irish language to tell his story – as he has done before in his groundbreaking novel An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) and in his other prose works. This book is a decoration of the language, literature and culture of the Irish language, following the path of the old storytellers and writers and presenting material from the tradition to his own generation according to the understandings of his own time. The book will be a classic that will be of great interest to all readers of the Irish language, both ordinary readers, students, scholars and writers, and there should be a copy in every home in the country. [Tá éacht déanta ag Darach Ó Scolaí san athleagan dúshlánach seo. Tá réim ard den teanga Ghaeilge aimsithe aige lena scéal a inseacht – mar a rinne sé cheana ina úrscéal ceannródaíoch An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) agus i saothair eile phróis dá chuid. Is maisiú ar an teanga agus ar litríocht agus cultúr na Gaeilge an leabhar seo a leanas conair na seanscéalaithe agus na seanscríobhaithe agus ábhar de chuid an traidisiúin á chur i láthair a ghlúine féin aige de réir thuiscintí a linne féin. Clasaic a bheas sa leabhar a gcuirfidh léitheoirí uilig na Gaeilge, idir ghnáthléitheoirí, mhic léinn, scoláirí agus scríbhneoirí spéis thar na bearta ann, agus ba cheart cóip a bheith i chuile theach sa tír.]&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Denvir|first=Gearóid|date=April 2018|title=Táin Bó Cuailgne|url=https://comhar.ie/iris/78/4/leirmheas/|journal=Comhar|via=JSTOR}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt;Cathal Poirtéir says, &quot;The freshness and richness of Ó Scolaí’s version are a joy …. The author delights us with the linguistic and stylistic richness of the ancient epic in a modern-Irish version that reflects the original’s spirit and language.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=May/June 2018|title=Leabhair Idir Lámha|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26564180|journal=Books Ireland|pages=46–47|via=JSTOR}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|47}} Novelist and academic Alan Titley calls Ó Scolaí's &quot;a wonderful gutsy telling&quot; of ''Táin Bó Cuailnge''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/2023/03/11/the-tain-retold-maeve-and-ailills-spat-could-be-out-of-a-soap-opera/|title=The Táin retold: ‘Maeve and Ailill’s spat could be out of a soap opera’|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=11 March 2023|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== ''Deirdre'' ====

Marie Whelton, in &quot;Léann Teanga&quot; (&quot;Language Studies&quot;), in the 2024 ''An Reiviú'' says,&lt;blockquote&gt;this version [of ''Deirdre''] by Darach Ó Scolaí succeeds in skillfully capturing and portraying the complexity of gender and power issues in the ‘Deirdre’ tradition [éiríonn leis an leagan seo le Darach Ó Scolaí castacht cheisteanna na hinscne agus na cumhachta i dtraidisiún scéal Dheirdre a ghabháil agus a léiriú go sciliúil]. … There is no doubt that this new version greatly contributes to the legacy of the story and that it revives that legacy thoughtfully and artistically [Níl amhras faoi ach go gcuireann an leagan úr seo go mór le hoidhreacht an scéil agus go ndéanann sé an oidhreacht sin a athbheochan go tuisceanach agus go healaíonta.].&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.tara.tcd.ie/tara8/server/api/core/bitstreams/3c20175a-7631-44b2-8b0f-f454edd712b4/content|title=An Artistic Retelling of Deirdre's Tale and the Defeat of Conor Review of Deirdre or the Ship of Mac Uisnigh by Darach Ó Scolaí [Athinsint Ealaíonta ar Oidhe Dheirdre agus ar Ansmacht Chonchúir Léirmheas ar Deirdre nó Loingeas Mhac Uisnigh le Darach Ó Scolaí]|last=Whelton|first=Marie|date=2024|website=The Review [An Reiviú], Language Studies [Léann Teanga]|access-date=25 September 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
=== Works for Young Readers ===
Meadhbh Ní Eadhra said of ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' that it was &quot;Beautiful Irish, but easy to understand for young readers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ní Eadhra, Meadhbh. In ''Gaelscéal'', qtd. in &quot;Bodach an Chóta Lachna&quot; https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Awards and Honors ==
Ó Scolaí's works are regularly nominated and make the short list for prizes, an honor in itself, but they are generally not listed here unless they are named as the first-place winner in their category.

=== Oireachtas Prize ===
The Oireachtas Prize is the literary prize awarded by [[wikipedia:Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge|Oireachtas na Gaeilge]], the annual arts festival dedicated to Irish language, arts and culture. Darach Ó Scolaí has won the Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction three times, once for ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') in 2007, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'') in 2021 and for ''Bódléar'' in 2024.

* 2007, for ''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'') — “(a special prize commemorating the 400th anniversary of the foundation of Coláiste na nGael in Louvain, awarded under the auspices of the Franciscan Province of Ireland). The prize of €10,000 was the largest prize ever awarded to an Irish language novel [(duais speisialta chomórtha 400 bliain bhunú Choláiste na nGael i Lobháin a bronnadh faoi urraíocht Phroibhinse Phroinsiasach na hÉireann). Ba é an duais €10,000 sin an duais ba mhó a bronnadh riamh ar úrscéal Gaeilge].”&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;
* 2021, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'')
* 2024, for ''Bódléar''

=== Ó Shúilleabháin Award, Irish language “Book of the Year” ===
The first prize of this award includes €5,000 to the publisher and €2,500 to the author of the winning work.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=15 August 2023|title=20 saothar san iomaíocht do ‘Leabhair Ghaeilge na Bliana 2023’|url=https://tuairisc.ie/20-saothar-san-iomaiocht-do-leabhair-ghaeilge-na-bliana-2023/|journal=Tuairisc}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'').&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|title=Eagrán / Edition 19 - 04 11 2008|date=4/11/2008|website=Internet Archive|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525011340/http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|archive-date=25 May 2013|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'', 2018.
* ''Bódléar'', 2025.

==== De Bhaldraithe Award ====
The Gradam de Bhaldraithe is awarded to the best work in translation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;

* ''Cuairt San Nioclás,'' a translation of Clement Clarke Moore's ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or &quot;'Twas the Night Before Christmas.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;

==== Other ====

* Walter Macken Prize, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005
* Bháiteir Uí Mhaicín Memorial Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/gaeilge/tuarascail/duais-oireachtais-1.501571|title=Oireachtas Prize: Over €50,000 was awarded to writers in the Oireachtas Literary Competitions at an event in Dublin last night. Winners… [Duais Oireachtais: Bronnadh breis agus €50,000 ar scríbhneoirí i gComórtais Liteartha an Oireachtais ar ócáid i mBaile Átha Cliath aréir. Bhuaigh…]|work=5 October 2005|access-date=15 October 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* BBC Stewart Parker Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2006
* The Aodán Mac Póilín Commemorative Prize, for ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), 2017

== External Links ==

* Leabhar Breac website: https://leabharbreac.com/en/
* Leabhar Breac Facebook pages:
* Rosg website: [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ &lt;nowiki&gt;http://ww&lt;/nowiki&gt;w.rosg.ie/en/]
* Art on the Island (Ealaín ar Oileán) website, archived at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20130601000520/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ 31 March 2012, 1 June 2013 and 8 January 2014

* Darach Ó Scolaí's website Archived 25 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20150925103456/http://darachoscolai.ie/
* Youtube video of [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OlP2AmSBzXc Breandán Ó Cróinin introducing Deirdre at the book launch] in the pub Tigh Mholly (Molly’s House).

== Primordial Ooze ==

* Known for his sensitivity to language and voices.
* Finish scanning through JSTOR
* Scan through Irish Times, 56 hits
* Check Goodreads
* Check YouTube (In the spring of 2013, the arts programme Imeall interviewed the author on TG4.)
* Check both Wikipedias for pages on the origins of the retold tales (like Deirdre) and link to this article
* Propose link from University of Galway page once Darach’s is up
* Write Irish National Biography (&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.dib.ie&lt;/nowiki&gt;) to propose an article about Darach once the Wikip article is done? See what they say.
* Link to Ó Scolaí from the Wikipedia
* Make sure links '''to''' Wikipedia in the actual encyclopedia work right

=== Not Placed Yet ===

* &quot;So here are the books that Irish people love the most! [Mar sin seo iad na leabhair is gile leis na Gaeil!]&quot; — &quot;32. An Cléireach – Darach Ó Scolaí (2)&quot; [18 books got 2 votes, and then they're alphabetized by author's last name, so the 32 of 34 doesn't signify the specificity it seems to]&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=9 June 2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil. [The 30 best Irish books for Irish people]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* &quot;Below is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers.Here is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers [Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí.Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí].&quot; &quot;Corto Maltese – Hugo Pratt (aistrithe ag Darach Ó Scolaí)&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;
* &quot;Ceann eile de bhuaicphointí na hÉigse a bheidh sa seisiún le Darach Ó Scolaí, duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge, agus duine de chomhbhunaitheoirí teach foilsitheoireachta Leabhar Breac. [Another highlight of the Éigse will be the session with Darach Ó Scolaí, one of the great Irish language novelists, and one of the co-founders of the publishing house Leabhar Breac.]&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Nós|date=4 May 2023|title=Éigse na Bruiséile le filleadh i mí na Bealtaine. [Éigse na Bruséile to return in May]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/eigse-na-bruiseile-le-filleadh-i-mi-na-bealtaine/|journal=Nós}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Things Taken Out for Now ===
“’The play is a comedy about language, lies, bureaucracy and Gaeltacht grants, in the tradition of Myles na Gcopaleen,’ according to Norma-Jean Kenny in the ''Galway Advertizer'', ‘in which the author comments and criticizes the institutions of the Irish language in Ireland without ceasing.’&quot;

Supposedly a quotation by Gearóid Denvir reviewing ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'' (but I don't find it in the article):

This book has long been needed by Irish language readers and there is no doubt that it will become a classic in time and surpass Thomas Kinsella’s English version. This version remains faithful to the language of the original while at the same time finding an appropriate language in today’s Irish. Ó Scolaí masterfully overcomes the difficulties of the original’s rhetorical difficulties and the versions of the original poetic texts are extremely effective.[supposedly &lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;]

“The biggest prize ever awarded for a novel in Irish was presented at a special ceremony in the National Concert Hall in Dublin, today (Thursday, 4 October 2007). Darach Ó Scolaí, writer, artist &amp; playwright from Casla, Co. Galway, was awarded €10,000 for his literary novel, ‘An Ardscoil’. This work, under the new title ‘An Cléireach’, will be launched at Oireachtas na Samhna in Westport in November. This is the first novel from his pen, a story set in the late seventeenth century. This competition was sponsored by the Franciscan Province of Ireland.” (archive, Oireachtas na Gaeilge site, 04 October, 2007)

''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. number 2 in ''Comhar'' literary magazine’s list of best books of 2021. '''{6}.'''

*William Shakespeare, ''Romeo agus Juliet'' (trans. of ''Romeo and Juliet''), Leabhar Breac, 2016.
*Jonathan Swift, ''Camchuairt Ghuilivéir'' (trans. of ''Gulliver's Travels''), Leabhar Breac, 2016.

*Hugo Pratt, ''Corto Maltese''


'''''Flag of Bones (Bratach na gCnámh) Series'''''

Leabhar Breac published the Bratach na gCnámh series of books for young readers. Written in French by Alain Surget, illustrated by Annette Marnat and translated by Darach Ó Scolaí, this series uses the history of Caribbean Sea pirates&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/alain-surget/|title=Alain Surget Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-09-30}}&lt;/ref&gt;:

*Alain Surget, ''Éalú as Páras'' (''Escape from Paris''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011.
* Alain Surget, ''Oilean na Siorcanna'' (''Shark Island''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011.
* Alain Surget, ''Long na dTaibhsi'' (''Ship of the Ghosts''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011.
* Alain Surget, ''San Ochtapas Dubh'' (''In the Black Octopus''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013.
* Alain Surget, ''San Ionsai ar Veracruz'' (''The Attack on Veracruz''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013.
'''''For &quot;First Readers&quot; (children to 6 years old or so)'''''

These books were written originally in Catalan by Spanish author Enric Lluch Girbés and translated into Irish by Ó ScolaÍ:
*Enric Lluch, ''Ag Péinteáil an Tí'' (''Painting the House''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017.
*Enric Lluch, ''An Colúr Bacach'' (''The Lazy Dove''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017.
*Enric Lluch, ''An Phluais'' (''The Cave''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017.
*Enric Lluch, ''Madra Dhaideo'' (''Grandpa's Dog''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017.
*Enric Lluch, ''Fiacail Mháire'' (''Mary's Tooth''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017.
'''''Bruno Heitz'''''

Leabhar Breac published a series of 3 Heitz books for small children. Published originally in French, this series of three comic books is about a blind mole named Cáitín Chaoch in Irish (and ''Louisette la taupe'' in French).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/bruno-heitz-en/|title=Bruno Heitz Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ó Scolaí translated these:

*Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Práinneach'' (''Urgent''), Leabhar Breac, 2020
*Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Preab san Aer'' (''Bounce in the Air''), Leabhar Breac, 2020.

'''''Books for Toddlers'''''

Leabhar Breac has published 14 books written by French author Orianne Lallemand's and illustrated by Eleonore Thuillier, about Lallemmand's popular character Loup, Wolf. These are translated by Ó Scolaí:
*Orianne Lallemand, ''An Mac Tire a Raibh Faitios an Domhain Air'' (trans. of ''The Son Who Saw the World in His Eyes''), Eleonore Thuillier  Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018.
*Orianne Lallemand, ''Macan agus an Goban'' (trans. of ''Macan and the Goblin''), Eleonore Thuillier (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018.
* Orianne Lallemand, ''A Mac Tíre a Chuaigh go Tóin na Farraige'' (trans. of ''The Wolf Who Went to the Bottom of the Sea''), Éléanore Thuillier  (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2019.
'''''Board Books (for babies)'''''

J. C. (Joan Carles) Girbés Aparisi is a Catalan author and editor. These books were written in Catalan and translated by Ó Scolai.
*J. C. Girbés, ''An Phicnic'' (''The Picnic''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013.
* J. C. Girbés, ''An Chóisir'' (''The Party''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013.
*J. C. Girbés, ''Lá Mór Fada'' (''A Long Day''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014.
*J. C. Girbés, ''Tabhair Leat do Leabhar'' (''Bring Your Book''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014.

==== Gradam Réics Carló ====
The Réics Carló prize is awarded for the best book in the Irish language for young readers. It is named for one of the characters of 20th-century writer [[wikipedia:Cathal_Ó_Sándair|Cathal Ó Sándair (Charles Saunders)]].

* ''An Bradán Feasa'' was “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;

== References ==
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      <text bytes="127901" sha1="eamb0pn4f4ls1j16rmrg6o8bai3vzsz" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Dress worn by Queen Victoria at her wedding to Prince Albert in 1840}}
= Sandbox =
Page to draft revisions for Wikipedia articles.

For Gwladys Robinson, see Gwladys Lowther Robinson, [[Social Victorians/People/Ripon|Marchioness of Ripon]] and, earlier, [[Social Victorians/People/Lowther|Countess of Lonsdale]]
==References==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:1840 works]]
[[Category:Royal wedding dresses|Victoria Queen]]
[[Category:1840s fashion]]
[[Category:British royal attire]]
[[Category:Dresses in the Royal Collection of the United Kingdom|Victoria, Wedding]]
[[Category:Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria]]

= Victorian fashion =
'''Victorian fashion''' consists of the various fashions and trends in [[Culture of the United Kingdom|British culture]] that emerged and developed in the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] and the [[British Empire]] throughout the [[Victorian era]], roughly from the 1830s through the 1890s. The period saw many changes in fashion, including changes in styles, fashion technology and the methods of distribution. Various movements in architecture, literature, and the [[decorative arts|decorative]] and [[visual arts]] as well as a changing perception of [[gender roles]] also influenced fashion.

Under [[Queen Victoria]]'s reign, England enjoyed a period of growth along with technological advancement. [[Mass production]] of sewing machines in the 1850s as well as the advent of synthetic dyes introduced major changes in fashion.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Culture of Fashion|last=Breward|first=Christopher|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=1995|pages=145–180}}&lt;/ref&gt; Clothing could be made more quickly and cheaply. Fashion made more extreme and more rapid changes than it had in prior centuries.

Advancement in printing and proliferation of fashion magazines allowed the masses to participate in the evolving trends of high fashion, opening the market of mass consumption and advertising. By 1905, clothing was increasingly factory made and often sold in large, fixed-price department stores, spurring an age of consumerism with the rising middle classes, who benefited from the [[Industrial Revolution|industrial revolution]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

==Women's fashions==
[[File:Fashions.jpg|thumb|upright|Illustration depicting fashions throughout the 19th century]]During the [[Victorian era|Victorian Era]], women generally inhabited the private, domestic sphere.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/gender-roles-in-the-19th-century|title=Gender roles in the 19th century|website=The British Library|access-date=2016-10-21|archive-date=8 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708075142/https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/gender-roles-in-the-19th-century|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Unlike in earlier centuries when women labored with their husbands and brothers or worked in family businesses, during the nineteenth century, gender roles became more rigidly defined. Farm labourers was no longer in such a high demand after the [[Industrial Revolution]], and women were more likely to perform domestic work or, if married, give up paid work entirely. Dress reflected these new lifestyles, and was, for the middle and upper classes, less utilitarian.&lt;p&gt;

Clothes were seen as an expression of women's place in society&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Victorian and Edwardian Fashion - A Photographic Survey|last=Gernsheim|first=Alison|publisher=Dover Publications Inc.|year=1963|location=New York|pages=26}}&lt;/ref&gt; and were differentiated by [[social class]]. Most women wore a  [[corset]] over a [[chemise]], followed by a gown or [[skirt]] paired with a [[bodice]], [[blouse]], or [[chemisette]]. The shape of the skirt would be supported by layers of petticoats or, later in the period, structured support such as cage crinolines or bustles. The clothing of [[Upper class|upper-class women]], who generally did not do paid labor, was often elaborately decorated with more layers and [[Trim (sewing)|trims]]. [[Middle class|Middle-class women]] wore less complex dress styles with less expensive trim. [[Working class|Working-class]] clothing was simpler still, with less expensive fabric, fewer layers still and little trim. Including the undergarments, the amount of fabric in women's clothing made it much heavier and the construction made it much more restrictive than ours, especially in the waist (due to the boning in the corset) and the shoulders (due to the popularity of dropped shoulder seams). The amount, quality and type of fabric were displays of wealth and status.&lt;p&gt;

Throughout the 19th century, journalism targeting women increased enormously and addressed an increasingly more class-diverse audience. According to the ''Dictionary of Nineteenth-Century Journalism'',&lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;p&gt;

The closely allied fashion and women's journals can be divided into three phases: titles such as the ''Lady's Magazine'' continued eighteenth-century models, addressing readers as &quot;ladies&quot; and catering to a leisured, fashionable elite; a more domesticated format by the 1840s, targeting middle-class women with instructive and entertaining content including dressmaking and etiquette articles ...; finally, from the 1870s, a livelier, more engaging style of fashion reporting influenced by the New Journalism was integrated with an increased amount of imagery, including better quality fashion plates ....&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Dictionary of Nineteenth-Century Journalism In Great Britain and Ireland|last=Beetham|first=Margaret Rachel|last2=A|first2=R|publisher=Academia Press and the British Library|year=2009|editor-last=Brake|editor-first=Laurel, and Marysa Demoor|location=Gent|pages=215a–c|chapter=Fashion Journals}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;By the end of the century, women's periodicals were including patterns for dressmaking in their pages, reflecting the presence of middle- and working-class readers as well as technological change like sewing machines for home use and mass-produced fabrics and trim.[[File:1837 Dress.jpg|alt=This dress features a low waistline, and the bodice is worn over the hips to further emphasise the silhouette|thumb|upright|An undressed woman In 1837, featuring a fashionable hairstyle, busked corset, and layers of petticoats.]]It is important not to oversimplify the fashion of the Victorian age. The rate of change in fashion accelerated in the 19th century to the point that styles were distinctly different from one decade to the next (see &quot;When Was That Dress in Fashion?&quot;, above right). The styles of Elizabethan England, in contrast, changed much less extremely over the course of a century.

The most important characteristics for the analysis of 19th-century fashion include silhouette or line, corsets or stays, the neckline and the sleeves. The silhouette in particular but also the color, the variety of available fabrics and the distribution of information and opinion about fashion were the result of [[Social Victorians/People/Gwladys Robinson#Technological advancement|technological changes]] made throughout the century, but centering in the 1850s.[[File:The Engageants sleeves.jpg|thumb|Engageants, worn to fill open sleeves, were made of light fabrics like lace, linen, lawn or cambric.]]

* '''Silhouette''': Silhouette changed over time supported by the evolution of the foundation garments. In fact the line or silhouette of garments changed about every ten years. Just as outer clothing changed, foundation garments were also modified to give the wearer a different silhouette. Over the course of the century most Europeans and some in their colonies wore the same kinds of undergarments and similar outer garments. For example, wide skirts were supported by layers of petticoats that used woven horsehair to stiffen them.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Corsets, crinolines and bustles: fashionable Victorian underwear · V&amp;A |url=https://www.vam.ac.uk/articles/corsets-crinolines-and-bustles-fashionable-victorian-underwear |access-date=2025-10-27 |website=Victoria and Albert Museum |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; By 1856 the [[Crinoline|cage crinoline]] (a domed structure using steel bands and wires) replaced the petticoats, making the skirts lighter in weight and easier to walk in. The line of the outer garments was influenced by how full the skirt was, how small the waist was and its location relative to the natural waistline, how the sleeves were shaped, and how deep the neckline went.

* '''Corsets''': [[Corset]]s or stays were ubiquitous, providing adjustable bust and posture support, helping to shape the body into the fashionable silhouette and preventing horizontal creasing in the bodice. Foundation garments were constantly evolving throughout the century. Over the course of the century, almost all women and some men wore corsets. After the late 1850s, an individual could lace a corset without help.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Victorian Fashions for Women|last=Kay|first=Fiona|last2=Storey|first2=Neil R.|publisher=Pen &amp; Sword History|year=2022|isbn=978 1 39900 416 9|location=Yorkshire and Philadelphia|pages=30-31}}&lt;/ref&gt; Most corsets were constructed with a busk, &quot;(a flat length of whalebone, wood or steel) inserted in a channel down the centre to smooth out the front of the dress.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Victorian Fashions for Women|last=Kay|first=Fiona|publisher=Storey|year=Neil R.|isbn=978 1 39900 416 9|location=Yorkshire and Philadelphia|pages=13}}&lt;/ref&gt; The drawing of an undressed woman (above right) shows a self-laced corset with what may be a split busk.
* '''Neckline''': Necklines changed over the course of the century as bodices and sleeves evolved. The less formal daywear had a higher neckline, regardless of class and decade. For formal wear, which varied widely by class and kind of event, the neckline was often lower and off the shoulder and finished with a [[Collar (clothing)|bertha]] (lace collar or flounce) or multiple bands of fabric pleats. This [[décolletage|décolleté evening style]] popularized shawls or [[cape]]lets and required a [[Corsets|corset]] without shoulder straps. The fashion was for dressmakers to produce two bodices with each skirt, one closed décolletage for day and one décolleté for evening.

* '''Sleeves''': Over the course of the century, styles in sleeves changed radically and more than one sleeve style was fashionable at the same time. Some of the most popular styles included gigot, pagoda, ''engageants'' (see right), bishop and leg-of-mutton sleeves. The changes were in the [[armscye]], the wrist treatment, and the fullness at the shoulder, elbow and wrist. For example, as [[crinoline]]s began to appear in the 1850s, sleeves were shaped like large bells known as pagoda sleeves. [[Engageante]]s, or false sleeves, were stitched inside full or open sleeves like pagoda sleeves. They were easy to remove, launder and restitch into position.
Even though the changes in fashion over the century were sometimes rapid and extreme, they were also evolutionary.[[File:Dress - MET 1971.47.3a–e.jpg|thumb|English day dress, c. 1836, with bow details and puffed sleeves]]
=== 1830s dress style ===
[[File:Princess Victoria and Dash by George Hayter.jpg|alt=Old portrait of a teenage girl in a white formal dress, with a dog|thumb|Princess Victoria and her dog Dash, 1833|left]]During the beginning of Queen Victoria's reign in 1837, the fashionable silhouette was an hourglass shape with wide shoulders, emphasized by puffed [[gigot sleeves]], a full skirt, and a slim waist.

Corsets were extended over the abdomen and down towards the hips, and worn with a busk.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877|last=Goldthorpe|first=Caroline|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1988|location=New York|pages=23–24}}&lt;/ref&gt; A chemise was worn under the corset and cut relatively low in the neck so that it could not be seen. Over the corset was a tight-fitting bodice featuring a high, straight waistline. Under the ankle-length skirt were layers of petticoats&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; stiffened with horsehair. (Skirts would not be extremely full for another two decades.) To contrast with the narrow waist, necklines were low and wide. Queen Victoria's 1833 white dress (left) shows an off-the-shoulder neckline, a higher waist and an ankle-length skirt held out by horsehair. The c. 1836 yellow day dress (right) shows gigot sleeves, a higher neckline and a skirt held out by petticoats.

Always a mark of wealth and status, Princess Victoria's white dress shows that she is formally dressed, perhaps for court, although the pose itself suggests some informality as well.

=== 1840s dress style ===
The 1840s saw an increase in domestic magazines targeting women, along with new varieties in the weave of ready-made fabrics as well as new and much more vibrant colors because of the invention of aniline dyes. And the industrial revolution supplied women with more varieties of color and weave in ready-made fabrics. Cotton replaced silk as a basic fabric, especially among middle-class women because silk was expensive, limiting who could afford it. The elements of fashion changed rapidly during this transitional decade.[[File:Magasin för konst, nyheter och moder 1844, illustration nr 8.jpg|thumb|1844 [[fashion plate]] depicting fashionable clothing for men and women, including illustrations of a [[glove]], a fanchon, and [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnets]]]]At the beginning of the 1840s, skirts began to widen and become dome shaped (because the skirt pieces changed from rectangles to gores, which are wider at the bottom). The waistline lowered with a point formed at the bottom of both the bodice and corset, which gave a rather rigid look to the silhouette. During this decade, the amount of trim decreased in general, although trim was still plentiful. In addition to the flowers, feathers, and ribbons many of the decorations on the dress were made of the fabric of the dress (tucks and pleats, flounces, ruffles). At the end of the decades waists rose to the natural waistline.[[File:Woman's_Dress_LACMA_M.2007.211.744_(1_of_7).jpg|left|thumb|English silk day dress of the second half of the 1840s, with dropped shoulder seams, tight sleeves, and a pointed waist.]]Although corsets narrowed the bodices and gave them a point in the early 1840s, by the end of the decade, they returned to the natural waistline. Corsets lost their straps by the end of the decade.  Busks in the front of the corset were split by Jean Julien Joselin in 1829,&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (75 [of 298]) but the corset wouldn’t stay closed until 1848 when Joseph Cooper patented the &quot;slot and stud&quot; which is still in use today.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (75 [of 298])

Necklines remained wide with further use of lace berthas to frame the upper body. At the end of the decade, necklines were raised and remained high.

Dresses were stiffer due to boning in the bodice as well as the corset. Skirts lengthened, while in 1847 widths increased with the introduction of the [http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-bOuPyjWzwT8/TuKx-x1R12I/AAAAAAAAAF0/oRs6AyGH0gw/s1600/CI53.51.15_B1870Amer.Horsehair.jpg horsehair crinoline], which was stiffened with horsehair and starch. The petticoats were numerous and became bulky and heavy and sometimes entangled the feet. Petticoats had another disadvantage: the number of waistbands increased with each additional petticoat. Skirts often had one or two flounces at the bottom that increased the look of fullness (see, for example, the 1844 fashion plate, right).

To achieve the narrow waist, skirts were attached to bodices using very tight organ [[pleat]]s secured at each fold.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Goldthorpe |first=Caroline |title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877 |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=1988 |location=New York |pages=32}}&lt;/ref&gt; .

Sleeves narrowed with smaller decorative additions (see, for example, the English silk day dress, left). They eventually widened at the wrists into open pagoda-type sleeves requiring engageants to cover the forearms.

Shawls were used to convert a simple dress into a more formal outfit. The popularity of shawls grew because of the very soft and beautifully dyed and woven cashmere shawls from India with a paisley design (after the Scottish town that manufactured shawls).&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (48 [of 298]) Head coverings were ''de regeur'', dominated by poke bonnets.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (51 [of 298]) (The mannequin in the English silk day dress, above left, is wearing a poke bonnet.) Cosmetics became more popular, with instructions The Handbook of the Toilette (anonymous, many editions beginning in 1839. Unfortunately many contained toxic elements like calcium oxide (or quicklime) found hair dye that was recommended to stay in the hair for 3 to 8 hours.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (47 [of 298])

By the end of the 1840s skirts were more dome shaped, necklines were higher and wider and sleeves broadened at the bottom. 
=== 1850s dress style ===
The 1850s saw revolutionary [[Social Victorians/People/Gwladys Robinson#Technological advancement|changes in technologies]] affecting the manufacture and consumption of clothing, especially

* the mass production of fabrics
* the invention of synthetic dyes
* the manufacture of inexpensive, flexible and lightweight steel
* the invention of a sewing machine that could be used in the home
* the spread of fashion journalism and journalism for women

According to the ''Dictionary of Nineteenth-Century Journalism'', &quot;The 1850s and 1860s saw the eclipse of the older ladies' journals [that began in the 18th century and targeted upper-class women] and the emergence of the magazine for middle-class ... women.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Dictionary of Nineteenth-Century Journalism In Great Britain and Ireland.|last=Beetham|first=Margaret Rachel|publisher=Academia Press and the British Library|year=2009|editor-last=Brake|editor-first=Laurel, and Marysa Demoor|location=Gent|pages=683–684|chapter=Women's Periodicals}}&lt;/ref&gt; (684) Nine fashion magazines were being published in London by 1850 and fourteen by 1859 as part of the burgeoning collection of magazines for women, both domestic magazines aimed at middle-class women and journalism focused mostly on fashion.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (63 [of 298]) The journalism aimed at middle-class women introduced haute couture, making the styles, names of couturiers and fashion houses familiar to them for the first time.

These technological changes were revolutionary because of the impact they had on fashion over the course of the rest of the century. Their impact on fashion arises largely because most women were taught a wide range of seamstress skills and, due to reforms in education over the century, more women could read.[[File:Ensemble_MET_DT6845.jpg|thumb|A day ensemble c. 1855, featuring tiers of ruffles and pagoda style sleeves.]]
==== Silhouette ====
The 1850s are considered a transitional decade in 19th-century fashion because little changed in the silhouette and appearance of clothing, but technological changes would make increasingly important structural differences in what was available for people to wear.

Skirts widened with the disappearance of the many layers of petticoats but did not change their basic shape. Beyond the silhouette, the design elements of the dress (like sleeves, neckline, or skirt) were barely changed as they evolved from the 1840s to the 1860s.

While the silhouette and elements of design did not change significantly, the effect of the technological changes related to the manufacture and consumption of clothing was to give individual (and especially middle-class women) more agency over how their dresses got made and who made them, what fabrics their dresses were made of, how broad a range of options they could choose from and how easy it was to move in their dresses.

The number of flounces and ruffles on the skirt increased, making the skirt look wider (see the c. 1855 day ensemble, right).

==== Neckline ====
[[File:1850's Evening Dress.jpg|thumb|1850s evening dress with a bertha|left]]
With trim and a front closure in the corset and the bodice, the bodice emphasized a distinct V-shape. Necklines of day dresses were sometimes cut into a V-shape, causing a need to cover the bust area with a chemisette. For evening, a wide, low neckline was popular, often with a [[Collar (clothing)|bertha]] (see the 1850s even dress with a bertha, left).&lt;ref name=&quot;h608&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Arnold |first=Janet |title=Patterns of fashion. 2: Englishwomen's dresses and their construction: 1860 - 1940 |date=1993 |publisher=MacMillan |isbn=978-0-89676-027-1 |publication-place=London |page=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Sleeves ====
Pagoda sleeves and under sleeves (''engageants'') continued to be popular for most of the decade.

==== Foundations ====
[[File:1856 Cage Crinoline.jpg|alt=1st patented cage crinoline.Fullness of the skirt is even further emphasised.|thumb|1850s fashionable silhouette and the cage crinoline needed to support it.]]
In 1856, the invention of the first [[Crinoline|cage crinoline]] allowed for even wider skirts. The cage crinoline was constructed by joining thin metal strips together with wires to form a circular cage-like structure that could support a very wide skirt (see 1950s silhouette and cage crinoline, right). Although often ridiculed by journalists and cartoonists of the time as the crinoline swelled in size, this innovation freed women from the heavy weight of petticoats.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Steele |first=Valerie |url=https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee |title=Victorian Fashion. Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-19-503530-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee/page/51 51]–84 |url-access=registration}}&lt;/ref&gt; For a description of the [[Social Victorians/People/Gwladys Robinson#Technological advancement|technological advancement]] that made cage crinolines possible, see below.) Not visible on the outside garment, the cage crinoline was the foundation for the huge dome-shaped skirts that dominated the decade. It was safer and easier to walk in a cage because the hoops held the skirt away from the feet and legs of the wearer.

Without the innumerable petticoats more women began to wear drawers or &quot;pantalettes&quot; for modesty and warmth. The dome shape made possibly by the cage foundation changed the way skirts were cut. Instead of rectangles, gores were cut with one end of the skirt piece wider than the other end,&lt;ref name=&quot;w586&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Arnold |first=Janet |title=Patterns of fashion. 2: Englishwomen's dresses and their construction: 1860 - 1940 |date=1993 |publisher=MacMillan |isbn=0-333-13607-1 |publication-place=London |page=}}&lt;/ref&gt; preventing bulkiness at the waist from gathered fabric and created a skirt bottom much wider than the top. Bloomers, designed by American Amelia Jenks Bloomer,  introduced bifurcated garments for women, essentially trousers or pants with a seam between the legs. Even pantalettes had no seam between the legs; it was simply left open. This experiment failed and women didn’t wear pants until the 20th century.

The 1850s saw two other developments that permanently changed the clothing available to Victorian women (and men). Created in 1856, the first synthetic dyes were much more vivid and vibrant than natural dyes and resisted fading.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (92 [of 298]) Because Victorian photography was black and white, we do not typically see the gaudy and saturated colours that many Victorians loved.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Also, although sewing machines had already been invented, changing the accessibility and value of individual articles of clothing, it was the invention of and widespread sale of &quot;lightweight domestic machines&quot; for home sewing that affected large numbers of women.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (91 [of 298])

Cage crinolines remained popular for perhaps 5 years among the fashion forward and perhaps 10 years for the less adventurous.[[File:Woman's_silk_taffeta_dress_c._1865.jpg|thumb|An 1865 English silk morning dress.]]

[[File:Mrs_Ellinor_Guthrie_by_Frederic_Leighton.jpg|thumb|English dress, 1864, with simple trim.]]
=== 1860s dress style ===

==== Foundations ====
The cage crenoline reached their greatest width during the 1860s. Photographs show that the fashion-forward Empress Eugénie of France, Empress Elisabeth of Austria and Countess Pauline von Metternich had stopped wearing the very large crinoline cages as early as 1862, but most middle- and upper-class women (including Queen Victoria) wore them for much of the rest of the decade.

During the first half of the 1860s, crinolines began decreasing in size at the top, while retaining their volume at the bottom, creating a more pyramidal shape.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=From Queen to Empress - Victorian Dress 1837-1877|last=Goldthorpe|first=Caroline|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|year=1988|location=New York|pages=}}&lt;/ref&gt; (26) Then the fullness began to move to the back while the front became flat and close to the body. As the back fullness increased, skirts sometimes lengthened into trains. (The 1865 English silk dress, above right, shows the flattening of the front at the waist and the development of the train.) In order to emphasize the back, the train was gathered together to form soft folds and [[Drapery|draperies]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Making Victorian Costumes for Women|last=Audin|first=Heather|publisher=Crowood|year=2015|pages=45}}&lt;/ref&gt; This line or silhouette would eventually evolve into a bustle in the next decade.

Decoration or trim often appeared only at the bottom of the skirt (see English dress, 1864, below right). Flounces and ruffles diminished as geometric designs in trim gained popularity.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (102 [of 298]) Skirts were also decorated with overskirts of the same fabric or a different shade of the same color. Waistlines were pointed in front below the natural waistline. By mid-century the waist was seated at the natural waistline often with a wide belt and large decorative buckle.  

==== Bodices and Sleeves ====
Bodices often had buttons down the front because both the corset and the bodice opened in the front. Necklines were generally high and rounded. Some dresses were cut without separating the bodice and skirt so it could be buttoned from the neck to the bottom of the skirt. It became popular for dresses to be made as one skirt and two bodices, one for day wear and one for formal wear.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; (43)

Sleeves narrowed but remained loose on the arms and were wrist length. Sometimes the sleeves were full at the shoulder, but they were not very puffed.

==== General Trends ====
A greater and richer variety of fabrics was available to the always upwardly-aspirational middle class, with silk essential in the dress of wealthy middle- and upper-class women. Dresses were cut and pieced together to accommodate the more active life women had in sports, walking and even riding bicycles. The trends that began in the 1860s continued through the 1870s and into the 1880s; the changes were evolutionary.

=== 1870s dress style ===

==== Silhouette ====
[[File:Black_net_ball_dress_1874.png|thumb|A black net ball dress, 1874]]In 1877, dresses moulded to fit the figure, as increasingly slimmer and more restrictive silhouettes were favored. Although dress styles took on a more natural form, corsetry was still required and the now ''de regueur'' train was often supported with a bustle cage.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;{{rp|50}} The armscye, for the first time in the Victorian period, moved from a dropped position up to the shoulders and would remain there for the rest of the era.

The most famous designer of this conservative, very fitted and restrictive style was British-born Frederick Worth, who designed the “princess” construction for dresses, which we still use today, and who popularized and then “killed,” according to his obituary in ''The Lady’s Treasury'',&lt;ref&gt;“‘Death of the Chief Ruler of the Fashionable World’, The Ladies’ Treasury (1 April 1895), p. 274.” In ''Fashioning the Victorians: A Critical Sourcebook''. Ed., Rebecca N. Mitchell. Dress, Body, Culture Series, gen. ed., Joanne B. Eicher. Bloomsbury Visual Arts, 2018. Pp. 487–491 of 565.&lt;/ref&gt; the crinoline cage. The princess construction was named for Alexandra, Princess of Wales, who preferred a lean, tailored style. By 1879 corsets were being built using &quot;princess&quot; seams to support the tailoring of the smooth, straight dresses like the ones designed by Maison Worth.

Because Queen Victoria had been in mourning since 1861, the Princess Alexandra was expected to lead in the haute couture of the day. She set a trend for tailored dresses that was quickly picked up by all classes. Unlike the tailored designs, what Maison Worth created was ornate with many decorative elements, including fringe, which was widely used (along with ribbon, braid, ball fringe, ruching, epaulettes, pieces of the same fabric in a lighter or darker shade, pieces of a different-textured fabric like velvet or velveteen, etc.).

No single silhouette dominated the 1870s, however, because of the different lines created by the bustle, the overskirt and the layers of the polonaise, or a combination of these three skirt treatments. Foundation garments changed very little, although perhaps the greatest change came in corsets. In 1870 women were wearing corsets that came to just below the waist with a pointed center front.

==== Skirts ====
[[File:Woman's_Polonaise_Dress_LACMA_M.2007.211.777a-f_(1_of_4).jpg|left|thumb|An c. 1875 English polonaise]]The trend for wide skirts slowly disappeared during the 1870s, as women started to prefer a slimmer silhouette. Skirts went from their most extreme width to their most narrow, waists went to a natural level and the backside took the point of interest in the ensemble. The back of the dress became the focal point of the design. The relationship between the various skirt treatments was very complex, in part because skirts became architectural. (The bustle on the 1874 black net ball dress, above right, has been gathered and bunched and would require padding to keep the draping in place. It also has an overskirt.)

The skirt began the decade rather flat in front with most of the fabric pulled to the back and pleated. As the skirt evolved, the gathered fabric draped gracefully at the back. In the next fashion the extra fabric was bunched into large poufs below the waist in back. Then a pad supported the extra fabric, and then by the end of the decade a [[tournure]] or bustle kept the elaborate draping of the back of the skirt and train in place. In general, trains were present on every dress, including day dresses, but they were narrower and longer with tiers and drapes. Petticoats, which could be washed separately, kept the longer trains off the ground.

[[overskirt|Overskirts]] became extremely popular, often tied up into an apron effect at the front with a [[Polonaise (clothing)|polonaise]] or puffed draperies at the back.&lt;ref name=&quot;g4223&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=Cecil Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century |date=1990-05-01 |publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=0-486-26323-1 |publication-place=New York |page=}}&lt;/ref&gt; A revival of an 18th-century romanticization of what a milkmaid might have worn, the 1870s polonaise is a garment featuring both an overskirt and bodice often of the same fabric (see c. 1875 English polonaise, left). Over time, the overskirt shortened into a detached [[Basque (clothing)|basque]], resulting in an elongation of the bodice over the hips. (The early 1870s fashion plate, below right, shows an assortment of ways overskirts were worn, including one for a girl.)[[File:1870's Dress.jpg|alt=Dresses featuring the Bustle &amp; Polonaise|thumb|An early 1870s fashion plate]]

==== Neckline ====
Necklines were high, and lines were sleek and fitted. 

==== Sleeves ====
Pagoda sleeves began to lose their three-decade-long popularity in 1875,&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt;{{rp|102 [of 298]}} but most sleeve treatments were narrow and came to the wrist.

==== General Trends ====
An unusual trend occurred during the 1870s in hairstyles, which grew very large with added braids, buns, coils, poufs and strands. The elaborate hairstyles required multiple hair pieces and featured tiny, over-decorated hats fastened almost vertically on the head. Although women had already been supplementing their own hair, these extremely large styles caused enormous demand in the human hair market.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (152 [of 298]) 

The practice of constructing a dress with one skirt and two bodices (one for day and one for evening wear) continued from the 1860s.

=== 1880s dress style ===
After a period of slim, train-less skirts with heavy decoration, an exaggerated horizontal bustle made a re-appearance in 1883. Due to the additional fullness, drapery moved towards the sides or front panel of the skirt instead. Bodices shortened, now ending above the hips. Skirts were much less full than the last time the bustle was in fashion in the 1870s and instead focused on a slim front with a shelf-like back protrusion. 

The 1880s also saw the growing popularity of austere, menswear-inspired tailoring like that preferred by Alexandra, Princess of Wales.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; The style was not without its critics because it fit did not seem feminine.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (164 [of 298]) Some credited the change in silhouette to the various [[Victorian dress reform]] movements, which arose from several sectors of society over the second half of the century. The [[Artistic Dress]] movement founded in the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood and the [[Victorian dress reform|Rational Dress]] movement of the mid-to-late Victorian era advocated for a natural silhouette, natural dyes and natural fibers, rejecting the traditional foundation garments of corset and cage (both crinoline and bustle). The Rational Dress Movement saw women &quot;handicapped&quot; and their health injured by &quot;tightly laced corsets, cumbersome dress improvers [padding], and unwieldy crinolettes.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:23&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=A Victorian Lady's Guide to Fashion and Beauty|last=Matthews|first=Mimi|publisher=Pen and Sword Books|year=2023|isbn=978 1 52670 504 4|location=Yorkshire, Philadelphia}}&lt;/ref&gt; (69–70) 

Competing with the tailored look was a more traditional, highly feminized look dominated by a large protruding, almost horizontal bustle. This look was heavily decorated and formed a sharp contrast with the simpler, fitted silhouette, the first time in haute couture that &quot;No single style reigned supreme.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:23&quot; /&gt; (62) 
[[File:Frith A Private View.jpg|alt=Old painting of a lot of people in an art gallery|thumb|Frith, A Private View, 1883]]
The [[Artistic Dress movement|Aesthetic Dress]] movement of the end of the century, led in part by Oscar Wilde and parodied by William Powell Frith's 1883 ''A Private View at the Royal Academy, 1881'' (right) saw traditional dress as impeding women's agency. Frith's painting (right) opposed the aesthetic movement to traditional dress, targeting Wilde and his followers. 

These movements were never mainstream enough to garner widespread support, but a less austere, less restrictive version of the tailored look, based perhaps on riding habits, supported those involved in other sports, like cycling and tennis.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; If the bodice was made like a jacket, it was tailored for the individual woman. Some women who wore the tailored look, like the Princess of Wales and Empress Elisabeth of Austria, were accentuating their very thin figures, but for many the semi-masculine look was simply a fashionable style and indicated neither advanced views nor the need for practical clothes.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; [[File:1885 Bustle.jpg|alt=Horizontal protrusion at the back.|thumb|Lobster-tail bustle, c. 1885.]]

==== Silhouette ====
Two silhouettes dominated this decade, a menswear-inspired, fitted line and a heavily decorated, complex line inspired by the first bustle period of the 1870s. The bustles of the second period in the 1880s were different from the evolving bustles of the 1870s. The 1880s bustle was large, extending sharply and horizontally from the backside, and sported a train, even for day wear. Two distinctly different lines competing for dominance in the same era is extremely unusual.

For both looks, the dresses were very fitted, with narrow sleeves, a tight bodice and a straight skirt, but the bustle style was overdecorated, and the tailored style was sometimes austere but sometimes specifically designed to be easier to move in.

The massive hair pieces of the late 1870s gave way to a simple chignon at the base of the neck that later moved to the top of the head.

Beyond the dress reform movements, the 1880s had no significant inventions or events that impacted the fashion or clothing industries.

==== Foundation ====
Both silhouettes demanded a corset that had smooth lines and that went below the waist, often one with princess seams. Presumably, the version of the tailored look that was easer to move in had a less restrictive corset or a corset laced less restrictively. The traditional dresses had narrow, decorative bustles that “were more pronounced, projecting sharply outwards” and that had trains attached to the bustle rather than the skirt itself.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (162 [of 298]) They looked like a highly decorated shelf coming out of the backside. In fact, the new bustles were a separate garment (see an example of a separate garment tied to the waist, above, right). [[File:Edward_Hughes_-_Juliette_Gordon_Low_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg|thumb|English evening dress with a V-shaped neckline, higher shoulder placement and simple trims, 1887]]
==== Dresses ====
Some of the tailored dresses were in one piece, buttoning down the front from neckline to hemline with no excess fabric for decorations. More masculinized versions had jackets, vests or waistcoats and even neckties. Some of the tailored dresses had overskirts and separate bodices. The fitted bodices of traditional dresses and the skirts that were straight down in front and on the sides as well as having bustles and trains could make even normal walking difficult.

In the traditional style, the bodice looked more like a suit jacket with a high neckline and a white blouse with a ruffled collar or some kind of feminine neck treatment. Sleeves tightened again during the [[1880s in Western fashion|1880s]] and the armscye moved back up the shoulders.&lt;ref name=&quot;y040&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Severa |first=Joan L. |title=Dressed for the Photographer |date=1995 |publisher=Kent State University Press |isbn=0-87338-512-8 |publication-place=Kent, Ohio |page=}}&lt;/ref&gt; Necklines became higher again, with a high collar being ubiquitous for daytime, a trend that would continue into the 1890s. For the evening, the bertha fell out of favor, replaced by V-shaped necklines or draped styles due to the new higher shoulder (V-shaped neckline, right).&lt;ref name=&quot;g4223&quot; /&gt; Near the end of the decade sleeves developed more fullness at the shoulder.

=== 1890s dress style ===

==== Silhouette ====
By 1890, the crinoline and bustle were completely left behind, and skirts flared in an A-line. If bustles were the focal point of the ensemble in the 1880s, then sleeves were the focal point in the 1890s. Menswear influences like necktie-inspired neckwear continued from the previous decade. The two silhouettes of the 1880s marked the abandonment of a single, dominant look, and subsequent periods offered many more choices for women.  

Much of the excess trim of the tradititonal style of the 1880s disappeared in the 1890s, and dresses had a softer, less restrictive look. Although they closely fitted the body, dresses were not tight, allowing more freedom of movement. Many more women were participating in sports and other physical activities that required a less structured fit. 

The new century would let go of boned foundation garments altogether and shorten skirts radically and bring even more unprecedented changes to feminine attire. [[File:Lady_Beatrice_Pole-Carew.jpg|thumb|English socialite Lady Beatrice Pole-Carew with puffed sleeves, mid-1890s]]

==== Foundations ====
Larger busts were more fashionable, leading to a variety of different kinds of padding to place in the corset and make the bust look bigger. Corsets continued to reach well beyond the waist, smoothing the front of the dress. 

==== Skirts ====
Bustles were left behind in the 1880s and skirts, cut in gores, were smooth, fitted close to the waist and hips until they flared outward.  Away from the knees, the gores widened the skirts into an A-line.   

==== Necklines and Sleeves ====
Daywear dresses had very high necks with a kind of Mandarin collar or military band of fabric around the neck. A large brooch could be worn on such a collar. 

At the beginning of the 1890s a small puff of fullness was seen at the shoulders but increased in size in the middle of the decade to a puffed [[Sleeve|leg-of-mutton]] style. (197 [of 298]) From the elbow to the wrist or onto the hand, sleeves were tight fitting. By 1896 sleeves grew to a volume rivaling the 1830s from the natural shoulder line to the elbow and even sometimes required stuffing or padding to retain their fullness (see portrait of Lady Beatrice Pole-Carew, right). By 1900 the entire sleeve was &quot;straight and narrow again.&quot; 198 [of 298] Even though leg-of-mutton sleeves lasted only a few years (beginning to shrink the spring season after their peak in 1896&lt;ref name=&quot;:23&quot; /&gt; (75)) we associate the 1890s with them, perhaps because they are so distinctive. 

== Hats and headwear ==
[[File:Ford.madox.brown.last.emma.study.jpg|thumb|''Emma Hill'' by [[Ford Madox Brown]] (1853), a woman wearing a later version of the [[poke bonnet]]]]
[[File:Hoed,_objectnr_KA_1237.tif|left|thumb|Perched bonnet style of the early 1870s.]]
Hats were crucial to a respectable appearance for both men and women. To go bareheaded was simply not proper. The top hat, for example, was standard formal wear for upper- and middle-class men.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; For women, the styles of hats changed over time and were designed to match their outfits.

During the early Victorian decades, hats were modest in size and design, straw and fabric bonnets being the popular choice. [[Poke bonnet]]s, which had been worn during the late [[Regency period]], had high, small crowns and brims that grew larger until the 1830s, when the face of a woman wearing a poke bonnet could only be seen directly from the front. They had rounded brims, echoing the rounded form of the bell-shaped hoop skirts.

Bonnets shrunk at the end of the 1860s and moved to a perched position in the early 1870s as hairstyles grew in scale and intricacy. This led to the popularization of hats, which became the headwear of choice for the remainder of the Victorian era.&lt;ref name=&quot;g4223&quot;/&gt;
[[File:The_London_and_Paris_ladies'_magazine_(Apr_1885)_03.png|thumb|Flower pot style hat of 1885.]]
The 1880s saw a hat inspired by the top hat for women known as the flowerpot hat, and the 1890s saw the popularity of the boater. The hats of the late Victorian era were covered with elaborate creations of silk flowers, ribbons, and above all, exotic plumes; hats sometimes included entire exotic birds that had been stuffed. Many of these plumes came from birds in the Florida everglades, which were nearly made entirely extinct by overhunting. By 1899, early environmentalists like [[Adeline Knapp]] were engaged in efforts to curtail the hunting for plumes. By 1900, more than five million birds a year were being slaughtered, and nearly 95 per cent of Florida's shore birds had been killed by [[Plume hunting|plume hunter]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Everglades National Park|url=https://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927085907/http://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 September 2009|publisher=PBS|access-date=7 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Shoes ==
The women's shoes of the early Victorian period were narrow and heelless, in black or white satin. By 1850s and 1860s, they were slightly broader with a low heel and made of leather or cloth. Ankle-length laced or buttoned boots were also popular. From the 1870s to the twentieth century, heels grew higher and toes more pointed. Low-cut pumps were worn for the evening.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;

== Cosmetics ==
[[Victorian-era cosmetics]] were typically minimal, as makeup was associated by the middle classes with promiscuity. However, small amounts of pale face powder or powdered blush were more widely used.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Ruth |title=How to be a Victorian |date=2014 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-670-92136-2 |location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some cosmetics contained toxic or caustic ingredients like lead, mercury, ammonia, and arsenic {{Citation needed|date=October 2025}}.

Hair color

== Men's fashion ==
[[File:Mens Coats 1872 Fashion Plate.jpg|thumb|upright|Drawing of Victorian men 1870s]]

During the [[1840s in fashion|1840s]], men wore tight-fitting, calf length [[frock coat]]s and a [[waistcoat]] or vest. Sleeves were full at the top and waists were tight, creating an hourglass form. Waistcoats were single- or double-breasted, with shawl or notched collars, and might be finished in double points at the lowered waist. For more formal occasions, a cutaway morning coat was worn with light trousers during the daytime, and a dark tail coat and trousers was worn in the evening. Shirts were made of linen or cotton with low collars, occasionally turned down, and were worn with wide [[Cravat (early)|cravat]]s or neck ties. Trousers had fly fronts, and [[breeches]] were used for formal functions and when horseback riding. Men wore [[top hat]]s, with wide brims in sunny weather.

During the [[1850s in fashion|1850s]], men started wearing shirts with high upstanding or turnover [[collar (clothing)|collars]] and [[necktie#Four-in-hand|four-in-hand necktie]]s tied in a bow, or tied in a knot with the pointed ends sticking out like &quot;wings&quot;. The upper-class continued to wear top hats, and [[bowler hat]]s were worn by the working class.

In the [[1860s in fashion|1860s]], men started wearing wider neckties that were tied in a bow or looped into a loose knot and fastened with a stickpin. Frock coats were shortened to knee-length and were worn for business, while the mid-thigh length [[sack coat]] slowly displaced the frock coat for less-formal occasions, with the overall effect of a looser silhouette. Top hats briefly became the very tall &quot;stovepipe&quot; shape, but a variety of other hat shapes were popular.

During the [[1870s in fashion|1870s]], three-piece suits grew in popularity along with patterned fabrics for shirts. Neckties were the four-in-hand and, later, the [[Ascot tie]]s. A narrow ribbon tie was an alternative for tropical climates, especially in the Americas. Both frock coats and sack coats became shorter and more form fitting. Flat straw boaters were worn when boating.

During the [[1880s in fashion|1880s]], formal evening dress remained a dark tail coat and trousers with a dark waistcoat, a white bow tie, and a shirt with a winged collar. In mid-decade, the dinner jacket or [[tuxedo]], was used in more relaxed formal occasions. The [[Norfolk jacket]] and tweed or woolen breeches were used for rugged outdoor pursuits such as shooting. Knee-length topcoats, often with contrasting velvet or fur collars, and calf-length overcoats were worn in winter. Men's shoes had higher heels and a narrow toe.

Starting from the [[1890s in fashion|1890s]], the [[blazer]] was introduced, and was worn for sports, sailing, and other casual activities.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Landow|first=George|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/90s/2.html|title=Men's informal sporting dress, late 1880s and '90s}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Throughout much of the Victorian era most men wore fairly short hair.  This was often accompanied by various forms of facial hair including moustaches, side-burns, and full beards.  A clean-shaven face did not come back into fashion until the end of the 1880s and early 1890s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/nunn21.html|title=Victorian Men's Fashions, 1850–1900: Hair}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Distinguishing what men really wore from what was marketed to them in periodicals and advertisements is difficult, as reliable records do not exist.&lt;ref name=&quot;shannon597&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Shannon|first=Brent|title=Refashioning Men: Fashion, Masculinity, and the Cultivation of the Male Consumer in Britain, 1860–1914|journal=Victorian Studies|year=2004|volume=46|issue=4|pages=597–630|doi=10.1353/vic.2005.0022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Influence of Bertie, Albert Edward, Prince of Wales

Shirts and collars separated, &quot;by 1827 separate collars became available&quot;  (Payne 460)

transition from frock coats to ditto suits, 1850s (Payne, 463)

Men's suits, buttoned higher up than today (Payne, 467)

Norfolk jackets and sack suits (Payne, 471)

formal attire, tuxedos with tails, cutaways (Payne, 469)

==Mourning black==
{{See also |Mourning stationery}}
[[File:The royal children in mourning Mar 1862.jpg|thumb|Victoria's five daughters (Alice, Helena, Beatrice, Victoria and Louise), photographed wearing mourning black beneath a bust of their late father, Prince Albert (1862)]]
[[File:Mourning dress MET 50.40.3a-b front CP4.jpg|alt=Black Victorian mourning dress|thumb|Mourning Dress, 1894–95]]

In Britain, black is the colour traditionally associated with mourning for the dead. The customs and etiquette expected of men, and especially women, were rigid but evolving during much of the Victorian era. The expectations depended on a complex hierarchy of close or distant relationship with the deceased. (Davidoff) The closer the relationship, the longer the mourning period and the wearing of black. The wearing of full black was known as First Mourning, which had its own expected attire, including fabrics, and an expected duration of 4 to 18 months. Following the initial period of First Mourning, the mourner would progress to Second Mourning, a transition period of wearing less black, which was followed by Ordinary Mourning, and then Half-mourning. Some of these stages of mourning were shortened or skipped completely if the mourner's relationship to the deceased was more distant. Half-mourning was a transition period when black was replaced by acceptable colours such as lavender and mauve, possibly considered acceptable transition colours because of the tradition of [[Church of England]] (and [[Catholic Church|Catholic]]) clergy wearing lavender or mauve [[Stole (vestment)|stoles]] for funeral services, to represent the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion of Christ]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=The Colors of the Church Year|url=http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|publisher=Consortium of Country Churches|access-date=6 November 2011|archive-date=13 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113075214/http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The mourning dress worn by Queen Victoria (below, right) &quot;shows the traditional touches of mourning attire, which she wore from the death of her husband, Prince Albert (1819–1861), until her own death.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/155839?&amp;searchField=All&amp;sortBy=Relevance&amp;deptids=8&amp;ft=queen+victoria&amp;offset=0&amp;rpp=20&amp;amp;pos=2|title=Mourning Dress, 1894–95|last=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|date=7 September 2019|website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|access-date=7 September 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dating from 1894–95, Queen Victoria wore this dress as a result of the death of the eldest son of the Prince and Princess of Wales, Eddy, in line to the throne.

=== Norms for mourning===

''Manners and Rules of Good Society, or, Solecisms to be Avoided'' (London, Frederick Warne &amp; Co., 1887) gives clear instructions, such as the following:&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–83}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Relationship to deceased !! First mourning !! Second mourning !! Ordinary mourning !! Half-mourning
|-
| Wife for husband || 1-year, 1-month; [[bombazine]] fabric covered with [[Crape|crepe]]; [[widow's cap]], [[lawn cuff]]s, collars || 6 months: less crepe || 6 months: no crepe, silk or wool replaces bombazine; in last 3 months jet jewellery and ribbons can be added || 6 months: colours permitted are grey, lavender, mauve, and black-and-grey
|-
| Daughter for parent || 6 months: black with black or white crepe (for young girls); no linen cuffs and collars; no jewellery for first 2 months || 4 months: less crepe ||  –  || 2 months as above
|-
| Wife for husband's parents || 18 months in black bombazine with crepe || – || 3 months in black || 3 months as above
|-
| Parent for son- or daughter-in-law's parent || – Black armband in representation of someone lost || – || 1-month black || –
|-
| Second wife for parent of a first wife || – || – || 3 months black || –
|}

The complexity of these etiquette rules extends to specific mourning periods and attire for siblings, step-parents, aunts and uncles distinguished by blood and by marriage, nieces, nephews, first and second cousins, children, infants, and &quot;connections&quot; (who were entitled to ordinary mourning for a period of &quot;1–3 weeks, depending on level of intimacy&quot;). Men were expected to wear mourning black to a lesser extent than women, and for a shorter mourning period. After the mid-19th century, men would wear a black hatband and black suit, but for only half the prescribed period of mourning expected of women. Widowers were expected to mourn for a mere three months, whereas the proper mourning period expected for widows was up to four years.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–9}}&lt;/ref&gt; Women who mourned in black for longer periods were accorded great respect in public for their devotion to the departed, the most prominent example being Queen Victoria herself. It was not uncommon for a widow who did not remarry to wear half-mourning for the rest of her life, except when another death necessitated full mourning. For example, Alexandra, Princess of Wales wore half-mourning for the rest of her life after her eldest son Eddy died in 1894. Empress Elisabeth of Austria did the same, as did Empress Eugénie of France. They reverted to full mourning when appropriate, but they never wore less than half-mourning after their sons' deaths.

Women with lesser financial means tried to keep up with the example being set by the middle and upper classes by dyeing their daily dress. Dyers made most of their income during the Victorian period by dyeing clothes black for mourning.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|page=341}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Technological advancement ==
The technological changes that affected the manufacture and consumption of clothing in the Victorian age included the following:

* the mass production of fabrics — for example, &quot;by the early 1850s there were thousands of steam-powered looms churning out millions of miles of fabric every year&quot;  [62]
* the invention of aniline dyes, which were much more vibrantly colored and resistant to fading than the natural dyes that had been used. — . Invented by chemist [[William Henry Perkin]] in 1856, the first aniline dye mauveine (or mauve) &quot;wash[ed] the fashionable landscape in a haze of purple.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Dress Diary: Secrets from a Victorian Woman's Wardrobe|last=Strasdin|first=Kate|publisher=Pegasus Books|year=2023|location=New York, New York}}&lt;/ref&gt; (247) Other intense and, to the Victorians, intensely exciting colors followed, but the new synthetic additions to fabric sometimes included chemicals harmful to their wearers. For example, a &quot;bright-magenta hue was achieved by adding arsenical-based chemicals to existing aniline dyes, brightening the already luminous shades – but these left residues themselves, along with a toxic labour trail in their wake.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot; /&gt; (255) Perhaps the most famous of these is arsenic green, used on fabrics, wallpapers, and trim: &quot;The craze for artificial foliage to adorn the heads and dresses of women of fashion in the mid-nineteenth century had seen the proliferation of flower workshops, where young women in their hundreds laboured to produce the lifelike green leaves and blooms that would make a fetching headdress or would trail becomingly across the bodice of a gown. The lushness of the green was achieved by the application of a powder, a pigment that was created by mixing copper and the highly toxic chemical, arsenic trioxide. The physical effects of working with this poisonous compound were horrific. Contemporary medical drawings depict the green hue of the skin and dreadful open lesions on the hands of the maker, whilst the daily gradual ingestion of the powder by the flower girls was eventually fatal.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:22&quot; /&gt; (255)
* the invention of a sewing machine that could be used in the home. Although sewing machines were already in use in the clothing industry, in 1858 Isaac Merritt Singer began to sell &quot;lightweight domestic machines&quot; for home sewing, radically increasing women's control over their own dress.&lt;ref name=&quot;:24&quot; /&gt; (91 [of 298])
* the spread of journalism for women and fashion journalism

Perhaps not at the same scale as these but as important in 1850s designs was a technology that turned iron into steel, which could then be drawn into fine wires.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Steel was refined to a malleable state so that thin blades could be curved into concentric circles (called hoops) and connected with wires to form the cage.

Technological advancements not only influenced the economy but brought a major change in the fashion styles worn by men and women. As the Victorian era was based on the principles of gender, race and class.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Graham|first1=P|title=The Victorian Era|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.261548|journal=Digital Library of India}}&lt;/ref&gt; Much advancement was in favor of the upper class as they were the ones who could afford the latest technology and change their fashion styles accordingly.  In 1830s there was introduction of horse hair crinoline that became a symbol of status and wealth as only the upper-class women could wear it.  In 1850s there were more fashion technological advancements hence 1850s could rightly be called a revolution in the Victorian fashion industry such as the innovation of artificial cage crinoline that gave women an artificial hourglass silhouette without layers of petticoats, which was lighter and more hygienic.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Shrimpton|first1=J|title=Victorian Fashion|publisher=Bloomsbury Shire Publications}}&lt;/ref&gt; Synthetic dyes, such as [[mauveine]] (aniline purple), were introduced in 1856, adding bright colours to garments. In 1855's ''[[Haute couture]]'' was introduced as tailoring became more mainstream in years to follow.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Aspelund|first1=Karl|title=Fashioning Society|publisher=Fairchild Books}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Charles Frederick Worth, a prominent English designer, became popular amongst the upper class though its city of destiny always is Paris. Haute couture became popular at the same time that sewing machines were invented.&lt;ref name=&quot;Haute Couture&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Richard|last2=Koda|first2=Harold|title=Haute Couture|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art}}&lt;/ref&gt; Princess [[Eugénie de Montijo|Eugenie]] of France wore the Englishman dressmaker, Charles Frederick Worth's couture and he instantly became famous in France though he had just arrived in Paris a few years ago. In 1855, Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Britain welcomed [[Napoleon III]] and Eugenie of France to a full state visit to England. Eugenie was considered a fashion icon in France. Queen Victoria, who had been the fashion icon for European high fashion, was inspired by Eugenie's style and the fashions she wore.{{Citation needed|date=October 2025}} Later, Queen Victoria also appointed Charles Frederick Worth as her dress maker and he became a prominent designer amongst the European upper class. Charles Frederick Worth is known as the father of the haute couture as later the concept of labels were also invented in the late 19th century as custom, made to fit tailoring became mainstream.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Saillard|first1=Olivier|last2=Zazzo|first2=Anne|title=Paris Haute Couture|publisher=Skira Flammarion}}&lt;/ref&gt;

By the 1860s, when made-to-fit tailoring was popular in Europe, crinolines were considered impractical. In the 1870s, women preferred more slimmer silhouettes, hence bodices grew longer and the polonaise, a skirt and bodice made together, was introduced. In 1870s the Cuirass Bodice, a piece of armour that covers the torso and functions like a corset, was invented. Towards the end of Victoria's reign, dresses were flared naturally as crinolines were rejected by middle-class women. Designers such as Charles Frederick Worth were also against them. All these inventions and changes in fashion led to women's liberation as tailored looks improved posture and were more practical.&lt;ref name=&quot;Haute Couture&quot;/&gt;

dressmakers, couturiers, modistes

== Home decor ==
{{main|Victorian decorative arts}}

Home decor started spare, veered into the elaborately draped and decorated style we today regard as Victorian, then embraced the retro-chic of [[William Morris]] as well as pseudo-[[Japonaiserie]].

== Myths and Oversimplifications ==

=== Modesty ===
{{main|Victorian morality}}
{{Original research|section|date=May 2008}}
[[File:1868-skirt-lengths-girl-ages-Harpers-Bazar.gif|thumb|upright|&quot;The proper length for little girls' skirts at various ages&quot;, from ''[[Harper's Bazaar]]'', showing a 1900 idea of how the hemline should descend towards the ankle as a girl got older]]Many myths and exaggerations about the period persist to the modern day. Examples include the idea of men's clothing is seen as formal and stiff, women's as elaborate and over-done; clothing covered the entire body, and even the glimpse of an ankle was scandalous. Critics contend that [[corset]]s constricted women's bodies and lives. Homes are described as gloomy, dark, cluttered with massive and over-ornate furniture and proliferating [[bric-a-brac]]. Myth has it that even piano legs were scandalous, and covered with tiny [[pantalette]]s.

=== Tight Lacing ===
Tight-lacing, which was not possible until the development of the grommet in 1828, was famously controversial in the Victorian age, generating many column inches of profitable newspaper copy, in part because it was (and still is) fetishistic and subversive in that adolescent girls used it as a means of rebellion and upper-working- or lower-middle-class shop girls saw it as a means of upward mobility.&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Fashion and Fetishism: Corsets, Tight-Lacing and Other Forms of Body-sculpture|last=Kunzle|first=David|publisher=History Press|year=2013|isbn=978 0 7524 9545 3|location=Stroud, Gloucestershire|pages=}}&lt;/ref&gt; (71 [of 1182]) No evidence exists that tight lacing was widespread or particularly dangerous.&lt;ref name=&quot;:21&quot; /&gt; ()


In truth, men's formal clothing may have been less colourful than it was in the previous century, but brilliant [[waistcoat]]s and [[cummerbund]]s provided a touch of colour, and [[smoking jacket]]s and [[robe|dressing gown]]s were often of rich Oriental [[brocade]]s. This phenomenon was the result of the growing textile manufacturing sector, developing mass production processes, and increasing attempts to market fashion to men.&lt;ref name=&quot;shannon597&quot;/&gt; Corsets stressed a woman's sexuality, exaggerating hips and bust by contrast with a tiny waist. Women's [[evening gown]]s bared the shoulders and the tops of the breasts. The [[jersey dress]]es of the 1880s may have covered the body, but the stretchy novel fabric fit the body like a glove.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Gernsheim |first=Alison |title=Victorian &amp; Edwardian Fashion: A Photographic Survey |year=1981 |publisher=Dover Publications |location=New York |page=65|edition=New |isbn=0-486-24205-6}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Home furnishing was not necessarily ornate or overstuffed. However, those who could afford lavish draperies and expensive ornaments, and wanted to display their wealth, would often do so. Since the Victorian era was one of increased social mobility, there were ever more ''[[nouveaux riches]]'' making a rich show.

The items used in decoration may also have been darker and heavier than those used today, simply as a matter of practicality. London was noisy and its air was full of [[soot]] from countless coal fires. Hence those who could afford it draped their windows in heavy, sound-muffling curtains, and chose colours that didn't show soot quickly. When all washing was done by hand, curtains were not washed as frequently as they might be today.

There is no actual evidence that piano legs were considered scandalous. Pianos and tables were often draped with [[shawl]]s or cloths—but if the shawls hid anything, it was the cheapness of the furniture. There are references to lower-middle-class families covering up their [[pine]] tables rather than show that they couldn't afford [[mahogany]]. The piano leg story seems to have originated in the 1839 book, ''A Diary in America'' written by Captain [[Frederick Marryat]], as a satirical comment on American prissiness.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Marryat |first1=C.B. |title=A Diary in America: With Remarks on Its Institutions |date=1839 |publisher=Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longmans |location=London, England |volume=2 |pages=246–247 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2-VEAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA246}} From pp. 246-247:  &quot;I was requested by a lady to escort her to a seminary for young ladies, and on being ushered into the reception-room, conceive my astonishment at beholding a square piano-forte with four ''limbs''. However, that the ladies who visited their daughters, might feel in its full force the extreme delicacy of the mistress of the establishment, and her care to preserve in their utmost purity the ideas of the young ladies under her charge, she had dressed all these four limbs in modest little trousers, with frills at the bottom of them!&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;

Victorian manners may have been as strict as imagined—on the surface. One simply did not speak publicly about sex, childbirth, and such matters, at least in the respectable middle and upper classes. However, as is well known, discretion covered a multitude of sins. Prostitution flourished. Upper-class men and women indulged in [[adultery|adulterous]] liaisons.

== Gallery ==
{{gallery
|2=A mid-Victorian interior: ''Hide and Seek'' by [[James Tissot]], c. 1877
Image:Winterhalter Elisabeth.jpg|3=Dress designed by [[Charles Frederick Worth]] for [[Elisabeth of Bavaria|Elisabeth of Austria]] painted by [[Franz Xaver Winterhalter]].|4=File:Frith A Private View detail.jpg|5=[[William Powell Frith]]'s painting of 1883 contrasts women's [[Aesthetic dress]] (left and right) with fashionable attire (center).|6=File:Tissot lilacs 1875.jpg|7=Day dress, c. 1875 [[James Tissot]] painting.|8=File:James Abbot McNeill Whistler 011.jpg|9=[[James McNeill Whistler|Whistler]]'s [[Portrait of Lady Meux]], 1882
Image:Jeanna_Samary-Renoir.png|10=[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir|Renoir]]'s portrait of [[Jeanne Samary]] in an [[evening gown]], 1878|11=File:Melville_-_Queen_Victoria.jpg|12=Portrait by [[Alexander Melville (artist)|Alexander Melville]] of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], 1845|13=File:Henry Treffry Dunn Rossetti and Dunton at 16 Cheyne Walk.jpg|14=An artistic interior: [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] reading to [[Theodore Watts-Dunton]] in the drawing room at No. 16 [[Cheyne Walk]], 1882|15=File:Punch - Masculine beauty retouched1.png|16=Men's swimwear: Cartoon from ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]'' by [[George du Maurier]]}}

== See also ==
* [[Emily Clapham]]
* [[Victorian decorative arts]]
* [[Victorian dress reform]]
* [[Victorian morality]]
* [[Victoriana]]
* [[Women in the Victorian Era]]
* [[Charles Frederick Worth]]

=== Time periods ===
* [[1830s in fashion]]
* [[1840s in fashion]]
* [[1850s in fashion]]
* [[1860s in fashion]]
* [[1870s in fashion]]
* [[1880s in fashion]]
* [[1890s in fashion]]

=== Women's clothing ===
* [[Corset]]
* [[Corset controversy]]
* [[Tightlacing]]
* [[Bloomers (clothing)|Bloomers]]
* [[Bodice]]

=== Contemporary interpretations ===
* [[Steampunk]]
* [[Neo-Victorian]]
* [[Lolita Fashion|Lolita]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
*{{cite book |author=Phipps, Elena| title= ''From Queen to Empress: Victorian dress 1837-1877'' | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1988 | isbn=0870995340| url= http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/69547/rec/235 | display-authors=etal}}
* Sweet, Matthew – ''Inventing the Victorians'', St. Martin's Press, 2001 {{ISBN|0-312-28326-1}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion Victorian Fashion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407223711/http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion |date=7 April 2018 }}
* [https://www.victorianvoices.net/topics/fashion/index.shtml VictorianVoices.net] – Fashion articles and illustrations from Victorian periodicals; extensive fashion image gallery
* [http://www.cracked.com/article_19575_5-ridiculous-sex-myths-from-history-you-probably-believe.html Victorian myths]
* [http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm Victorian fashion, etiquette, and sports] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103162620/http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm |date=3 January 2018 }}
* [http://www.thesmartset.com/article/article12180701.aspx Background on &quot;A Diary in America&quot;]
* [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/VQ_P2_17_EN.html Form and Fashion] —  the evolution of women's dress during the 19th century (many photographs)
* [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/games/jeu2/ Educational Game: Mix and Match] — build a 19th-century dress using a virtual mannequin
* {{cite web |publisher= [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]
 |url= http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/v/victorian-dress-at-v-and-a/
 |title= Victorian Dress
 |work= Fashion, Jewellery &amp; Accessories
 |date= 14 January 2011
 |access-date= 2011-04-03}}
*[http://cv.vic.gov.au/stories/creative-life/fashion-detective-fashion-fiction-and-forensics/ Fashion detective: Fashion, Fiction and Forensics in nineteenth century Australian fashion] on Culture Victoria

{{Timeline of clothing and fashion|state=collapsed}}{{Victorian era|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Victorian fashion| ]]
[[Category:19th-century fashion|*]]
[[Category:1900s fashion]]
[[Category:History of Western fashion]]
[[Category:19th century in the arts]]

=From ''Women in the Victorian era''=
===Victorian women's fashion===
{{Multiple issues|{{tone|date=March 2023}}
{{more footnotes needed|date=March 2023}}|section=y}}{{Further|Victorian fashion}}
The ideal Victorian woman was pure, chaste, refined, and modest. This ideal was supported by etiquette and manners. The etiquette extended to the pretension of never acknowledging the use of undergarments (sometimes generically referred to as &quot;unmentionables&quot;). The discussion of such a topic, it was feared, would gravitate towards unhealthy attention on anatomical details. As one Victorian lady expressed it: &quot;[those] are not things, my dear, that we speak of; indeed, we try not even to think of them&quot;, in contrast to current norms.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=20}}&lt;/ref&gt; The pretence of avoiding acknowledgement of anatomical realities met with embarrassing failure on occasion. In 1859, the Hon. Eleanor Stanley wrote about an incident where the [[Louisa Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire|Duchess of Manchester]] moved too quickly while manoeuvring over a [[stile]], tripping over her large [[hoop skirt]]:

{{blockquote|[the Duchess] caught a hoop of her cage in it and went regularly head over heels lighting on her feet with her cage and whole petticoats above, above her head. They say there was never such a thing seen – and the other ladies hardly knew whether to be thankful or not that a part of her undergarments consisted in a pair of scarlet tartan [[knickerbockers (clothing)|knickerbockers]] (the things Charlie shoots in) which were revealed to the view of all the world in general and the [[Aimable Pélissier|Duc de Malakoff]] in particular&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Cunnington|first=C. Willett|title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations|year=1990|publisher=Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-26323-6|pages=20–1}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

However, despite the fact that Victorians considered the mention of women's undergarments in mixed company unacceptable, men's entertainment made great comedic material out of the topic of ladies' [[bloomers (clothing)|bloomers]], including men's magazines and music hall skits.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=22}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Victorian women's clothing followed trends that emphasised elaborate dresses, skirts with wide volume created by the use of layered material such as [[crinoline]]s, hoop skirt frames, and heavy fabrics. Because of the impracticality and health impact of the era's fashions, a [[Victorian dress reform|dress reform movement]] began among women.

The ideal silhouette of the time demanded a narrow waist, which was accomplished by constricting the abdomen with a laced [[corset]]. While the silhouette was striking, and the dresses themselves were often exquisitely detailed creations, the fashions were cumbersome. At best, they restricted women's movements and at worst, they had a harmful effect on women's health. Physicians turned their attention to the use of corsets and determined that they caused several medical problems: compression of the thorax, restricted breathing, organ displacement, poor circulation, and prolapsed uterus.&lt;ref name=&quot;O'Connor&quot;/&gt;

Articles advocating the reform of women's clothing by the British National Health Society, the Ladies' Dress Association, and the [[Rational Dress Society]] were reprinted in ''The Canada Lancet'', Canada's medical journal. In 1884, Dr J. Algernon Temple of Toronto even voiced concern that the fashions were having a negative impact on the health of young women from the working classes. He pointed out that a young working-class woman was likely to spend a large part of her earnings on fine hats and shawls, while &quot;her feet are improperly protected, and she wears no flannel petticoat or woollen stockings&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;O'Connor&quot;/&gt;
[[File:Bloomers.jpg|thumb|1850s illustration of a woman wearing [[bloomers]]]]
[[Florence Pomeroy]], Lady Haberton, was president of the Rational Dress movement in Britain. At a National Health Society exhibition held in 1882, Viscountess Haliburton presented her invention of a &quot;[[divided skirt]]&quot;, which was a long skirt that cleared the ground, with separate halves at the bottom made with material attached to the bottom of the skirt. She hoped that her invention would become popular by supporting women's freedom of physical movement, but the British public was not impressed by the invention, perhaps because of the negative &quot;unwomanly&quot; association of the style with the American [[Bloomers]] movement.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Murray|first=Janet Horowitz|title=Strong-Minded Women and Other Lost Voices from 19th Century England|year=1982|publisher=Pantheon Books|location=New York|isbn=0-394-71044-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68 68–70]|url=https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Amelia Jenks Bloomer]] had encouraged the wearing of visible bloomers by feminists to assert their right to wear comfortable and practical clothing, but it was no more than a passing fashion itself among radical feminists. The movement to reform women's dress would persist and have long-term success, however; by the 1920s, [[Coco Chanel]] was successful at selling a progressive, far less restrictive silhouette that abandoned the corset and raised hemlines. The new silhouette symbolised modernism for trendy young women and became the 20th century standard. Other Paris designers continued reintroducing pants for women and the trend was gradually adopted over the next century.

Fashion trends, in one sense, travelled &quot;full circle&quot; over the course of the Victorian era. The popular women's styles during the [[Georgian era]], and at the very beginning of Victoria's reign, emphasized a simple style influenced by flowing gowns worn by women in [[Ancient Greek clothing|Ancient Greece]] and [[Clothing in ancient Rome|Rome]]. The [[Empire waist]] silhouette was replaced by a trend towards ornate styles and an artificial silhouette, with the restrictiveness of women's clothing reaching its low point during the mid-century passion for narrow corseted waists and hoop skirts. The iconic wide-brimmed women's hats of the later Victorian era also followed the trend towards ostentatious display. Hats began the Victorian era as simple [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnets]]. By the 1880s, milliners were tested by the competition among women to top their outfits with the most creative (and extravagant) hats, designed with expensive materials such as silk flowers and exotic plumes such as ostrich and peacock. As the Victorian era drew to a close, however, fashions were showing indications of a popular backlash against excessive styles. Model, actress and socialite [[Lillie Langtry]] took London by storm in the 1870s, attracting notice for wearing simple black dresses to social events. Combined with her natural beauty, the style appeared dramatic. Fashions followed her example (as well as Queen Victoria's wearing of mourning black later in her reign). According to [[Harold Koda]], the former Curator-in-chief of the [[Costume Institute at The Met|Metropolitan Museum of Art's Costume Institute]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/about-the-museum/press-room/exhibitions/2014/death-becomes-her|title=Death Becomes Her: A Century of Mourning Attire : October 21, 2014-February 1, 2015|website=Metmuseuim.org|access-date=7 November 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;The predominantly black palette of [[mourning]] dramatizes the evolution of period silhouettes and the increasing absorption of fashion ideals into this most codified of etiquettes,&quot; said Koda, &quot;The veiled widow could elicit sympathy as well as predatory male advances. As a woman of sexual experience without marital constraints, she was often imagined as a potential threat to the social order.&quot;

====Evolution of Victorian women's fashion====
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Fashion plate December 1844.jpg|Ladies' December Fashions (1844). Hand-coloured steel engraving from a women's magazine.
File:Thegalleryofhmscalcutta james tissot 1876.jpg|''[[The Gallery of HMS Calcutta]]'' by [[James Tissot]] (1876). [[Bustle]]s were fashionable in the 1870s and 1880s.
File:Mrs lillie langtry george frederic watts 1880.jpg|''Mrs. Lillie Langtry'' by [[George Frederic Watts]] (1880).
File:Five-women-on-queenslander-steps-r.jpg|Fashionable women in [[Queensland]], Australia around 1900.
&lt;/gallery&gt;


{{Short description|Irish writer (born 1963)}}
{{Use Irish English|date=August 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}}
{{Infobox writer
| name               = Darach Ó Scolaí
| image              = Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG
| alt                = Man holding prize-winning book
| caption            = Ó Scolaí in 2019
| birth_name         = Darach Ó Scolaí
| birth_date         = {{Birth date and age|1963|df=y}}
| birth_place        = [[County Galway]], The Republic of Ireland
| death_date         = 
| death_place        = 
| occupation         = Writer, artist, publisher
| alma_mater         = [[University of Galway]]
| years_active       = 1998–present
| genre            = Novel, retelling, translation, play, screenplay, illustrated book for children and adults
| other_names        = 
| spouse             = 
| children           = 3
| awards             = [[Awards and Honors received by Darach Ó Scolaí|Awards and Honors]]
| signature          = 
| website            = 
}}[[File:Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG|thumb|Darach Ó Scolaí, holding ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (his translation of Robert Louis Stevenson's ''Treasure Island'')]]


== Darach Ó Scolaí ==
Darach Ó Scolaí (&lt;small&gt;Irish:&lt;/small&gt; [/ˈda.rax/ /oː/ /sˠkˠoː/l̪ˠəi/]; born 1963&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://portraidi.ie/en/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=20 October 2017|website=Portráidí (Portraits of Irish-Language Writers)|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;) is an Irish author who works in a number of genres, from novels, plays and screenplays to illustrated books for children and adults. He began his literary career in 1998 writing screenplays, stage plays, retellings and translations; he began to publish novels in 2008. Ó Scolaí is widely recognized as a leading figure in contemporary Irish literature, known as “one of the most important Irish language writers of his generation”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=2022|title=? Suil an Daill: Constant Tensions and Shifting Allegiances|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/suil-an-daill-constant-tensions-and-shifting-allegiances/|journal=Books Ireland}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &quot;one of the great Irish language novelists [duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge].&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot; /&gt; His writing has been called “the high literature of the Irish language.”&lt;ref&gt;Ó Coimín, Maitiú. ''Nós'' 2 February 2018). Qtd. in &quot;Táin Bó Cuailnge.&quot; ''Leabhar Breac''. Retrieved 25 August 2025.&lt;/ref&gt;

Much of his fiction is based on a knowledge of traditional Irish tales and narrative practices as well as Irish history. He specializes in literary and [[wikipedia:Historical_fiction|historical fiction]], or as novelist Alan Titley says, Ó Scolaí’s “peak (for now), or at least his greatest imaginative interest, is the historical novel [tá an chuma air gurb é a bhuaic (go fóill), nó ar a laghad, a mhórspéis samhlaíochta, an t-úrscéal staire].”&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=Fall 2020|title=An Stíl Go Deo!: Soather Dharach Uí Scolaí (The style would be forever!: Worker Darach Ó Scolaí)|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27046090|journal=Comhar|volume=80, No. 10|pages=27|via=JSTOR}}&lt;/ref&gt; His retellings of old stories and tales from their original Middle and Early-Modern Irish into Modern Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]) are respected for their accessibility to students and language learners as well as for their artistry.

Ó Scolaí also regularly reviews books and lectures and writes on literature and culture. 

Beyond his writing, Ó Scolaí is a publisher and has co-produced a number of film, television shows and stage plays. 

== Life ==
Ó Scolaí was born in Dublin and raised in the Galway [[wikipedia:Gaeltacht#Galway Gaeltacht|Gaeltacht]] (Irish-speaking) regions of Cois Fharraige on the north shore of Galway Bay, in the Republic of Ireland, where he lives now with his wife and children in Lochán Beag (Indreabhán).&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=30 October 2024|title=Duais don úrscéal liteartha is fearr buaite ag Darach Ó Scolaí ag Oireachtas na Samhna|url=https://tuairisc.ie/duais-don-ursceal-liteartha-is-fearr-buaite-ag-darach-o-scolai-ag-oireachtas-na-samhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ní Scolaí|first=Aifric|date=2024|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://www.taiscecf.ie/ealaiontoiri?category=Scr%C3%ADbhneoir|journal=Taisce Chois Fharraige}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

He graduated the [[wikipedia:University_of_Galway|University of Galway]] (then University College Galway) with a B.A. in 1983.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.linkedin.com/in/darach-ó-scolaí-20026920/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|last=Ó Scolaí|first=Darach|date=August 2025|website=LinkedIn}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Writing and Publishing ===
Ó Scolaí writes in Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]), his native language, and lives in an area defined for the predominant presence of Irish as the vernacular language, the language spoken at home. Irish was the language of his parents' home and is the language of children as well. He is fluent in Irish and English and conversant in French. 

None of his works has been translated into English. 

==== Leabhar Breac ====
In 1995 Darach Ó Scolaí and his brother Caomhán Ó Scolaí — a [[wikipedia:Typography|typographer]] and designer — founded the publishing house Leabhar Breac at Indreabhán (Inverin), County Galway. Their father “Séamas Ó Scolaí was an editor at An Gúm and worked on the Irish-English dictionary team [bhí a n-athair Séamas Ó Scolaí ina eagarthóir sa Ghúm agus d’oibrigh sé ar fhoireann an fhoclóra Gaeilge-Béarla].”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/about-us/|title=About Us|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; Darach Ó Scolaí has been publisher and literary editor at Leabhar Breac since its founding. 

Named for [[wikipedia:An_Leabhar_Breac|An Leabhar Breac (The Speckled Book)]], Leabhar Breac publishing house has more than 140 books in print.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Leabhar Breac aims to publish Irish-language books that meet “a high literary and artistic standard.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; Besides the content, Leabhar Breac is known for the typically &quot;superb [thar cionn]&quot; quality of the design and production of the &quot;physical book [leabhar fisiciúil].&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ní Mhuilneoir|first=Gráinne|date=30 July 2024|title=‘Bláthnaid’ – leabhar álainn i sraithín álainn faoi mhná|url=https://tuairisc.ie/blathnaid-leabhar-alainn-i-sraithin-alainn-faoi-mhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}&lt;/ref&gt; Its books regularly win awards for literary and artistic quality. Leabhar Breac also publishes translations for children and adults from various early versions of Irish as well as from French and English (and has published translations of books for young readers from Spanish, Catalan, and Italian as well).

Leabhar Breac prints its books in Ireland.

=== Stage and Screen ===

==== Rosg ====
In 1998 along with Ciarán Ó Cofaigh,&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.rosg.ie/en/about/History_6/|title=About Us: History|date=July 2025|website=Rosg|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ó Scolaí co-founded the film and television production company [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ Rosg] and was co-director until 2006. Rosg produced Ó ScolaÍ’s films ''Cosa Nite'' (1999), ''An Leabhar'' (2001) and ''Na Cloigne'' (2010). He left Rosg in 2006 to devote his time to other artistic activities. 

==== Ealaín ar Oileán ====
In 2004, along with Val Balance, Ó Scolaí co-founded the annual artists' symposium Ealaín ar Oileán (trans., Art on an Island). The Irish-language symposium was held annually in the Áras Éanna arts and cultural center on Inis Oírr ([[wikipedia:Inisheer|Inisheer]], the smallest of the [[wikipedia:Aran_Islands|Aran Islands]]) from 2004 to 2013. Ó Scolaí was its co-director from its founding&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darach_Ó_Scolaí.|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=3 February 2024|website=Vicipéid|access-date=1 July 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; until 2013.

Besides being its co-director, Ó Scolaí has taken part in this conference as an artist&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=16 January 2005|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050116163252/http://bliainiris.com/authors/darach_oscolai.html|journal=Bliainiris}}&lt;/ref&gt; and writer&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|title=The Conference|date=7 September 2013|website=Ealaín ar Oileán|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130907083744/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|archive-date=7 September 2013|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

==== Salamandar ====
In 2006 Ó Scolaí founded the stage production company Salamandar and directed his own play ''An Braon Aníos''. His plays ''An tSeanbhróg'' (2009) and ''Craos'' (2008) were also produced by Salamandar.&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== Works ==

=== Novels ===
* [[wikipedia:An_Cléireach|''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'')]], Leabhar Breac, 2007. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2007; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2008, and &quot;named as ‘the best novel since the turn of the Century’ by Comhar.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-cleireach/|title=An Cléireach - Leabhar Breac - Irish language novel|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-24}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Na Comharthaí'' (trans., ''The Signs''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.
* ''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2019.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/suil-an-daill/|title=Súil an Daill|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Bódléar'', Leabhar Breac, 2024. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2024&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2025; featured in the 2025 Listen-Up Irish Summer Challenge for students of the Irish language.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://connachttribune.ie/novel-approach-helps-people-learn-irish-in-a-creative-way/|title=Novel approach helps people learn Irish in a creative way|last=Murphy|first=Judy|date=3 October 2025|work=Connaught Tribune|access-date=24 October 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Retellings, Translations and Editions ===
The retellings and translations are into modern Irish.

* ''Feis Tigh Chonáin'' (trans., ''The Feast of Conán's House''), Leabhar Breac, 2000; a retelling of a 15&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;-century tale from the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/feis-tigh-chonain/|title=Feis Tigh Chonáin|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach'' (trans., ''The Narrow-Striped Kern''), Leabhar Breac, 2002; a retelling from c. 1500, also illustrated by Darach Ó ScolaÍ.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-ceithearnach-caolriabhach/|title=An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), Leabhar Breac, 2017, both a modern edition of an 11th-century epic and an annotated edition.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/tain-bo-cuailnge-2-2/|title=Táin Bó Cuailnge|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;  &quot;''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' won the Aodán Mac Poilín Memorial Prize 2017.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:19&quot; /&gt;
* ''Deirdre'', Leabhar Breac, 2023, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/deirdre/|title=Deirdre|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; Part of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]], ''Deirdre'' is a retelling  of the story of possibly the most widely known Irish figure from the early tales and sagas.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology|last=MacKillop|first=James|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=9780198609674|pages=181}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Bláthnaid'', Leabhar Breac, 2024, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova; “one of the great stories of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]].”&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;
* ''Sadhbh,'' Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers, illustrated by Alé Mercado; a retelling of the medieval tale ''Ceasacht Inghine Ghuile (''trans., ''The Complaint of Guile's Daughter'').&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/tales-of-wonder/|title=Tales of Wonder|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Eoghan Béal'', Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers illustrated by Alé Mercado&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;; a retelling of the medieval tale ''[https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caithr%C3%A9im_Cellaig Cathréim Ceallaigh]'' from ''The Yellow Book of Leacan.''&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;

=== For Young Readers ===
Ó Scolaí has written illustrated books for young readers (8–10 years old) in two series, the Fionn Series and the Scéalta Staire series, and translated a large number of classics and popular books for children of all ages. The number of these written and translated works suggests a commitment to children and their literacy in Irish. 

The Fionn Series “is a retelling ... of the great legends of the Fianna for the young Irish readers of today.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/doiteoir-na-samhna/|title=Dóiteoir na Samhna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[wikipedia:The_Boyhood_Deeds_of_Fionn|Macgnímartha Finn (The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn)]] is a medieval story in the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]].

* ''An Bradán Feasa'' (trans., ''The Salmon of Knowledge''), Leabhar Breac, 2010, “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/an-bradan-feasa/|title=An Bradán Feasa|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Dóiteoir na Samhna'' (trans., ''The Halloween Burner''), 2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;
* ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' (trans., ''The Churl in the Dun Coat''), 2011.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/|title=Bodach an Chóta Lachna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Scéalta Staire (Historical Stories) series&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;

* ''Mánas Ó Dónaill'', 2000.
* ''Seán Ó Néill'', Leabhar Breac, 2000.
* ''Gráinne Mhaol Ní Mháille'', Leabhar Breac, 2003.
* ''Tadhg Dall Ó hUiginn'', Leabhar Breac, 2003.

==== Translations ====

* Robert Louis Stevenson, ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (trans. of ''Treasure Island''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-06-19|title=Oireachtas na Gaeilge|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge&amp;oldid=1296394643|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Robert Louis Stevenson, ''An Fuadach'' (trans. of ''Kidnapped''), Leabhar Breac, 2016.
* Clement Clarke Moore, ''Cuairt San Nioclás'' (trans. of ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or &quot;'Twas the Night Before Christmas&quot;), Leabhar Breac, 2022.
'''''The Corto Maltese Graphic Novels'''''

Written in Italian by Hugo Pratt and translated by Ó Scolaí, both adults and teenagers read this series of Italian adventure graphic novels.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2025-07-01|title=Corto Maltese|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corto_Maltese&amp;oldid=1298285365|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ó Scolaí's '''translation of ''Corto Maltese''''' was listed in 2017 among &quot;The 30 Irish books that Irish people love.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=09/06/2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil [The 30 Irish books that Irish people love]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Port na Farraige Goirt'', Leabhar Breac, 2013.
* Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: The Golden House in Samarkand'', 2014.
* Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Na Liopard-Fhir ó Rufiji'' (trans. of ''Corto: The Leopard Men of Rufiji''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.
* Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: In Ainm Dé Uilthrócairigh'' (trans. of ''Corto: In the Name of God All-Merciful''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.
* Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Tóraíocht Eile'' (trans. of ''Corto: Another Quest''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.
* Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Sa tSibéir'' (trans. of ''Corto: In Siberia''), Leabhar Breac, 2016.
'''''Other Translations for Children'''''

Ó Scolaí has translated into Irish six books from the ''Le Pavillon Noir'' (trans., ''Jolly Roger'') series by Alain Surget; four books from the ''Catalan First Steps'' series by Enric Lluch Girbés and the ''Caitlín &amp; Cormac'' series by Joan Carles; three books from the ''Louisette le Taupe'' series by Bruno Heitz, and three books from the ''Loup'' series by Orianne Lallemand.

=== Plays and Screenplays ===

==== Stage Plays ====
Ó Scolaí was writer and director of the original productions of two plays in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (trans., ''Three Drops'') trilogy; ''Coinneáil Orainn'' was directed by Darach Mac Con Iomaire and staged by An Taibhdhearc. All three plays have been published in book form by Leabhar Breac.

* ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32553|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; The first play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. [[wikipedia:Taibhdhearc_na_Gaillimhe|An Taibhdhearc]], the national Irish-language theatre of Ireland, toured the country in 2005 with ''Coinneáil Orainn''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/coinneail-orainn/|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; Walter Macken Prize, 2005; BBC Stewart Parker Award, 2006.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/person/darach-scola|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Branwen'', 2006, by Darach Ó Scolaí and Ifor ap Glyn, in Irish, Welsh and English, co-produced by Project Arts Centre and Llwyfan Gogledd Cymru, toured the Republic of Ireland and Wales.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32418|title=Branwen|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''An Braon'' Aníos (trans., ''Rising Damp''), 2006, directed by Ó Scolaí.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32461|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; The second play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. “The Salamandar company toured the country in 2006-07 with this play, and Salamandar also produced a radio version of the play for RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta in 2009.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/an-braon-anios/|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Craos'' (trans., ''Gluttony''), 2008, directed by Ó Scolaí.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32867|title=Craos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; The third play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy, it toured to Cork and Belfast.&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot; /&gt; A review of the 2008 Salamander performance in the ''Irish Times'' says, “a humorous play which offers plenty to think about, fine acting, and sparklingly witty dialogue.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/craos-2/|title=Craos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''A+E'', 2008, by Ríonach Ní Néill and Darach Ó Scolaí, &quot;dance and music drama,&quot; co-produced by Ciotóg and Salamandar.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32962|title=A+E|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''An tSeanbhróg'' (trans., ''The Old Shoe''), 2009, produced by Salamander&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=33042|title=An tSeanbhróg|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; and staged in the Axis Arts Centre, Dublin, and the Letterkenny Arts Centre.
* '''In ''Mhuir Fhíondorcha/The Wine-Dark Sea: The Homer Project'', Ó Scolaí's translation of Homer's Cyclops story, performed at the 2019 IMRAM festival'''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/imram-a-festival-celebrating-the-irish-language-1.4047610|title=Imram: a festival celebrating the Irish language. Liam Carson reveals the myths and legends appearing in this year’s programme|last=Carson|first=Liam|date=11 October 2019|work=The Irish Times|access-date=15 October 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Screenplays ====

* ''Cosa Nite'' (trans., ''Washed Feet''), short film, 1998 (dir. Dearbhla Walsh, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg); &quot;a prose version of ''Cosa Nite'' was published (Rosg 2000).&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt; Nominated for an Irish Film and Television Award.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=Cosa Nite (Short 1998) - Awards - IMDb|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0191917/awards/|accessdate=2025-08-25|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Na Glúnta'' (trans., ''The Generations''), 2001&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.iftn.ie/production/production_companies/production_sub/feature/?act1=record&amp;aid=70&amp;rid=3917&amp;tpl=filmography_dets&amp;only=1&amp;force=1|title=Na Glúnta {{!}} The Irish Film &amp; Television Network|website=www.iftn.ie|access-date=2025-08-25}}&lt;/ref&gt;, co-directors Ciarán Ó Cofaigh &amp; Darach Ó Scolaí, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg.
* ''An Leabhar'' (trans., ''The Book''), short film, 2000, (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg) Rosg, 2000.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|title=An Leabhar|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0963767/|publisher=Bord Scannán na hÉireann / The Irish Film Board, ROSG|accessdate=2025-08-25|first=Robert|last=Quinn|others=Colm O&amp;apos;Maonlai, Peadar O&amp;apos;Treasaigh, Diarmuid Mac an Adhastair}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Na Cloigne'' [trans., The Heads], 3-episide series, 2010 (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg), TG4.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1607924/|title=Na cloigne|date=2010|website=IMDb|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Nonfiction ===
Ó Scolaí's essays and lectures are published and his interviews are broadcast regularly, making for a large body of nonfiction critical and analytical work. Here are a few, almost all published in [https://comhar.ie/iris/scribhneoiri/darach-o-scolai/ Comhar]:

* “Ceol Ciúin na nÉagmaise” (trans., “The Silent Music of Absence ['''the Fall?''']”), an essay on the 2014 Nobel Prize winner for literature, [[wikipedia:Patrick_Modiano|Patrick Modiano]], ''Comhar'', December 2014.
* The Ó Cadhain Lecture: [https://leachtaiuichadhain.clo.ie/leachtai/2014 “Cuimhne agus Díchuimhne (trans., “Memory &amp; Forgetfulness&quot;]), 2014.
* “Rithim agus Réim” (&quot;Rhythm and Register&quot;), a public lecture in the University College Dublin lecture series “Ó Thrácht go Twitter” (trans., &quot;From Talk to Twitter&quot;), 2014.
* Review of Pádraig Ó Cíobháin’s ''Dréachta Chrích Fodla'', '''Comhar?, ??'''.
* “Na Geilt i mBun an Tí” (trans., &quot;The Madmen in Charge&quot;), a talk at the Merriman Winter School, Comhar April 2012.&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://darachoscolai.ie/beathaisneis.html|title=Darach Ó Scolaí: Beathaisnéis|website=darachoscolai.ie|access-date=2025-09-26}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* The EFACIS podcast: Síle Ní Choincheannain talks to Darach Ó Scolaí about the historical novel.

== Critical Reception ==
Ó Scolaí’s style has been called “crisp and elegant, and rich in language while being highly readable,”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Heussaf|first=Anna|date=Summer 2025|title=Bláthnaid—A tale of love, violence and sorcery retold for readers today|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/blathnaid-a-tale-of-love-violence-and-sorcery/|journal=Books Ireland}}&lt;/ref&gt; with “an unsurpassed richness and precision of language.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ó Cróinín|first=Breandán|date=Summer 2025|title=unknown|journal=The Limerick Leader}}&lt;/ref&gt; “Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned” is how Éilis Ní Dhuibhne described his writing.&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot; /&gt;   

=== Original Works ===
Ó Scolaí’s first novel, the 2007 ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') won two prizes and was described as “one of the great historical novels in the Irish language and among the best books written in the language since the beginning of this century.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot; /&gt; Novelist Alan Titley says, “In ''An Cléireach'' Ó Scolaí creates the Ireland of war in the 17th century more fully than any other Irish writer on the subject of war since ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Ó Thuairisc around 1798 [In ''An Cléireach'' cruthaíonn Ó Scolaí Éire an chogaidh san 17ú haois níos iomláine ná mar a dhein aon scríbhneoir Gaeilge eile ar ábhar cogaidh ó ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Uí Thuairisc timpeall ar 1798].”&lt;ref name=&quot;:11&quot; /&gt;{{rp|25, Col. 1a}} Not all the reviews of this first novel were so positive, however; Proinsias O' Drisceoil says for the Irish Times says,&lt;blockquote&gt;This then is a novel in search of a plot, a story that attempts to attain a significance that eludes it.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/a-disaffected-clerk-in-the-confederates-1.943070|title=A disaffected clerk in the confederates|last=O' Drisceoil|first=Proinsias|date=5 July 2008|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt; 

In the ''Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction'' Pádraig Ó Siadhail analyzes rather than reviews ''An Cléireach'': &lt;blockquote&gt;In ''An Cléireach'', Ó Scolaí revisits the trauma of Cromwellian Ireland. The primary narrative device is once again the first-hand account, in this case by Tadhg Ó Dúbháin, a clerk and quartermaster in the Confederate Army in 1650. We sample the hardships, the friendships, the tensions, the rivalries, and the petty jealousies amongst comrades in arms, including remnants of the Gaelic literary class, as the Confederate soldiers, increasingly a rabble more than a cohesive unit, retreat in advance of Cromwell’s forces. ''An Cléireach'' concludes with the narrator and his family in exile in continental Europe. But along the retreat route, and central to the novel, members of the Confederate army camp, rest up, and tell versions of a story about the keeper of the treasured manuscript &quot;Saltair an Easpaig&quot; (The Bishop’s Psalter). Their versions raise issues about memory construction, the limitations of individual perspectives, personal agendas, and how minor changes in the telling of a story can alter our understanding of history, Thus, ''An Cléireach'' complements ''Fontenoy'' in moving beyond more realistic recreation of a historical event or period to interrogate the notion of history as construct.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction|last=Ó Siadhail|first=Pádraig|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2020|isbn=9780198754893|editor-last=Harte|editor-first=Liam|pages=598–99|chapter=Contemporary Irish Fiction}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt;

Of ''Súil an Daill,'' in ''Nós'', Cathal Seoighe says, &quot;The book deserves a significant place among the collection of high-quality books published in recent years that would make you feel sorry for someone who does not speak Irish [Tá áit shuntasach ag dul don leabhar i measc an chnuasaigh leabhair ar ardchaighdeán a foilsíodh le roinnt blianta anuas a d’fhágfadh trua agat don té atá gan Ghaeilge].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Seoighe|first=Cathal|date=09/26/2022|title=‘Dar leathmhagairle an diabhail, is leabhar den scoth é seo!’ ['According to the devil’s half-wit, this is a great book!’]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/dar-leathmhagairle-an-diabhail-is-leabhar-den-scoth-e-seo/|journal=Nós}}&lt;/ref&gt;

''Bódléar'', Ó Scolaí's most recent book, is a “beautiful novel. There is magic and craftsmanship in it. A small miracle of a book and it is highly recommended.”&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/bodlear-mioruilt-bheag-de-leabhar/|title=Bódléar: Míorúilt bheag de leabhar (Bódléar: A Small Miracle of a Book)|last=Ní Ghairbhí|first=Róisín|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt; Éilis Ní Dhuibhne in the ''Irish Times'' says,&lt;blockquote&gt;what a gem! An affectionately gentle satire of the Irish poetic scene during one creatively fluid 19th-century year, the story focuses on a Maigue poet and schoolteacher who goes on a trip to France and returns with camembert, a cafetiere, ‘Fleurs du Mal’, and a mission to convert the local traditionalists to la modernité. Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned, it’s absolutely delightful!&lt;ref name=&quot;:20&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ní Dhuibhne|first=Éilis|date=30 June 2025|title=Éilís Ní Dhuibhne on the best Irish language books of 2025 so far:
Including a history of the Gaeltacht Civil Rights Movements, a gem of a novel by Darach Ó Scolaí and Joe McHugh’s entertaining account of learning Irish|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/review/2025/06/30/eilis-ni-dhuibhne-on-the-best-irish-language-books-of-2025-so-far/|journal=The Irish Times|pages=22}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Retellings and Translations ===

==== ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' ====
''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' [''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''] is a modern edition of an 11th-century epic into modern Irish.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Gearóid Denvir reviewed ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'':&lt;blockquote&gt;Darach Ó Scolaí has ​​achieved a feat in this challenging reworking. He has found a high level of the Irish language to tell his story – as he has done before in his groundbreaking novel An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) and in his other prose works. This book is a decoration of the language, literature and culture of the Irish language, following the path of the old storytellers and writers and presenting material from the tradition to his own generation according to the understandings of his own time. The book will be a classic that will be of great interest to all readers of the Irish language, both ordinary readers, students, scholars and writers, and there should be a copy in every home in the country. [Tá éacht déanta ag Darach Ó Scolaí san athleagan dúshlánach seo. Tá réim ard den teanga Ghaeilge aimsithe aige lena scéal a inseacht – mar a rinne sé cheana ina úrscéal ceannródaíoch An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) agus i saothair eile phróis dá chuid. Is maisiú ar an teanga agus ar litríocht agus cultúr na Gaeilge an leabhar seo a leanas conair na seanscéalaithe agus na seanscríobhaithe agus ábhar de chuid an traidisiúin á chur i láthair a ghlúine féin aige de réir thuiscintí a linne féin. Clasaic a bheas sa leabhar a gcuirfidh léitheoirí uilig na Gaeilge, idir ghnáthléitheoirí, mhic léinn, scoláirí agus scríbhneoirí spéis thar na bearta ann, agus ba cheart cóip a bheith i chuile theach sa tír.]&lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Denvir|first=Gearóid|date=April 2018|title=Táin Bó Cuailgne|url=https://comhar.ie/iris/78/4/leirmheas/|journal=Comhar|via=JSTOR}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt;Cathal Poirtéir says, &quot;The freshness and richness of Ó Scolaí’s version are a joy …. The author delights us with the linguistic and stylistic richness of the ancient epic in a modern-Irish version that reflects the original’s spirit and language.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=May/June 2018|title=Leabhair Idir Lámha|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26564180|journal=Books Ireland|pages=46–47|via=JSTOR}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|47}} Novelist and academic Alan Titley calls Ó Scolaí's &quot;a wonderful gutsy telling&quot; of ''Táin Bó Cuailnge''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/2023/03/11/the-tain-retold-maeve-and-ailills-spat-could-be-out-of-a-soap-opera/|title=The Táin retold: ‘Maeve and Ailill’s spat could be out of a soap opera’|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=11 March 2023|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== ''Deirdre'' ====

Marie Whelton, in &quot;Léann Teanga&quot; (&quot;Language Studies&quot;), in the 2024 ''An Reiviú'' says,&lt;blockquote&gt;this version [of ''Deirdre''] by Darach Ó Scolaí succeeds in skillfully capturing and portraying the complexity of gender and power issues in the ‘Deirdre’ tradition [éiríonn leis an leagan seo le Darach Ó Scolaí castacht cheisteanna na hinscne agus na cumhachta i dtraidisiún scéal Dheirdre a ghabháil agus a léiriú go sciliúil]. … There is no doubt that this new version greatly contributes to the legacy of the story and that it revives that legacy thoughtfully and artistically [Níl amhras faoi ach go gcuireann an leagan úr seo go mór le hoidhreacht an scéil agus go ndéanann sé an oidhreacht sin a athbheochan go tuisceanach agus go healaíonta.].&lt;ref name=&quot;:16&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.tara.tcd.ie/tara8/server/api/core/bitstreams/3c20175a-7631-44b2-8b0f-f454edd712b4/content|title=An Artistic Retelling of Deirdre's Tale and the Defeat of Conor Review of Deirdre or the Ship of Mac Uisnigh by Darach Ó Scolaí [Athinsint Ealaíonta ar Oidhe Dheirdre agus ar Ansmacht Chonchúir Léirmheas ar Deirdre nó Loingeas Mhac Uisnigh le Darach Ó Scolaí]|last=Whelton|first=Marie|date=2024|website=The Review [An Reiviú], Language Studies [Léann Teanga]|access-date=25 September 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
=== Works for Young Readers ===
Meadhbh Ní Eadhra said of ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' that it was &quot;Beautiful Irish, but easy to understand for young readers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ní Eadhra, Meadhbh. In ''Gaelscéal'', qtd. in &quot;Bodach an Chóta Lachna&quot; https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Awards and Honors ==
Ó Scolaí's works are regularly nominated and make the short list for prizes, an honor in itself, but they are generally not listed here unless they are named as the first-place winner in their category.

=== Oireachtas Prize ===
The Oireachtas Prize is the literary prize awarded by [[wikipedia:Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge|Oireachtas na Gaeilge]], the annual arts festival dedicated to Irish language, arts and culture. Darach Ó Scolaí has won the Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction three times, once for ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') in 2007, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'') in 2021 and for ''Bódléar'' in 2024.

* 2007, for ''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'') — “(a special prize commemorating the 400th anniversary of the foundation of Coláiste na nGael in Louvain, awarded under the auspices of the Franciscan Province of Ireland). The prize of €10,000 was the largest prize ever awarded to an Irish language novel [(duais speisialta chomórtha 400 bliain bhunú Choláiste na nGael i Lobháin a bronnadh faoi urraíocht Phroibhinse Phroinsiasach na hÉireann). Ba é an duais €10,000 sin an duais ba mhó a bronnadh riamh ar úrscéal Gaeilge].”&lt;ref name=&quot;:18&quot; /&gt;
* 2021, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'')
* 2024, for ''Bódléar''

=== Ó Shúilleabháin Award, Irish language “Book of the Year” ===
The first prize of this award includes €5,000 to the publisher and €2,500 to the author of the winning work.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|date=15 August 2023|title=20 saothar san iomaíocht do ‘Leabhair Ghaeilge na Bliana 2023’|url=https://tuairisc.ie/20-saothar-san-iomaiocht-do-leabhair-ghaeilge-na-bliana-2023/|journal=Tuairisc}}&lt;/ref&gt;

* ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'').&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|title=Eagrán / Edition 19 - 04 11 2008|date=4/11/2008|website=Internet Archive|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525011340/http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|archive-date=25 May 2013|access-date=25 August 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'', 2018.
* ''Bódléar'', 2025.

==== De Bhaldraithe Award ====
The Gradam de Bhaldraithe is awarded to the best work in translation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;

* ''Cuairt San Nioclás,'' a translation of Clement Clarke Moore's ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or &quot;'Twas the Night Before Christmas.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;

==== Other ====

* Walter Macken Prize, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005
* Bháiteir Uí Mhaicín Memorial Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/gaeilge/tuarascail/duais-oireachtais-1.501571|title=Oireachtas Prize: Over €50,000 was awarded to writers in the Oireachtas Literary Competitions at an event in Dublin last night. Winners… [Duais Oireachtais: Bronnadh breis agus €50,000 ar scríbhneoirí i gComórtais Liteartha an Oireachtais ar ócáid i mBaile Átha Cliath aréir. Bhuaigh…]|work=5 October 2005|access-date=15 October 2025}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* BBC Stewart Parker Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2006
* The Aodán Mac Póilín Commemorative Prize, for ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), 2017

== External Links ==

* Leabhar Breac website: https://leabharbreac.com/en/
* Leabhar Breac Facebook pages:
* Rosg website: [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ &lt;nowiki&gt;http://ww&lt;/nowiki&gt;w.rosg.ie/en/]
* Art on the Island (Ealaín ar Oileán) website, archived at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20130601000520/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ 31 March 2012, 1 June 2013 and 8 January 2014

* Darach Ó Scolaí's website Archived 25 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20150925103456/http://darachoscolai.ie/
* Youtube video of [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OlP2AmSBzXc Breandán Ó Cróinin introducing Deirdre at the book launch] in the pub Tigh Mholly (Molly’s House).

== Primordial Ooze ==

* Known for his sensitivity to language and voices.
* Finish scanning through JSTOR
* Scan through Irish Times, 56 hits
* Check Goodreads
* Check YouTube (In the spring of 2013, the arts programme Imeall interviewed the author on TG4.)
* Check both Wikipedias for pages on the origins of the retold tales (like Deirdre) and link to this article
* Propose link from University of Galway page once Darach’s is up
* Write Irish National Biography (&lt;nowiki&gt;https://www.dib.ie&lt;/nowiki&gt;) to propose an article about Darach once the Wikip article is done? See what they say.
* Link to Ó Scolaí from the Wikipedia
* Make sure links '''to''' Wikipedia in the actual encyclopedia work right

=== Not Placed Yet ===

* &quot;So here are the books that Irish people love the most! [Mar sin seo iad na leabhair is gile leis na Gaeil!]&quot; — &quot;32. An Cléireach – Darach Ó Scolaí (2)&quot; [18 books got 2 votes, and then they're alphabetized by author's last name, so the 32 of 34 doesn't signify the specificity it seems to]&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=9 June 2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil. [The 30 best Irish books for Irish people]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* &quot;Below is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers.Here is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers [Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí.Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí].&quot; &quot;Corto Maltese – Hugo Pratt (aistrithe ag Darach Ó Scolaí)&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:14&quot; /&gt;
* &quot;Ceann eile de bhuaicphointí na hÉigse a bheidh sa seisiún le Darach Ó Scolaí, duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge, agus duine de chomhbhunaitheoirí teach foilsitheoireachta Leabhar Breac. [Another highlight of the Éigse will be the session with Darach Ó Scolaí, one of the great Irish language novelists, and one of the co-founders of the publishing house Leabhar Breac.]&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:17&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Nós|date=4 May 2023|title=Éigse na Bruiséile le filleadh i mí na Bealtaine. [Éigse na Bruséile to return in May]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/eigse-na-bruiseile-le-filleadh-i-mi-na-bealtaine/|journal=Nós}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Things Taken Out for Now ===
“’The play is a comedy about language, lies, bureaucracy and Gaeltacht grants, in the tradition of Myles na Gcopaleen,’ according to Norma-Jean Kenny in the ''Galway Advertizer'', ‘in which the author comments and criticizes the institutions of the Irish language in Ireland without ceasing.’&quot;

Supposedly a quotation by Gearóid Denvir reviewing ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'' (but I don't find it in the article):

This book has long been needed by Irish language readers and there is no doubt that it will become a classic in time and surpass Thomas Kinsella’s English version. This version remains faithful to the language of the original while at the same time finding an appropriate language in today’s Irish. Ó Scolaí masterfully overcomes the difficulties of the original’s rhetorical difficulties and the versions of the original poetic texts are extremely effective.[supposedly &lt;ref name=&quot;:15&quot; /&gt;]

“The biggest prize ever awarded for a novel in Irish was presented at a special ceremony in the National Concert Hall in Dublin, today (Thursday, 4 October 2007). Darach Ó Scolaí, writer, artist &amp; playwright from Casla, Co. Galway, was awarded €10,000 for his literary novel, ‘An Ardscoil’. This work, under the new title ‘An Cléireach’, will be launched at Oireachtas na Samhna in Westport in November. This is the first novel from his pen, a story set in the late seventeenth century. This competition was sponsored by the Franciscan Province of Ireland.” (archive, Oireachtas na Gaeilge site, 04 October, 2007)

''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. number 2 in ''Comhar'' literary magazine’s list of best books of 2021. '''{6}.'''

*William Shakespeare, ''Romeo agus Juliet'' (trans. of ''Romeo and Juliet''), Leabhar Breac, 2016.
*Jonathan Swift, ''Camchuairt Ghuilivéir'' (trans. of ''Gulliver's Travels''), Leabhar Breac, 2016.

*Hugo Pratt, ''Corto Maltese''


'''''Flag of Bones (Bratach na gCnámh) Series'''''

Leabhar Breac published the Bratach na gCnámh series of books for young readers. Written in French by Alain Surget, illustrated by Annette Marnat and translated by Darach Ó Scolaí, this series uses the history of Caribbean Sea pirates&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/alain-surget/|title=Alain Surget Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-09-30}}&lt;/ref&gt;:

*Alain Surget, ''Éalú as Páras'' (''Escape from Paris''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011.
* Alain Surget, ''Oilean na Siorcanna'' (''Shark Island''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011.
* Alain Surget, ''Long na dTaibhsi'' (''Ship of the Ghosts''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011.
* Alain Surget, ''San Ochtapas Dubh'' (''In the Black Octopus''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013.
* Alain Surget, ''San Ionsai ar Veracruz'' (''The Attack on Veracruz''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013.
'''''For &quot;First Readers&quot; (children to 6 years old or so)'''''

These books were written originally in Catalan by Spanish author Enric Lluch Girbés and translated into Irish by Ó ScolaÍ:
*Enric Lluch, ''Ag Péinteáil an Tí'' (''Painting the House''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017.
*Enric Lluch, ''An Colúr Bacach'' (''The Lazy Dove''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017.
*Enric Lluch, ''An Phluais'' (''The Cave''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017.
*Enric Lluch, ''Madra Dhaideo'' (''Grandpa's Dog''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017.
*Enric Lluch, ''Fiacail Mháire'' (''Mary's Tooth''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017.
'''''Bruno Heitz'''''

Leabhar Breac published a series of 3 Heitz books for small children. Published originally in French, this series of three comic books is about a blind mole named Cáitín Chaoch in Irish (and ''Louisette la taupe'' in French).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/bruno-heitz-en/|title=Bruno Heitz Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-02}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ó Scolaí translated these:

*Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Práinneach'' (''Urgent''), Leabhar Breac, 2020
*Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Preab san Aer'' (''Bounce in the Air''), Leabhar Breac, 2020.

'''''Books for Toddlers'''''

Leabhar Breac has published 14 books written by French author Orianne Lallemand's and illustrated by Eleonore Thuillier, about Lallemmand's popular character Loup, Wolf. These are translated by Ó Scolaí:
*Orianne Lallemand, ''An Mac Tire a Raibh Faitios an Domhain Air'' (trans. of ''The Son Who Saw the World in His Eyes''), Eleonore Thuillier  Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018.
*Orianne Lallemand, ''Macan agus an Goban'' (trans. of ''Macan and the Goblin''), Eleonore Thuillier (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018.
* Orianne Lallemand, ''A Mac Tíre a Chuaigh go Tóin na Farraige'' (trans. of ''The Wolf Who Went to the Bottom of the Sea''), Éléanore Thuillier  (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2019.
'''''Board Books (for babies)'''''

J. C. (Joan Carles) Girbés Aparisi is a Catalan author and editor. These books were written in Catalan and translated by Ó Scolai.
*J. C. Girbés, ''An Phicnic'' (''The Picnic''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013.
* J. C. Girbés, ''An Chóisir'' (''The Party''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013.
*J. C. Girbés, ''Lá Mór Fada'' (''A Long Day''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014.
*J. C. Girbés, ''Tabhair Leat do Leabhar'' (''Bring Your Book''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014.

==== Gradam Réics Carló ====
The Réics Carló prize is awarded for the best book in the Irish language for young readers. It is named for one of the characters of 20th-century writer [[wikipedia:Cathal_Ó_Sándair|Cathal Ó Sándair (Charles Saunders)]].

* ''An Bradán Feasa'' was “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt;

== References ==
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    <title>Universal Bibliography/Literature</title>
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      <text bytes="17072" sha1="jdiek8pgwqo6lnxwr9r7ajz14be8uf5" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

See also [[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of literature.

See [[s:Category:Literature]], [[s:Category:History of literature]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: literature]] and [[w:Category:Works about literature]]

==World==
*Cassell's Encyclopaedia of World Literature. 1953. 2nd Ed: 1973. vol 1 (histories and general articles): [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=soIYAAAAIAAJ]. vol 3: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AIEYAAAAIAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA197#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

*Damrosch. What is World Literature? 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yY-17mtp9R8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series:
*Edmund Gosse (ed). Literatures of the World. D Appleton and Co [https://en.m.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:A_history_of_Bohemian_literature.pdf/444]

==English==
*Bateson. Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature. 1940. Watson, Supplement 1957.
*Concise Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature
*New Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature
*Annual Bibliography of English Language and Literature. Cambridge University
*Ewen. Bibliography of Eighteenth Century English Literature. Columbia University. 1935
*Marcuse. A Reference Guide for English Studies. University of Calfornia. 1990
*Bracken. Reference Works in British and American Literature. Libraries Unlimited. 1998
*Kennedy and Sands. A Concise Bibliography for Students of English. Stanford University
*Pelican Guide to English Literature
*[[w:The Cambridge History of English and American Literature|Cambridge History of English and American Literature]]
*[[s:The Cambridge History of English Literature|Cambridge History of English Literature]]
*Concise Cambridge History of English Literature
*New Cambridge History of English Literature
*Oxford History of English Literature
*Oxford Illustrated History of English Literature
*Short Oxford History of English Literature
*Routledge History of Literature in English
*Cambridge History of Early Medieval English Literature
*Cambridge History of Medieval English Literature
*Cambridge History of Early Modern English Literature
*Cambridge History of Victorian Literature
*Cambridge History of Twentieth Century English Literature
*[[s:The Cambridge History of American Literature|Cambridge History of American Literature]]

Periodicals
*Liverpool Magazine (1890)
*Literary Garner (1835)

===United States===
See [[w:Category:American literature by state]]
*Dershem. An Outline of American State Literature. 1921

Arizona:
*Joseph Amasa Munk, History of Arizona Literature, 1925
*Mary G Boyer, Arizona in Literature, 1935
*Etulain, &quot;Contours of Culture in Arizona and the Modern West&quot; in Luey and Stowe, Arizona at  Seventy-five, 1987
*Diaz, &quot;A Bibliography of Bibliographies Relating to the History and Literature of Arizona and New Mexico&quot; (1958) 14 Arizona Quarterly 197

Colorado:
*Eugene Parsons, &quot;Colorado Literature&quot; in Stone, History of Colorado, 1918, volume 1, chapter 42, p 877 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-uVYAAAAMAAJ]
*Levette J Davidson, &quot;The Literature of Colorado&quot; in Hafen. Colorado and Its People: A Narrative and Topical History of the Centennial State. Volume 2. Chapter 8. Page 225 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sncXAAAAIAAJ]
*Fritz. &quot;Literature&quot;. Colorado, the Centennial State. 1941. p 417 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EU0UAAAAYAAJ]
*&quot;Books and Writers&quot;. Colorado, a Guide to the Highest State. 1941. p 96 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3o8GAQAAIAAJ]
*Eugene Parsons, &quot;The Study of Colorado Literature&quot; (1918) Colorado School Journal, vols 34-35, p 24 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QxNRAQAAMAAJ]
*&quot;A Plea for the Study of Colorado Literature&quot; (1918) The Trail: A Magazine &quot;for Colorado&quot;, vol 11, p 12 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K7QTAAAAYAAJ]

Oregon:
*Powers, Alfred. History of Oregon Literature. Metropolitan Press. 1935 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JzELAAAAMAAJ]
*Horner, John B. Oregon Literature. 1899 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3ecWSpoFMcQC&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==French==
See [[s:Category:French literature]]

Bibliographies and bibliographical works:
*A Critical Bibliography of French Literature. Syracuse University Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFJQl7eUrg4C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 5]
*Bassan, Breed and Spinelli. An Annotated Bibliography of French Language and Literature. 2nd Ed: 1976 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BdkaAAAAMAAJ]
*French XX Bibliography: A Bibliography for the Study of French Literature and Culture since 1885. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VxVxFxyDOmkC&amp;pg=PA19125#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Foulet. A Bibliography of Medieval French Literature for College Libraries. 1915 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=httNAQAAIAAJ]
*Kirsop. The Bibliography of French Literary History: Progress, Problems, Projects. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Xt7nAAAAMAAJ]

*Jaffe. Bibliography of French Literature in American Magazines in the 18th Century. Michigan State College Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Cy7GGsr1NI8C]
*Raimbert. French Literature in Mauritius (1800-1979): A Select Bibliography in the City Library of Port Louis. 1980 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eQYpAQAAIAAJ]
*French Literature in Early American Translation: A Bibliographical Survey of Books and Pamphlets Printed in the United States from 1668 Through 1820. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CYI0AQAAIAAJ]

History:
*Cambridge History of French Literature
*Coward. A History of French Literature: From Chanson de geste to Cinema. 2002. Paperback 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K8uS9vLpwuYC&amp;lpg=PP1&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hollier. A New History of French Literature. 1989. 1994. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nGQOodBVG9YC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Cazamian. A History of French Literature. Clarendon Press.1955. Reprinted 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W5PwAAAAMAAJ]
*Nitze and Dargan. A History of French Literature: From the Earliest Times to the Present. 1930. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QT0nAAAAMAAJ]
*Butler. A History of French Literature. 1923. Reissued 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPAoAAAAYAAJ]
*Dowden. A History of French Literature. (Literatures of the World). 1900 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWdcAAAAMAAJ]
*Wright. A History of French Literature. (Oxford French series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_O0oAAAAYAAJ]
*Schwarz. An Outline History of French Literature. 1924. 1932. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9_fnAAAAMAAJ]
*Demogeot. History of French Literature. Adapted from the French by Bridge. 1874. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LgxONYxlEogC&amp;pg=PP9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Brunetière. Manual of the History of French Literature. 1898. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WOHnAAAAMAAJ]

*Brereton. A Short History of French Literature. 1954. 2nd Ed:1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DegoAAAAYAAJ]
*Bisson. A Short History of French Literature: From the Middle Ages to the Present Day. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TLQywgEACAAJ]
*Hudson and Jack. A Short History of French Literature. 1919 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8xIPAAAAQAAJ]
*Saintsbury. A Short History of French Literature. 1882. 2nd Ed: 1884. 7th Ed: 1917 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WDoTAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AWFcAAAAMAAJ]

*Finch. French Literature: A Cultural History. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8L0Z8uYUWj0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Prendergast. History of Modern French Literature: From the Sixteenth Century to the Twentieth Century. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2QtpDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Laun. History of French Literature: From the Classical Renaissance until the End of the Reign of Louis XIV. 1883. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bdZEAQAAIAAJ]

*Farrant. Introduction to Nineteenth-Century French Literature. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=m4HjBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Vinet. History of French Literature in the Eighteenth Century. Translated by Bryce. 1854. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5M803wEuBswC&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Jacqueline Cerquiglini-Toulet. A New History of Medieval French Literature. Translated by Sara Preisig. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h42MQw6TfAcC&amp;pg=PT3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Konta. The History of French Literature: From the Oath of Strasburg to Chanticler. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g2FcAAAAMAAJ]

*Cambridge Companion to Medieval French Literature

*Holmes. A History of Old French Literature: From the origins to 1300. 1938. Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0UxcAAAAMAAJ]

*Sainstbury. A History of the French Novel (to the Close of the 19th Century). 1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GAxJAQAAIAAJ]

==Japanese==
*Ryōzō Matsumoto. Japanese Literature New and Old. Hokuseido Press. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EzftWTtGXzgC]
*J Ingram Bryan. The Literature of Japan. 1929. Kennikat Press. Port Washington. Reissued 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BwazAAAAIAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. Japanese Literature. 1898. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9nYuAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Epiphanius Wilson. Japanese Literature: Including Selections from Genji Monogatari and Classical Poetry and Drama of Japan. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Iy4NAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Katsuhiko Takeda. Essays on Japanese Literature. Waseda University Press. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VKkPAAAAYAAJ]

Bibliography
*Modern Japanese Literature in Western Translations: A Bibliography. International House of Japan Library. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WZ7QAAAAMAAJ]

Periodicals
*Japanese Literature Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NyYHAQAAIAAJ]

Kokubungaku and nihonbungaku
*Tomoko Aoyama. &quot;From national literature to multicultural literature in Japanese language&quot;. Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. Chapter 4. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 53] to 72.

Reviewed
*Donald Richie. Japanese Literature Reviewed. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ejJmAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Shuichi Kato. A History of Japanese Literature: From the Man'yōshū to Modern Times. New Abridged Edition. Japan Library. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUxOuD0NS5kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edward Putzar. Japanese Literature: A Historical Outline. University of Arizona Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2kiBAAAAIAAJ]
*W G Aston. A History of Japanese Literature. (Literatures of the World). 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T4EMAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naomi Fukuda (ed). Literature. (Japanese History: A Guide to Survey Histories, Part 2). Center for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QsoUAQAAIAAJ]

Today
*A Survey of Japanese Literature Today. Japan P.E.N. Club. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OcFDAQAAIAAJ]

Contemporary
*Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai (Japan Cultural Society). Introduction to Contemporary Japanese Literature: Synopese of Major Works: 1956-1970. University of Tokyo Press. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XPQkHx6wR4IC]

Modern
*A Classified Catalogue of Modern Japanese Literature (Meiji, Taisho, Showa). University of Washington Library. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lD8XAQAAMAAJ]
*Routledge Handbook of Modern Japanese Literature. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EMpJDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*J Thomas Rimer and Van C Gessel (eds). The Columbia Anthology of Modern Japanese Literature. 2007. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BAg9tUJR1aEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Abridged. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VrEYtVFv67oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1].
*Karatani Kōjin. Origins of Modern Japanese Literature. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hPJO2vEQgjYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 
*Kan Kikuchi. History and Trends of Modern Japanese Literature. Tokyo. 1936. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TU4DAAAAMAAJ]
*Edward Mack. Manufacturing Modern Japanese Literature: Publishing, Prizes, and the Ascription of Literary Value. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WnDI6s9surUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Keene (ed). Modern Japanese Literature: From 1868 to the Present Day. Grove Press. 1956. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5yxkAAAAMAAJ]
*Saeki Shōichi. Hidden Dimensions in Modern Japanese Literature. The Japan Foundation, Office for the Japanese Studies Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OCYHAQAAIAAJ]

Meiji and Taisho
*Kimura Ki (editor and compiler). Japanese Literature: Manners and Customs in the Meiji-Taishó Era. Ōbunsha. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rBQrAAAAIAAJ]

Early modern
*Haruo Shirane (ed). Early Modern Japanese Literature: An Anthology, 1600-1900. Abridged Edition. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SN72QCVBpVAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Classical
*The Princeton Companion to Classical Japanese Literature [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BSmMbQhafJoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Introduction to Classic Japanese Literature. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WJAPAAAAYAAJ]

Traditional
*Haruo Shirane (ed). Traditional Japanese Literature: An Anthology, Beginnings to 1600. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LsHfIsIXgEgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Literary criticism; Literary studies
*Seth Jacobowitz and Jonathan E Abel (eds). Modern Japanese Literary Studies. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s-_AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Studies in Modern Japanese Literature: Essays and Translations in Honor of Edwin McClellan. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_5EPAAAAYAAJ]

Anthology
*Donald Keene. Anthology of Japanese Literature from the earliest era to the mid-nineteenth century. Grove Press. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9h8tAAAAMAAJ] Great Britain. 1956. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LCxkAAAAMAAJ]. Evergreen Ed: 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rumBAAAAIAAJ]

Novels

Modern novels
*Nancy Junko Beauchamp. Modern Japanese Novels in English: A Selected Bibliography. Service Center for Teachers of Asian Studies, Association for Asian Studies, Ohio State University. May 1974. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WltEAAAAIAAJ]
*Kinya Tsuruta and Thomas E Swann (eds). Approaches to the Modern Japanese Novel. Sophia University. Tokyo. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bhdkAAAAMAAJ]

Short stories

Modern short stories
*Thomas E Swann and Kinya Tsuruta (eds). Approaches to the Modern Japanese Short Story. Waseda University Press. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IJYPAAAAYAAJ]

Poetry
*J Thomas Rimer and Robert E Morrell. Guide to Japanese Poetry. 1975: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EysyAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1984: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BPEaAAAAMAAJ].
*Yone Noguchi. The Spirit of Japanese Poetry. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5K8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Miyamori Asatarō. Masterpieces of Japanese Poetry Ancient and Modern.  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hnAmAQAAIAAJ]
*Curtis Hidden Page. Japanese Poetry: An Historical Essay with Two Hundred and Thirty Translations. 1923. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rqEPAAAAYAAJ]
*Thomas Fitzsimmons. Japanese Poetry Now. Schocken Books. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TQ4QAAAAYAAJ]
*Leith Morton. An Anthology of Contemporary Japanese Poetry. Garland Publishing. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0OwPAAAAYAAJ]
*Leith Morton. Avant-Garde Japanese Poetry and Poetics: Contemporary Poetry Handbook, 2000–2021. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7obXEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven D Carter. Traditional Japanese Poetry: An Anthology. Stanford University Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dq7TOrkTCP0C&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Basil Hall Chamberlain. The Classical Poetry of the Japanese. 1880. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-HUuAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Douglas Kenning. The Romanticism of 17th Century Japanese Poetry. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1fcZAQAAIAAJ]

Modern poetry
*A R Davis (ed). Modern Japanese Poetry. University of Queensland Press. 1978. The Open University Press. Milton Keynes. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v0aBAAAAIAAJ]
*Edith Marcombe Shiffert and Yuki Sawa. Anthology of Modern Japanese Poetry. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OTDRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ichiro Kono and Rikutaro Fukuda. An Anthology of Modern Japanese Poetry. Kenkyusha. Tokyo. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDpkAAAAMAAJ]

[[Category:Literature]]</text>
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      <text bytes="17308" sha1="jvqqphnn2o9saoc3o2syi8j2gtfp6xu" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

See also [[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of literature.

See [[s:Category:Literature]], [[s:Category:History of literature]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: literature]] and [[w:Category:Works about literature]]

==World==
*Cassell's Encyclopaedia of World Literature. 1953. 2nd Ed: 1973. vol 1 (histories and general articles): [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=soIYAAAAIAAJ]. vol 3: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AIEYAAAAIAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA197#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

*Damrosch. What is World Literature? 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yY-17mtp9R8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series:
*Edmund Gosse (ed). Literatures of the World. D Appleton and Co [https://en.m.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:A_history_of_Bohemian_literature.pdf/444]

==English==
*Bateson. Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature. 1940. Watson, Supplement 1957.
*Concise Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature
*New Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature
*Annual Bibliography of English Language and Literature. Cambridge University
*Ewen. Bibliography of Eighteenth Century English Literature. Columbia University. 1935
*Marcuse. A Reference Guide for English Studies. University of Calfornia. 1990
*Bracken. Reference Works in British and American Literature. Libraries Unlimited. 1998
*Kennedy and Sands. A Concise Bibliography for Students of English. Stanford University
*Pelican Guide to English Literature
*[[w:The Cambridge History of English and American Literature|Cambridge History of English and American Literature]]
*[[s:The Cambridge History of English Literature|Cambridge History of English Literature]]
*Concise Cambridge History of English Literature
*New Cambridge History of English Literature
*Oxford History of English Literature
*Oxford Illustrated History of English Literature
*Short Oxford History of English Literature
*Routledge History of Literature in English
*Cambridge History of Early Medieval English Literature
*Cambridge History of Medieval English Literature
*Cambridge History of Early Modern English Literature
*Cambridge History of Victorian Literature
*Cambridge History of Twentieth Century English Literature
*[[s:The Cambridge History of American Literature|Cambridge History of American Literature]]

Periodicals
*Liverpool Magazine (1890)
*Literary Garner (1835)

===United States===
See [[w:Category:American literature by state]]
*Dershem. An Outline of American State Literature. 1921

Arizona:
*Joseph Amasa Munk, History of Arizona Literature, 1925
*Mary G Boyer, Arizona in Literature, 1935
*Etulain, &quot;Contours of Culture in Arizona and the Modern West&quot; in Luey and Stowe, Arizona at  Seventy-five, 1987
*Diaz, &quot;A Bibliography of Bibliographies Relating to the History and Literature of Arizona and New Mexico&quot; (1958) 14 Arizona Quarterly 197

Colorado:
*Eugene Parsons, &quot;Colorado Literature&quot; in Stone, History of Colorado, 1918, volume 1, chapter 42, p 877 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-uVYAAAAMAAJ]
*Levette J Davidson, &quot;The Literature of Colorado&quot; in Hafen. Colorado and Its People: A Narrative and Topical History of the Centennial State. Volume 2. Chapter 8. Page 225 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sncXAAAAIAAJ]
*Fritz. &quot;Literature&quot;. Colorado, the Centennial State. 1941. p 417 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EU0UAAAAYAAJ]
*&quot;Books and Writers&quot;. Colorado, a Guide to the Highest State. 1941. p 96 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3o8GAQAAIAAJ]
*Eugene Parsons, &quot;The Study of Colorado Literature&quot; (1918) Colorado School Journal, vols 34-35, p 24 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QxNRAQAAMAAJ]
*&quot;A Plea for the Study of Colorado Literature&quot; (1918) The Trail: A Magazine &quot;for Colorado&quot;, vol 11, p 12 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K7QTAAAAYAAJ]

Oregon:
*Powers, Alfred. History of Oregon Literature. Metropolitan Press. 1935 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JzELAAAAMAAJ]
*Horner, John B. Oregon Literature. 1899 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3ecWSpoFMcQC&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==French==
See [[s:Category:French literature]]

Bibliographies and bibliographical works:
*A Critical Bibliography of French Literature. Syracuse University Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFJQl7eUrg4C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 5]
*Bassan, Breed and Spinelli. An Annotated Bibliography of French Language and Literature. 2nd Ed: 1976 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BdkaAAAAMAAJ]
*French XX Bibliography: A Bibliography for the Study of French Literature and Culture since 1885. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VxVxFxyDOmkC&amp;pg=PA19125#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Foulet. A Bibliography of Medieval French Literature for College Libraries. 1915 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=httNAQAAIAAJ]
*Kirsop. The Bibliography of French Literary History: Progress, Problems, Projects. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Xt7nAAAAMAAJ]

*Jaffe. Bibliography of French Literature in American Magazines in the 18th Century. Michigan State College Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Cy7GGsr1NI8C]
*Raimbert. French Literature in Mauritius (1800-1979): A Select Bibliography in the City Library of Port Louis. 1980 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eQYpAQAAIAAJ]
*French Literature in Early American Translation: A Bibliographical Survey of Books and Pamphlets Printed in the United States from 1668 Through 1820. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CYI0AQAAIAAJ]

History:
*Cambridge History of French Literature
*Coward. A History of French Literature: From Chanson de geste to Cinema. 2002. Paperback 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K8uS9vLpwuYC&amp;lpg=PP1&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hollier. A New History of French Literature. 1989. 1994. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nGQOodBVG9YC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Cazamian. A History of French Literature. Clarendon Press.1955. Reprinted 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W5PwAAAAMAAJ]
*Nitze and Dargan. A History of French Literature: From the Earliest Times to the Present. 1930. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QT0nAAAAMAAJ]
*Butler. A History of French Literature. 1923. Reissued 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPAoAAAAYAAJ]
*Dowden. A History of French Literature. (Literatures of the World). 1900 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWdcAAAAMAAJ]
*Wright. A History of French Literature. (Oxford French series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_O0oAAAAYAAJ]
*Schwarz. An Outline History of French Literature. 1924. 1932. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9_fnAAAAMAAJ]
*Demogeot. History of French Literature. Adapted from the French by Bridge. 1874. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LgxONYxlEogC&amp;pg=PP9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Brunetière. Manual of the History of French Literature. 1898. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WOHnAAAAMAAJ]

*Brereton. A Short History of French Literature. 1954. 2nd Ed:1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DegoAAAAYAAJ]
*Bisson. A Short History of French Literature: From the Middle Ages to the Present Day. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TLQywgEACAAJ]
*Hudson and Jack. A Short History of French Literature. 1919 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8xIPAAAAQAAJ]
*Saintsbury. A Short History of French Literature. 1882. 2nd Ed: 1884. 7th Ed: 1917 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WDoTAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AWFcAAAAMAAJ]

*Finch. French Literature: A Cultural History. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8L0Z8uYUWj0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Prendergast. History of Modern French Literature: From the Sixteenth Century to the Twentieth Century. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2QtpDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Laun. History of French Literature: From the Classical Renaissance until the End of the Reign of Louis XIV. 1883. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bdZEAQAAIAAJ]

*Farrant. Introduction to Nineteenth-Century French Literature. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=m4HjBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Vinet. History of French Literature in the Eighteenth Century. Translated by Bryce. 1854. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5M803wEuBswC&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Jacqueline Cerquiglini-Toulet. A New History of Medieval French Literature. Translated by Sara Preisig. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h42MQw6TfAcC&amp;pg=PT3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Konta. The History of French Literature: From the Oath of Strasburg to Chanticler. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g2FcAAAAMAAJ]

*Cambridge Companion to Medieval French Literature

*Holmes. A History of Old French Literature: From the origins to 1300. 1938. Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0UxcAAAAMAAJ]

*Sainstbury. A History of the French Novel (to the Close of the 19th Century). 1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GAxJAQAAIAAJ]

==Japanese==
*Ryōzō Matsumoto. Japanese Literature New and Old. Hokuseido Press. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EzftWTtGXzgC]
*J Ingram Bryan. The Literature of Japan. 1929. Kennikat Press. Port Washington. Reissued 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BwazAAAAIAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. Japanese Literature. 1898. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9nYuAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Epiphanius Wilson. Japanese Literature: Including Selections from Genji Monogatari and Classical Poetry and Drama of Japan. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Iy4NAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Katsuhiko Takeda. Essays on Japanese Literature. Waseda University Press. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VKkPAAAAYAAJ]

Bibliography
*Modern Japanese Literature in Western Translations: A Bibliography. International House of Japan Library. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WZ7QAAAAMAAJ]

Periodicals
*Japanese Literature Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NyYHAQAAIAAJ]

Kokubungaku and nihonbungaku
*Tomoko Aoyama. &quot;From national literature to multicultural literature in Japanese language&quot;. Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. Chapter 4. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 53] to 72.

Reviewed
*Donald Richie. Japanese Literature Reviewed. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ejJmAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Shuichi Kato. A History of Japanese Literature: From the Man'yōshū to Modern Times. New Abridged Edition. Japan Library. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUxOuD0NS5kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edward Putzar. Japanese Literature: A Historical Outline. University of Arizona Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2kiBAAAAIAAJ]
*W G Aston. A History of Japanese Literature. (Literatures of the World). 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T4EMAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naomi Fukuda (ed). Literature. (Japanese History: A Guide to Survey Histories, Part 2). Center for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QsoUAQAAIAAJ]

Today
*A Survey of Japanese Literature Today. Japan P.E.N. Club. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OcFDAQAAIAAJ]

Contemporary
*Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai (Japan Cultural Society). Introduction to Contemporary Japanese Literature: Synopese of Major Works: 1956-1970. University of Tokyo Press. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XPQkHx6wR4IC]

Modern
*A Classified Catalogue of Modern Japanese Literature (Meiji, Taisho, Showa). University of Washington Library. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lD8XAQAAMAAJ]
*Routledge Handbook of Modern Japanese Literature. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EMpJDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*J Thomas Rimer and Van C Gessel (eds). The Columbia Anthology of Modern Japanese Literature. 2007. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BAg9tUJR1aEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Abridged. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VrEYtVFv67oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1].
*Karatani Kōjin. Origins of Modern Japanese Literature. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hPJO2vEQgjYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 
*Kan Kikuchi. History and Trends of Modern Japanese Literature. Tokyo. 1936. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TU4DAAAAMAAJ]
*Edward Mack. Manufacturing Modern Japanese Literature: Publishing, Prizes, and the Ascription of Literary Value. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WnDI6s9surUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Keene (ed). Modern Japanese Literature: From 1868 to the Present Day. Grove Press. 1956. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5yxkAAAAMAAJ]
*Saeki Shōichi. Hidden Dimensions in Modern Japanese Literature. The Japan Foundation, Office for the Japanese Studies Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OCYHAQAAIAAJ]

Meiji and Taisho
*Kimura Ki (editor and compiler). Japanese Literature: Manners and Customs in the Meiji-Taishó Era. Ōbunsha. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rBQrAAAAIAAJ]

Early modern
*Haruo Shirane (ed). Early Modern Japanese Literature: An Anthology, 1600-1900. Abridged Edition. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SN72QCVBpVAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Classical
*The Princeton Companion to Classical Japanese Literature [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BSmMbQhafJoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Introduction to Classic Japanese Literature. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WJAPAAAAYAAJ]

Traditional
*Haruo Shirane (ed). Traditional Japanese Literature: An Anthology, Beginnings to 1600. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LsHfIsIXgEgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Literary criticism; Literary studies
*Seth Jacobowitz and Jonathan E Abel (eds). Modern Japanese Literary Studies. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s-_AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Studies in Modern Japanese Literature: Essays and Translations in Honor of Edwin McClellan. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_5EPAAAAYAAJ]

Anthology
*Donald Keene. Anthology of Japanese Literature from the earliest era to the mid-nineteenth century. Grove Press. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9h8tAAAAMAAJ] Great Britain. 1956. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LCxkAAAAMAAJ]. Evergreen Ed: 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rumBAAAAIAAJ]

Novels

Modern novels
*Nancy Junko Beauchamp. Modern Japanese Novels in English: A Selected Bibliography. Service Center for Teachers of Asian Studies, Association for Asian Studies, Ohio State University. May 1974. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WltEAAAAIAAJ]
*Kinya Tsuruta and Thomas E Swann (eds). Approaches to the Modern Japanese Novel. Sophia University. Tokyo. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bhdkAAAAMAAJ]

Short stories

Modern short stories
*Thomas E Swann and Kinya Tsuruta (eds). Approaches to the Modern Japanese Short Story. Waseda University Press. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IJYPAAAAYAAJ]

Poetry
*&quot;Japan, Poetry of&quot;. The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. 4th Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uKiC6IeFR2UC&amp;&amp;pg=PA754#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 754]. See also articles &quot;Japan, Modern Poetry of&quot; and &quot;Japanese Poetics&quot;. 
*J Thomas Rimer and Robert E Morrell. Guide to Japanese Poetry. 1975: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EysyAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1984: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BPEaAAAAMAAJ].
*Yone Noguchi. The Spirit of Japanese Poetry. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5K8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Miyamori Asatarō. Masterpieces of Japanese Poetry Ancient and Modern.  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hnAmAQAAIAAJ]
*Curtis Hidden Page. Japanese Poetry: An Historical Essay with Two Hundred and Thirty Translations. 1923. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rqEPAAAAYAAJ]
*Thomas Fitzsimmons. Japanese Poetry Now. Schocken Books. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TQ4QAAAAYAAJ]
*Leith Morton. An Anthology of Contemporary Japanese Poetry. Garland Publishing. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0OwPAAAAYAAJ]
*Leith Morton. Avant-Garde Japanese Poetry and Poetics: Contemporary Poetry Handbook, 2000–2021. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7obXEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Steven D Carter. Traditional Japanese Poetry: An Anthology. Stanford University Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dq7TOrkTCP0C&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Basil Hall Chamberlain. The Classical Poetry of the Japanese. 1880. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-HUuAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Douglas Kenning. The Romanticism of 17th Century Japanese Poetry. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1fcZAQAAIAAJ]

Modern poetry
*A R Davis (ed). Modern Japanese Poetry. University of Queensland Press. 1978. The Open University Press. Milton Keynes. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v0aBAAAAIAAJ]
*Edith Marcombe Shiffert and Yuki Sawa. Anthology of Modern Japanese Poetry. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OTDRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ichiro Kono and Rikutaro Fukuda. An Anthology of Modern Japanese Poetry. Kenkyusha. Tokyo. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDpkAAAAMAAJ]

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      <text bytes="17788" sha1="75bw7wm39h4dpahb6zu3dcnzfzqjyoi" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

See also [[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of literature.

See [[s:Category:Literature]], [[s:Category:History of literature]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: literature]] and [[w:Category:Works about literature]]

==World==
*Cassell's Encyclopaedia of World Literature. 1953. 2nd Ed: 1973. vol 1 (histories and general articles): [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=soIYAAAAIAAJ]. vol 3: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AIEYAAAAIAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA197#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

*Damrosch. What is World Literature? 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yY-17mtp9R8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series:
*Edmund Gosse (ed). Literatures of the World. D Appleton and Co [https://en.m.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:A_history_of_Bohemian_literature.pdf/444]

==English==
*Bateson. Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature. 1940. Watson, Supplement 1957.
*Concise Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature
*New Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature
*Annual Bibliography of English Language and Literature. Cambridge University
*Ewen. Bibliography of Eighteenth Century English Literature. Columbia University. 1935
*Marcuse. A Reference Guide for English Studies. University of Calfornia. 1990
*Bracken. Reference Works in British and American Literature. Libraries Unlimited. 1998
*Kennedy and Sands. A Concise Bibliography for Students of English. Stanford University
*Pelican Guide to English Literature
*[[w:The Cambridge History of English and American Literature|Cambridge History of English and American Literature]]
*[[s:The Cambridge History of English Literature|Cambridge History of English Literature]]
*Concise Cambridge History of English Literature
*New Cambridge History of English Literature
*Oxford History of English Literature
*Oxford Illustrated History of English Literature
*Short Oxford History of English Literature
*Routledge History of Literature in English
*Cambridge History of Early Medieval English Literature
*Cambridge History of Medieval English Literature
*Cambridge History of Early Modern English Literature
*Cambridge History of Victorian Literature
*Cambridge History of Twentieth Century English Literature
*[[s:The Cambridge History of American Literature|Cambridge History of American Literature]]

Periodicals
*Liverpool Magazine (1890)
*Literary Garner (1835)

===United States===
See [[w:Category:American literature by state]]
*Dershem. An Outline of American State Literature. 1921

Arizona:
*Joseph Amasa Munk, History of Arizona Literature, 1925
*Mary G Boyer, Arizona in Literature, 1935
*Etulain, &quot;Contours of Culture in Arizona and the Modern West&quot; in Luey and Stowe, Arizona at  Seventy-five, 1987
*Diaz, &quot;A Bibliography of Bibliographies Relating to the History and Literature of Arizona and New Mexico&quot; (1958) 14 Arizona Quarterly 197

Colorado:
*Eugene Parsons, &quot;Colorado Literature&quot; in Stone, History of Colorado, 1918, volume 1, chapter 42, p 877 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-uVYAAAAMAAJ]
*Levette J Davidson, &quot;The Literature of Colorado&quot; in Hafen. Colorado and Its People: A Narrative and Topical History of the Centennial State. Volume 2. Chapter 8. Page 225 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sncXAAAAIAAJ]
*Fritz. &quot;Literature&quot;. Colorado, the Centennial State. 1941. p 417 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EU0UAAAAYAAJ]
*&quot;Books and Writers&quot;. Colorado, a Guide to the Highest State. 1941. p 96 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3o8GAQAAIAAJ]
*Eugene Parsons, &quot;The Study of Colorado Literature&quot; (1918) Colorado School Journal, vols 34-35, p 24 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QxNRAQAAMAAJ]
*&quot;A Plea for the Study of Colorado Literature&quot; (1918) The Trail: A Magazine &quot;for Colorado&quot;, vol 11, p 12 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K7QTAAAAYAAJ]

Oregon:
*Powers, Alfred. History of Oregon Literature. Metropolitan Press. 1935 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JzELAAAAMAAJ]
*Horner, John B. Oregon Literature. 1899 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3ecWSpoFMcQC&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==French==
See [[s:Category:French literature]]

Bibliographies and bibliographical works:
*A Critical Bibliography of French Literature. Syracuse University Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFJQl7eUrg4C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 5]
*Bassan, Breed and Spinelli. An Annotated Bibliography of French Language and Literature. 2nd Ed: 1976 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BdkaAAAAMAAJ]
*French XX Bibliography: A Bibliography for the Study of French Literature and Culture since 1885. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VxVxFxyDOmkC&amp;pg=PA19125#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Foulet. A Bibliography of Medieval French Literature for College Libraries. 1915 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=httNAQAAIAAJ]
*Kirsop. The Bibliography of French Literary History: Progress, Problems, Projects. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Xt7nAAAAMAAJ]

*Jaffe. Bibliography of French Literature in American Magazines in the 18th Century. Michigan State College Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Cy7GGsr1NI8C]
*Raimbert. French Literature in Mauritius (1800-1979): A Select Bibliography in the City Library of Port Louis. 1980 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eQYpAQAAIAAJ]
*French Literature in Early American Translation: A Bibliographical Survey of Books and Pamphlets Printed in the United States from 1668 Through 1820. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CYI0AQAAIAAJ]

History:
*Cambridge History of French Literature
*Coward. A History of French Literature: From Chanson de geste to Cinema. 2002. Paperback 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K8uS9vLpwuYC&amp;lpg=PP1&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hollier. A New History of French Literature. 1989. 1994. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nGQOodBVG9YC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Cazamian. A History of French Literature. Clarendon Press.1955. Reprinted 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W5PwAAAAMAAJ]
*Nitze and Dargan. A History of French Literature: From the Earliest Times to the Present. 1930. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QT0nAAAAMAAJ]
*Butler. A History of French Literature. 1923. Reissued 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPAoAAAAYAAJ]
*Dowden. A History of French Literature. (Literatures of the World). 1900 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWdcAAAAMAAJ]
*Wright. A History of French Literature. (Oxford French series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_O0oAAAAYAAJ]
*Schwarz. An Outline History of French Literature. 1924. 1932. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9_fnAAAAMAAJ]
*Demogeot. History of French Literature. Adapted from the French by Bridge. 1874. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LgxONYxlEogC&amp;pg=PP9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Brunetière. Manual of the History of French Literature. 1898. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WOHnAAAAMAAJ]

*Brereton. A Short History of French Literature. 1954. 2nd Ed:1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DegoAAAAYAAJ]
*Bisson. A Short History of French Literature: From the Middle Ages to the Present Day. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TLQywgEACAAJ]
*Hudson and Jack. A Short History of French Literature. 1919 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8xIPAAAAQAAJ]
*Saintsbury. A Short History of French Literature. 1882. 2nd Ed: 1884. 7th Ed: 1917 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WDoTAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AWFcAAAAMAAJ]

*Finch. French Literature: A Cultural History. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8L0Z8uYUWj0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Prendergast. History of Modern French Literature: From the Sixteenth Century to the Twentieth Century. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2QtpDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Laun. History of French Literature: From the Classical Renaissance until the End of the Reign of Louis XIV. 1883. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bdZEAQAAIAAJ]

*Farrant. Introduction to Nineteenth-Century French Literature. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=m4HjBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Vinet. History of French Literature in the Eighteenth Century. Translated by Bryce. 1854. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5M803wEuBswC&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Jacqueline Cerquiglini-Toulet. A New History of Medieval French Literature. Translated by Sara Preisig. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h42MQw6TfAcC&amp;pg=PT3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Konta. The History of French Literature: From the Oath of Strasburg to Chanticler. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g2FcAAAAMAAJ]

*Cambridge Companion to Medieval French Literature

*Holmes. A History of Old French Literature: From the origins to 1300. 1938. Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0UxcAAAAMAAJ]

*Sainstbury. A History of the French Novel (to the Close of the 19th Century). 1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GAxJAQAAIAAJ]

==Japanese==
*Ryōzō Matsumoto. Japanese Literature New and Old. Hokuseido Press. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EzftWTtGXzgC]
*J Ingram Bryan. The Literature of Japan. 1929. Kennikat Press. Port Washington. Reissued 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BwazAAAAIAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. Japanese Literature. 1898. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9nYuAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Epiphanius Wilson. Japanese Literature: Including Selections from Genji Monogatari and Classical Poetry and Drama of Japan. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Iy4NAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Katsuhiko Takeda. Essays on Japanese Literature. Waseda University Press. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VKkPAAAAYAAJ]

Bibliography
*Modern Japanese Literature in Western Translations: A Bibliography. International House of Japan Library. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WZ7QAAAAMAAJ]

Periodicals
*Japanese Literature Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NyYHAQAAIAAJ]

Kokubungaku and nihonbungaku
*Tomoko Aoyama. &quot;From national literature to multicultural literature in Japanese language&quot;. Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. Chapter 4. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 53] to 72.

Reviewed
*Donald Richie. Japanese Literature Reviewed. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ejJmAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Shuichi Kato. A History of Japanese Literature: From the Man'yōshū to Modern Times. New Abridged Edition. Japan Library. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUxOuD0NS5kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edward Putzar. Japanese Literature: A Historical Outline. University of Arizona Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2kiBAAAAIAAJ]
*W G Aston. A History of Japanese Literature. (Literatures of the World). 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T4EMAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naomi Fukuda (ed). Literature. (Japanese History: A Guide to Survey Histories, Part 2). Center for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QsoUAQAAIAAJ]

Today
*A Survey of Japanese Literature Today. Japan P.E.N. Club. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OcFDAQAAIAAJ]

Contemporary
*Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai (Japan Cultural Society). Introduction to Contemporary Japanese Literature: Synopese of Major Works: 1956-1970. University of Tokyo Press. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XPQkHx6wR4IC]

Modern
*A Classified Catalogue of Modern Japanese Literature (Meiji, Taisho, Showa). University of Washington Library. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lD8XAQAAMAAJ]
*Routledge Handbook of Modern Japanese Literature. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EMpJDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*J Thomas Rimer and Van C Gessel (eds). The Columbia Anthology of Modern Japanese Literature. 2007. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BAg9tUJR1aEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Abridged. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VrEYtVFv67oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1].
*Karatani Kōjin. Origins of Modern Japanese Literature. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hPJO2vEQgjYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 
*Kan Kikuchi. History and Trends of Modern Japanese Literature. Tokyo. 1936. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TU4DAAAAMAAJ]
*Edward Mack. Manufacturing Modern Japanese Literature: Publishing, Prizes, and the Ascription of Literary Value. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WnDI6s9surUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Keene (ed). Modern Japanese Literature: From 1868 to the Present Day. Grove Press. 1956. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5yxkAAAAMAAJ]
*Saeki Shōichi. Hidden Dimensions in Modern Japanese Literature. The Japan Foundation, Office for the Japanese Studies Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OCYHAQAAIAAJ]

Meiji and Taisho
*Kimura Ki (editor and compiler). Japanese Literature: Manners and Customs in the Meiji-Taishó Era. Ōbunsha. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rBQrAAAAIAAJ]

Early modern
*Haruo Shirane (ed). Early Modern Japanese Literature: An Anthology, 1600-1900. Abridged Edition. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SN72QCVBpVAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Classical
*The Princeton Companion to Classical Japanese Literature [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BSmMbQhafJoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Introduction to Classic Japanese Literature. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WJAPAAAAYAAJ]

Traditional
*Haruo Shirane (ed). Traditional Japanese Literature: An Anthology, Beginnings to 1600. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LsHfIsIXgEgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Literary criticism; Literary studies
*Seth Jacobowitz and Jonathan E Abel (eds). Modern Japanese Literary Studies. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s-_AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Studies in Modern Japanese Literature: Essays and Translations in Honor of Edwin McClellan. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_5EPAAAAYAAJ]

Anthology
*Donald Keene. Anthology of Japanese Literature from the earliest era to the mid-nineteenth century. Grove Press. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9h8tAAAAMAAJ] Great Britain. 1956. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LCxkAAAAMAAJ]. Evergreen Ed: 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rumBAAAAIAAJ]

Novels

Modern novels
*Nancy Junko Beauchamp. Modern Japanese Novels in English: A Selected Bibliography. Service Center for Teachers of Asian Studies, Association for Asian Studies, Ohio State University. May 1974. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WltEAAAAIAAJ]
*Kinya Tsuruta and Thomas E Swann (eds). Approaches to the Modern Japanese Novel. Sophia University. Tokyo. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bhdkAAAAMAAJ]

Short stories

Modern short stories
*Thomas E Swann and Kinya Tsuruta (eds). Approaches to the Modern Japanese Short Story. Waseda University Press. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IJYPAAAAYAAJ]

Poetry
*&quot;Japan, Poetry of&quot;. The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. 4th Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uKiC6IeFR2UC&amp;&amp;pg=PA754#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 754]. See also articles &quot;Japan, Modern Poetry of&quot; and &quot;Japanese Poetics&quot;. 
*J Thomas Rimer and Robert E Morrell. Guide to Japanese Poetry. 1975: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EysyAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1984: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BPEaAAAAMAAJ].
*Yone Noguchi. The Spirit of Japanese Poetry. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5K8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Miyamori Asatarō. Masterpieces of Japanese Poetry Ancient and Modern.  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hnAmAQAAIAAJ]
*Curtis Hidden Page. Japanese Poetry: An Historical Essay with Two Hundred and Thirty Translations. 1923. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rqEPAAAAYAAJ]
*Thomas Fitzsimmons. Japanese Poetry Now. Schocken Books. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TQ4QAAAAYAAJ]
*Leith Morton. An Anthology of Contemporary Japanese Poetry. Garland Publishing. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0OwPAAAAYAAJ]
*Leith Morton. Avant-Garde Japanese Poetry and Poetics: Contemporary Poetry Handbook, 2000–2021. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7obXEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Leith Morton. Modernism in Practice: An Introduction to Postwar Japanese Poetry. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3N5G6WvGLi0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harry and Lynn Guest and Kajima Shozo. Post-war Japanese Poetry. 1972. Penguin Books. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5QoQAAAAYAAJ] 
*Alexander Dolin. The Silver Age of Japanese Poetry: Romanticism and Symbolism. Akita International University Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0IdT0XOoLeoC]
*Steven D Carter. Traditional Japanese Poetry: An Anthology. Stanford University Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dq7TOrkTCP0C&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Basil Hall Chamberlain. The Classical Poetry of the Japanese. 1880. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-HUuAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Douglas Kenning. The Romanticism of 17th Century Japanese Poetry. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1fcZAQAAIAAJ]

Modern poetry
*A R Davis (ed). Modern Japanese Poetry. University of Queensland Press. 1978. The Open University Press. Milton Keynes. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v0aBAAAAIAAJ]
*Edith Marcombe Shiffert and Yuki Sawa. Anthology of Modern Japanese Poetry. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OTDRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ichiro Kono and Rikutaro Fukuda. An Anthology of Modern Japanese Poetry. Kenkyusha. Tokyo. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDpkAAAAMAAJ]

[[Category:Literature]]</text>
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      <text bytes="17935" sha1="kcy2d7tumz20v00y64w9ra8xcve7jzk" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

See also [[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of literature.

See [[s:Category:Literature]], [[s:Category:History of literature]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: literature]] and [[w:Category:Works about literature]]

==World==
*Cassell's Encyclopaedia of World Literature. 1953. 2nd Ed: 1973. vol 1 (histories and general articles): [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=soIYAAAAIAAJ]. vol 3: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AIEYAAAAIAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA197#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

*Damrosch. What is World Literature? 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yY-17mtp9R8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series:
*Edmund Gosse (ed). Literatures of the World. D Appleton and Co [https://en.m.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:A_history_of_Bohemian_literature.pdf/444]

==English==
*Bateson. Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature. 1940. Watson, Supplement 1957.
*Concise Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature
*New Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature
*Annual Bibliography of English Language and Literature. Cambridge University
*Ewen. Bibliography of Eighteenth Century English Literature. Columbia University. 1935
*Marcuse. A Reference Guide for English Studies. University of Calfornia. 1990
*Bracken. Reference Works in British and American Literature. Libraries Unlimited. 1998
*Kennedy and Sands. A Concise Bibliography for Students of English. Stanford University
*Pelican Guide to English Literature
*[[w:The Cambridge History of English and American Literature|Cambridge History of English and American Literature]]
*[[s:The Cambridge History of English Literature|Cambridge History of English Literature]]
*Concise Cambridge History of English Literature
*New Cambridge History of English Literature
*Oxford History of English Literature
*Oxford Illustrated History of English Literature
*Short Oxford History of English Literature
*Routledge History of Literature in English
*Cambridge History of Early Medieval English Literature
*Cambridge History of Medieval English Literature
*Cambridge History of Early Modern English Literature
*Cambridge History of Victorian Literature
*Cambridge History of Twentieth Century English Literature
*[[s:The Cambridge History of American Literature|Cambridge History of American Literature]]

Periodicals
*Liverpool Magazine (1890)
*Literary Garner (1835)

===United States===
See [[w:Category:American literature by state]]
*Dershem. An Outline of American State Literature. 1921

Arizona:
*Joseph Amasa Munk, History of Arizona Literature, 1925
*Mary G Boyer, Arizona in Literature, 1935
*Etulain, &quot;Contours of Culture in Arizona and the Modern West&quot; in Luey and Stowe, Arizona at  Seventy-five, 1987
*Diaz, &quot;A Bibliography of Bibliographies Relating to the History and Literature of Arizona and New Mexico&quot; (1958) 14 Arizona Quarterly 197

Colorado:
*Eugene Parsons, &quot;Colorado Literature&quot; in Stone, History of Colorado, 1918, volume 1, chapter 42, p 877 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-uVYAAAAMAAJ]
*Levette J Davidson, &quot;The Literature of Colorado&quot; in Hafen. Colorado and Its People: A Narrative and Topical History of the Centennial State. Volume 2. Chapter 8. Page 225 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sncXAAAAIAAJ]
*Fritz. &quot;Literature&quot;. Colorado, the Centennial State. 1941. p 417 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EU0UAAAAYAAJ]
*&quot;Books and Writers&quot;. Colorado, a Guide to the Highest State. 1941. p 96 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3o8GAQAAIAAJ]
*Eugene Parsons, &quot;The Study of Colorado Literature&quot; (1918) Colorado School Journal, vols 34-35, p 24 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QxNRAQAAMAAJ]
*&quot;A Plea for the Study of Colorado Literature&quot; (1918) The Trail: A Magazine &quot;for Colorado&quot;, vol 11, p 12 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K7QTAAAAYAAJ]

Oregon:
*Powers, Alfred. History of Oregon Literature. Metropolitan Press. 1935 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JzELAAAAMAAJ]
*Horner, John B. Oregon Literature. 1899 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3ecWSpoFMcQC&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==French==
See [[s:Category:French literature]]

Bibliographies and bibliographical works:
*A Critical Bibliography of French Literature. Syracuse University Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFJQl7eUrg4C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 5]
*Bassan, Breed and Spinelli. An Annotated Bibliography of French Language and Literature. 2nd Ed: 1976 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BdkaAAAAMAAJ]
*French XX Bibliography: A Bibliography for the Study of French Literature and Culture since 1885. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VxVxFxyDOmkC&amp;pg=PA19125#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Foulet. A Bibliography of Medieval French Literature for College Libraries. 1915 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=httNAQAAIAAJ]
*Kirsop. The Bibliography of French Literary History: Progress, Problems, Projects. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Xt7nAAAAMAAJ]

*Jaffe. Bibliography of French Literature in American Magazines in the 18th Century. Michigan State College Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Cy7GGsr1NI8C]
*Raimbert. French Literature in Mauritius (1800-1979): A Select Bibliography in the City Library of Port Louis. 1980 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eQYpAQAAIAAJ]
*French Literature in Early American Translation: A Bibliographical Survey of Books and Pamphlets Printed in the United States from 1668 Through 1820. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CYI0AQAAIAAJ]

History:
*Cambridge History of French Literature
*Coward. A History of French Literature: From Chanson de geste to Cinema. 2002. Paperback 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K8uS9vLpwuYC&amp;lpg=PP1&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hollier. A New History of French Literature. 1989. 1994. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nGQOodBVG9YC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Cazamian. A History of French Literature. Clarendon Press.1955. Reprinted 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W5PwAAAAMAAJ]
*Nitze and Dargan. A History of French Literature: From the Earliest Times to the Present. 1930. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QT0nAAAAMAAJ]
*Butler. A History of French Literature. 1923. Reissued 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPAoAAAAYAAJ]
*Dowden. A History of French Literature. (Literatures of the World). 1900 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWdcAAAAMAAJ]
*Wright. A History of French Literature. (Oxford French series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_O0oAAAAYAAJ]
*Schwarz. An Outline History of French Literature. 1924. 1932. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9_fnAAAAMAAJ]
*Demogeot. History of French Literature. Adapted from the French by Bridge. 1874. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LgxONYxlEogC&amp;pg=PP9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Brunetière. Manual of the History of French Literature. 1898. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WOHnAAAAMAAJ]

*Brereton. A Short History of French Literature. 1954. 2nd Ed:1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DegoAAAAYAAJ]
*Bisson. A Short History of French Literature: From the Middle Ages to the Present Day. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TLQywgEACAAJ]
*Hudson and Jack. A Short History of French Literature. 1919 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8xIPAAAAQAAJ]
*Saintsbury. A Short History of French Literature. 1882. 2nd Ed: 1884. 7th Ed: 1917 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WDoTAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AWFcAAAAMAAJ]

*Finch. French Literature: A Cultural History. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8L0Z8uYUWj0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Prendergast. History of Modern French Literature: From the Sixteenth Century to the Twentieth Century. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2QtpDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Laun. History of French Literature: From the Classical Renaissance until the End of the Reign of Louis XIV. 1883. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bdZEAQAAIAAJ]

*Farrant. Introduction to Nineteenth-Century French Literature. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=m4HjBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Vinet. History of French Literature in the Eighteenth Century. Translated by Bryce. 1854. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5M803wEuBswC&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Jacqueline Cerquiglini-Toulet. A New History of Medieval French Literature. Translated by Sara Preisig. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h42MQw6TfAcC&amp;pg=PT3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Konta. The History of French Literature: From the Oath of Strasburg to Chanticler. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g2FcAAAAMAAJ]

*Cambridge Companion to Medieval French Literature

*Holmes. A History of Old French Literature: From the origins to 1300. 1938. Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0UxcAAAAMAAJ]

*Sainstbury. A History of the French Novel (to the Close of the 19th Century). 1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GAxJAQAAIAAJ]

==Japanese==
*Ryōzō Matsumoto. Japanese Literature New and Old. Hokuseido Press. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EzftWTtGXzgC]
*J Ingram Bryan. The Literature of Japan. 1929. Kennikat Press. Port Washington. Reissued 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BwazAAAAIAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. Japanese Literature. 1898. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9nYuAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Epiphanius Wilson. Japanese Literature: Including Selections from Genji Monogatari and Classical Poetry and Drama of Japan. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Iy4NAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Katsuhiko Takeda. Essays on Japanese Literature. Waseda University Press. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VKkPAAAAYAAJ]

Bibliography
*Modern Japanese Literature in Western Translations: A Bibliography. International House of Japan Library. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WZ7QAAAAMAAJ]

Periodicals
*Japanese Literature Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NyYHAQAAIAAJ]

Kokubungaku and nihonbungaku
*Tomoko Aoyama. &quot;From national literature to multicultural literature in Japanese language&quot;. Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. Chapter 4. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 53] to 72.

Reviewed
*Donald Richie. Japanese Literature Reviewed. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ejJmAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Shuichi Kato. A History of Japanese Literature: From the Man'yōshū to Modern Times. New Abridged Edition. Japan Library. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUxOuD0NS5kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edward Putzar. Japanese Literature: A Historical Outline. University of Arizona Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2kiBAAAAIAAJ]
*W G Aston. A History of Japanese Literature. (Literatures of the World). 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T4EMAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naomi Fukuda (ed). Literature. (Japanese History: A Guide to Survey Histories, Part 2). Center for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QsoUAQAAIAAJ]

Today
*A Survey of Japanese Literature Today. Japan P.E.N. Club. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OcFDAQAAIAAJ]

Contemporary
*Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai (Japan Cultural Society). Introduction to Contemporary Japanese Literature: Synopese of Major Works: 1956-1970. University of Tokyo Press. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XPQkHx6wR4IC]

Modern
*A Classified Catalogue of Modern Japanese Literature (Meiji, Taisho, Showa). University of Washington Library. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lD8XAQAAMAAJ]
*Routledge Handbook of Modern Japanese Literature. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EMpJDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*J Thomas Rimer and Van C Gessel (eds). The Columbia Anthology of Modern Japanese Literature. 2007. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BAg9tUJR1aEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Abridged. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VrEYtVFv67oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1].
*Karatani Kōjin. Origins of Modern Japanese Literature. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hPJO2vEQgjYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 
*Kan Kikuchi. History and Trends of Modern Japanese Literature. Tokyo. 1936. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TU4DAAAAMAAJ]
*Edward Mack. Manufacturing Modern Japanese Literature: Publishing, Prizes, and the Ascription of Literary Value. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WnDI6s9surUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Keene (ed). Modern Japanese Literature: From 1868 to the Present Day. Grove Press. 1956. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5yxkAAAAMAAJ]
*Saeki Shōichi. Hidden Dimensions in Modern Japanese Literature. The Japan Foundation, Office for the Japanese Studies Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OCYHAQAAIAAJ]

Meiji and Taisho
*Kimura Ki (editor and compiler). Japanese Literature: Manners and Customs in the Meiji-Taishó Era. Ōbunsha. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rBQrAAAAIAAJ]

Early modern
*Haruo Shirane (ed). Early Modern Japanese Literature: An Anthology, 1600-1900. Abridged Edition. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SN72QCVBpVAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Classical
*The Princeton Companion to Classical Japanese Literature [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BSmMbQhafJoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Introduction to Classic Japanese Literature. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WJAPAAAAYAAJ]

Traditional
*Haruo Shirane (ed). Traditional Japanese Literature: An Anthology, Beginnings to 1600. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LsHfIsIXgEgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Literary criticism; Literary studies
*Seth Jacobowitz and Jonathan E Abel (eds). Modern Japanese Literary Studies. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s-_AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Studies in Modern Japanese Literature: Essays and Translations in Honor of Edwin McClellan. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_5EPAAAAYAAJ]

Anthology
*Donald Keene. Anthology of Japanese Literature from the earliest era to the mid-nineteenth century. Grove Press. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9h8tAAAAMAAJ] Great Britain. 1956. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LCxkAAAAMAAJ]. Evergreen Ed: 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rumBAAAAIAAJ]

Novels

Modern novels
*Nancy Junko Beauchamp. Modern Japanese Novels in English: A Selected Bibliography. Service Center for Teachers of Asian Studies, Association for Asian Studies, Ohio State University. May 1974. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WltEAAAAIAAJ]
*Kinya Tsuruta and Thomas E Swann (eds). Approaches to the Modern Japanese Novel. Sophia University. Tokyo. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bhdkAAAAMAAJ]

Short stories

Modern short stories
*Thomas E Swann and Kinya Tsuruta (eds). Approaches to the Modern Japanese Short Story. Waseda University Press. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IJYPAAAAYAAJ]

Poetry
*&quot;Japan, Poetry of&quot;. The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. 4th Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uKiC6IeFR2UC&amp;&amp;pg=PA754#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 754]. See also articles &quot;Japan, Modern Poetry of&quot; and &quot;Japanese Poetics&quot;. 
*J Thomas Rimer and Robert E Morrell. Guide to Japanese Poetry. 1975: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EysyAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1984: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BPEaAAAAMAAJ].
*Yone Noguchi. The Spirit of Japanese Poetry. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5K8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Miyamori Asatarō. Masterpieces of Japanese Poetry Ancient and Modern.  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hnAmAQAAIAAJ]
*Curtis Hidden Page. Japanese Poetry: An Historical Essay with Two Hundred and Thirty Translations. 1923. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rqEPAAAAYAAJ]
*Thomas Fitzsimmons. Japanese Poetry Now. Schocken Books. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TQ4QAAAAYAAJ]
*Leith Morton. An Anthology of Contemporary Japanese Poetry. Garland Publishing. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0OwPAAAAYAAJ]
*Leith Morton. Avant-Garde Japanese Poetry and Poetics: Contemporary Poetry Handbook, 2000–2021. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7obXEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Leith Morton. Modernism in Practice: An Introduction to Postwar Japanese Poetry. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3N5G6WvGLi0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harry and Lynn Guest and Kajima Shozo. Post-war Japanese Poetry. 1972. Penguin Books. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5QoQAAAAYAAJ] 
*Alexander Dolin. The Silver Age of Japanese Poetry: Romanticism and Symbolism. Akita International University Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0IdT0XOoLeoC]
*Steven D Carter. Traditional Japanese Poetry: An Anthology. Stanford University Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dq7TOrkTCP0C&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Basil Hall Chamberlain. The Classical Poetry of the Japanese. 1880. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-HUuAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Douglas Kenning. The Romanticism of 17th Century Japanese Poetry. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1fcZAQAAIAAJ]
*Robert H Brower and Earl Miner. Japanese Court Poetry. The Cresset Press. Great Britain. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Fztgn3lHX8UC]

Modern poetry
*A R Davis (ed). Modern Japanese Poetry. University of Queensland Press. 1978. The Open University Press. Milton Keynes. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v0aBAAAAIAAJ]
*Edith Marcombe Shiffert and Yuki Sawa. Anthology of Modern Japanese Poetry. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OTDRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ichiro Kono and Rikutaro Fukuda. An Anthology of Modern Japanese Poetry. Kenkyusha. Tokyo. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDpkAAAAMAAJ]

[[Category:Literature]]</text>
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      <text bytes="18102" sha1="i8v1ryxokezi1pl7bgm4tferthvhu4u" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

See also [[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of literature.

See [[s:Category:Literature]], [[s:Category:History of literature]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: literature]] and [[w:Category:Works about literature]]

==World==
*Cassell's Encyclopaedia of World Literature. 1953. 2nd Ed: 1973. vol 1 (histories and general articles): [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=soIYAAAAIAAJ]. vol 3: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AIEYAAAAIAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA197#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

*Damrosch. What is World Literature? 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yY-17mtp9R8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series:
*Edmund Gosse (ed). Literatures of the World. D Appleton and Co [https://en.m.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:A_history_of_Bohemian_literature.pdf/444]

==English==
*Bateson. Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature. 1940. Watson, Supplement 1957.
*Concise Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature
*New Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature
*Annual Bibliography of English Language and Literature. Cambridge University
*Ewen. Bibliography of Eighteenth Century English Literature. Columbia University. 1935
*Marcuse. A Reference Guide for English Studies. University of Calfornia. 1990
*Bracken. Reference Works in British and American Literature. Libraries Unlimited. 1998
*Kennedy and Sands. A Concise Bibliography for Students of English. Stanford University
*Pelican Guide to English Literature
*[[w:The Cambridge History of English and American Literature|Cambridge History of English and American Literature]]
*[[s:The Cambridge History of English Literature|Cambridge History of English Literature]]
*Concise Cambridge History of English Literature
*New Cambridge History of English Literature
*Oxford History of English Literature
*Oxford Illustrated History of English Literature
*Short Oxford History of English Literature
*Routledge History of Literature in English
*Cambridge History of Early Medieval English Literature
*Cambridge History of Medieval English Literature
*Cambridge History of Early Modern English Literature
*Cambridge History of Victorian Literature
*Cambridge History of Twentieth Century English Literature
*[[s:The Cambridge History of American Literature|Cambridge History of American Literature]]

Periodicals
*Liverpool Magazine (1890)
*Literary Garner (1835)

===United States===
See [[w:Category:American literature by state]]
*Dershem. An Outline of American State Literature. 1921

Arizona:
*Joseph Amasa Munk, History of Arizona Literature, 1925
*Mary G Boyer, Arizona in Literature, 1935
*Etulain, &quot;Contours of Culture in Arizona and the Modern West&quot; in Luey and Stowe, Arizona at  Seventy-five, 1987
*Diaz, &quot;A Bibliography of Bibliographies Relating to the History and Literature of Arizona and New Mexico&quot; (1958) 14 Arizona Quarterly 197

Colorado:
*Eugene Parsons, &quot;Colorado Literature&quot; in Stone, History of Colorado, 1918, volume 1, chapter 42, p 877 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-uVYAAAAMAAJ]
*Levette J Davidson, &quot;The Literature of Colorado&quot; in Hafen. Colorado and Its People: A Narrative and Topical History of the Centennial State. Volume 2. Chapter 8. Page 225 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sncXAAAAIAAJ]
*Fritz. &quot;Literature&quot;. Colorado, the Centennial State. 1941. p 417 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EU0UAAAAYAAJ]
*&quot;Books and Writers&quot;. Colorado, a Guide to the Highest State. 1941. p 96 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3o8GAQAAIAAJ]
*Eugene Parsons, &quot;The Study of Colorado Literature&quot; (1918) Colorado School Journal, vols 34-35, p 24 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QxNRAQAAMAAJ]
*&quot;A Plea for the Study of Colorado Literature&quot; (1918) The Trail: A Magazine &quot;for Colorado&quot;, vol 11, p 12 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K7QTAAAAYAAJ]

Oregon:
*Powers, Alfred. History of Oregon Literature. Metropolitan Press. 1935 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JzELAAAAMAAJ]
*Horner, John B. Oregon Literature. 1899 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3ecWSpoFMcQC&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==French==
See [[s:Category:French literature]]

Bibliographies and bibliographical works:
*A Critical Bibliography of French Literature. Syracuse University Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFJQl7eUrg4C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 5]
*Bassan, Breed and Spinelli. An Annotated Bibliography of French Language and Literature. 2nd Ed: 1976 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BdkaAAAAMAAJ]
*French XX Bibliography: A Bibliography for the Study of French Literature and Culture since 1885. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VxVxFxyDOmkC&amp;pg=PA19125#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Foulet. A Bibliography of Medieval French Literature for College Libraries. 1915 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=httNAQAAIAAJ]
*Kirsop. The Bibliography of French Literary History: Progress, Problems, Projects. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Xt7nAAAAMAAJ]

*Jaffe. Bibliography of French Literature in American Magazines in the 18th Century. Michigan State College Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Cy7GGsr1NI8C]
*Raimbert. French Literature in Mauritius (1800-1979): A Select Bibliography in the City Library of Port Louis. 1980 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eQYpAQAAIAAJ]
*French Literature in Early American Translation: A Bibliographical Survey of Books and Pamphlets Printed in the United States from 1668 Through 1820. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CYI0AQAAIAAJ]

History:
*Cambridge History of French Literature
*Coward. A History of French Literature: From Chanson de geste to Cinema. 2002. Paperback 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K8uS9vLpwuYC&amp;lpg=PP1&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hollier. A New History of French Literature. 1989. 1994. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nGQOodBVG9YC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Cazamian. A History of French Literature. Clarendon Press.1955. Reprinted 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W5PwAAAAMAAJ]
*Nitze and Dargan. A History of French Literature: From the Earliest Times to the Present. 1930. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QT0nAAAAMAAJ]
*Butler. A History of French Literature. 1923. Reissued 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPAoAAAAYAAJ]
*Dowden. A History of French Literature. (Literatures of the World). 1900 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWdcAAAAMAAJ]
*Wright. A History of French Literature. (Oxford French series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_O0oAAAAYAAJ]
*Schwarz. An Outline History of French Literature. 1924. 1932. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9_fnAAAAMAAJ]
*Demogeot. History of French Literature. Adapted from the French by Bridge. 1874. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LgxONYxlEogC&amp;pg=PP9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Brunetière. Manual of the History of French Literature. 1898. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WOHnAAAAMAAJ]

*Brereton. A Short History of French Literature. 1954. 2nd Ed:1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DegoAAAAYAAJ]
*Bisson. A Short History of French Literature: From the Middle Ages to the Present Day. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TLQywgEACAAJ]
*Hudson and Jack. A Short History of French Literature. 1919 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8xIPAAAAQAAJ]
*Saintsbury. A Short History of French Literature. 1882. 2nd Ed: 1884. 7th Ed: 1917 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WDoTAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AWFcAAAAMAAJ]

*Finch. French Literature: A Cultural History. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8L0Z8uYUWj0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Prendergast. History of Modern French Literature: From the Sixteenth Century to the Twentieth Century. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2QtpDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Laun. History of French Literature: From the Classical Renaissance until the End of the Reign of Louis XIV. 1883. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bdZEAQAAIAAJ]

*Farrant. Introduction to Nineteenth-Century French Literature. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=m4HjBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Vinet. History of French Literature in the Eighteenth Century. Translated by Bryce. 1854. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5M803wEuBswC&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Jacqueline Cerquiglini-Toulet. A New History of Medieval French Literature. Translated by Sara Preisig. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h42MQw6TfAcC&amp;pg=PT3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Konta. The History of French Literature: From the Oath of Strasburg to Chanticler. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g2FcAAAAMAAJ]

*Cambridge Companion to Medieval French Literature

*Holmes. A History of Old French Literature: From the origins to 1300. 1938. Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0UxcAAAAMAAJ]

*Sainstbury. A History of the French Novel (to the Close of the 19th Century). 1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GAxJAQAAIAAJ]

==Japanese==
*Ryōzō Matsumoto. Japanese Literature New and Old. Hokuseido Press. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EzftWTtGXzgC]
*J Ingram Bryan. The Literature of Japan. 1929. Kennikat Press. Port Washington. Reissued 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BwazAAAAIAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. Japanese Literature. 1898. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9nYuAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Epiphanius Wilson. Japanese Literature: Including Selections from Genji Monogatari and Classical Poetry and Drama of Japan. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Iy4NAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Katsuhiko Takeda. Essays on Japanese Literature. Waseda University Press. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VKkPAAAAYAAJ]

Bibliography
*Modern Japanese Literature in Western Translations: A Bibliography. International House of Japan Library. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WZ7QAAAAMAAJ]

Periodicals
*Japanese Literature Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NyYHAQAAIAAJ]

Kokubungaku and nihonbungaku
*Tomoko Aoyama. &quot;From national literature to multicultural literature in Japanese language&quot;. Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. Chapter 4. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 53] to 72.

Reviewed
*Donald Richie. Japanese Literature Reviewed. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ejJmAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Shuichi Kato. A History of Japanese Literature: From the Man'yōshū to Modern Times. New Abridged Edition. Japan Library. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUxOuD0NS5kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edward Putzar. Japanese Literature: A Historical Outline. University of Arizona Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2kiBAAAAIAAJ]
*W G Aston. A History of Japanese Literature. (Literatures of the World). 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T4EMAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naomi Fukuda (ed). Literature. (Japanese History: A Guide to Survey Histories, Part 2). Center for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QsoUAQAAIAAJ]

Today
*A Survey of Japanese Literature Today. Japan P.E.N. Club. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OcFDAQAAIAAJ]

Contemporary
*Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai (Japan Cultural Society). Introduction to Contemporary Japanese Literature: Synopese of Major Works: 1956-1970. University of Tokyo Press. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XPQkHx6wR4IC]

Modern
*A Classified Catalogue of Modern Japanese Literature (Meiji, Taisho, Showa). University of Washington Library. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lD8XAQAAMAAJ]
*Routledge Handbook of Modern Japanese Literature. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EMpJDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*J Thomas Rimer and Van C Gessel (eds). The Columbia Anthology of Modern Japanese Literature. 2007. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BAg9tUJR1aEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Abridged. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VrEYtVFv67oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1].
*Karatani Kōjin. Origins of Modern Japanese Literature. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hPJO2vEQgjYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 
*Kan Kikuchi. History and Trends of Modern Japanese Literature. Tokyo. 1936. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TU4DAAAAMAAJ]
*Edward Mack. Manufacturing Modern Japanese Literature: Publishing, Prizes, and the Ascription of Literary Value. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WnDI6s9surUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Keene (ed). Modern Japanese Literature: From 1868 to the Present Day. Grove Press. 1956. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5yxkAAAAMAAJ]
*Saeki Shōichi. Hidden Dimensions in Modern Japanese Literature. The Japan Foundation, Office for the Japanese Studies Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OCYHAQAAIAAJ]

Meiji and Taisho
*Kimura Ki (editor and compiler). Japanese Literature: Manners and Customs in the Meiji-Taishó Era. Ōbunsha. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rBQrAAAAIAAJ]

Early modern
*Haruo Shirane (ed). Early Modern Japanese Literature: An Anthology, 1600-1900. Abridged Edition. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SN72QCVBpVAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Classical
*The Princeton Companion to Classical Japanese Literature [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BSmMbQhafJoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Introduction to Classic Japanese Literature. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WJAPAAAAYAAJ]

Traditional
*Haruo Shirane (ed). Traditional Japanese Literature: An Anthology, Beginnings to 1600. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LsHfIsIXgEgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Literary criticism; Literary studies
*Seth Jacobowitz and Jonathan E Abel (eds). Modern Japanese Literary Studies. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s-_AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Studies in Modern Japanese Literature: Essays and Translations in Honor of Edwin McClellan. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_5EPAAAAYAAJ]

Anthology
*Donald Keene. Anthology of Japanese Literature from the earliest era to the mid-nineteenth century. Grove Press. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9h8tAAAAMAAJ] Great Britain. 1956. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LCxkAAAAMAAJ]. Evergreen Ed: 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rumBAAAAIAAJ]

Novels

Modern novels
*Nancy Junko Beauchamp. Modern Japanese Novels in English: A Selected Bibliography. Service Center for Teachers of Asian Studies, Association for Asian Studies, Ohio State University. May 1974. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WltEAAAAIAAJ]
*Kinya Tsuruta and Thomas E Swann (eds). Approaches to the Modern Japanese Novel. Sophia University. Tokyo. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bhdkAAAAMAAJ]

Short stories

Modern short stories
*Thomas E Swann and Kinya Tsuruta (eds). Approaches to the Modern Japanese Short Story. Waseda University Press. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IJYPAAAAYAAJ]

Poetry
*&quot;Japan, Poetry of&quot;. The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. 4th Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uKiC6IeFR2UC&amp;&amp;pg=PA754#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 754]. See also articles &quot;Japan, Modern Poetry of&quot; and &quot;Japanese Poetics&quot;. 
*J Thomas Rimer and Robert E Morrell. Guide to Japanese Poetry. 1975: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EysyAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1984: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BPEaAAAAMAAJ].
*Yone Noguchi. The Spirit of Japanese Poetry. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5K8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Miyamori Asatarō. Masterpieces of Japanese Poetry Ancient and Modern.  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hnAmAQAAIAAJ]
*Dean Anthony Brink. Japanese Poetry and its Publics: From Colonial Taiwan to Fukushima. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IUk4DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Curtis Hidden Page. Japanese Poetry: An Historical Essay with Two Hundred and Thirty Translations. 1923. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rqEPAAAAYAAJ]
*Thomas Fitzsimmons. Japanese Poetry Now. Schocken Books. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TQ4QAAAAYAAJ]
*Leith Morton. An Anthology of Contemporary Japanese Poetry. Garland Publishing. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0OwPAAAAYAAJ]
*Leith Morton. Avant-Garde Japanese Poetry and Poetics: Contemporary Poetry Handbook, 2000–2021. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7obXEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Leith Morton. Modernism in Practice: An Introduction to Postwar Japanese Poetry. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3N5G6WvGLi0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harry and Lynn Guest and Kajima Shozo. Post-war Japanese Poetry. 1972. Penguin Books. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5QoQAAAAYAAJ] 
*Alexander Dolin. The Silver Age of Japanese Poetry: Romanticism and Symbolism. Akita International University Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0IdT0XOoLeoC]
*Steven D Carter. Traditional Japanese Poetry: An Anthology. Stanford University Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dq7TOrkTCP0C&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Basil Hall Chamberlain. The Classical Poetry of the Japanese. 1880. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-HUuAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Douglas Kenning. The Romanticism of 17th Century Japanese Poetry. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1fcZAQAAIAAJ]
*Robert H Brower and Earl Miner. Japanese Court Poetry. The Cresset Press. Great Britain. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Fztgn3lHX8UC]

Modern poetry
*A R Davis (ed). Modern Japanese Poetry. University of Queensland Press. 1978. The Open University Press. Milton Keynes. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v0aBAAAAIAAJ]
*Edith Marcombe Shiffert and Yuki Sawa. Anthology of Modern Japanese Poetry. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OTDRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ichiro Kono and Rikutaro Fukuda. An Anthology of Modern Japanese Poetry. Kenkyusha. Tokyo. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDpkAAAAMAAJ]

[[Category:Literature]]</text>
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      <text bytes="18272" sha1="kg48iqgy885iwlo0p9nibyzloyou8ob" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

See also [[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of literature.

See [[s:Category:Literature]], [[s:Category:History of literature]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: literature]] and [[w:Category:Works about literature]]

==World==
*Cassell's Encyclopaedia of World Literature. 1953. 2nd Ed: 1973. vol 1 (histories and general articles): [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=soIYAAAAIAAJ]. vol 3: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AIEYAAAAIAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA197#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

*Damrosch. What is World Literature? 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yY-17mtp9R8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series:
*Edmund Gosse (ed). Literatures of the World. D Appleton and Co [https://en.m.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:A_history_of_Bohemian_literature.pdf/444]

==English==
*Bateson. Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature. 1940. Watson, Supplement 1957.
*Concise Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature
*New Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature
*Annual Bibliography of English Language and Literature. Cambridge University
*Ewen. Bibliography of Eighteenth Century English Literature. Columbia University. 1935
*Marcuse. A Reference Guide for English Studies. University of Calfornia. 1990
*Bracken. Reference Works in British and American Literature. Libraries Unlimited. 1998
*Kennedy and Sands. A Concise Bibliography for Students of English. Stanford University
*Pelican Guide to English Literature
*[[w:The Cambridge History of English and American Literature|Cambridge History of English and American Literature]]
*[[s:The Cambridge History of English Literature|Cambridge History of English Literature]]
*Concise Cambridge History of English Literature
*New Cambridge History of English Literature
*Oxford History of English Literature
*Oxford Illustrated History of English Literature
*Short Oxford History of English Literature
*Routledge History of Literature in English
*Cambridge History of Early Medieval English Literature
*Cambridge History of Medieval English Literature
*Cambridge History of Early Modern English Literature
*Cambridge History of Victorian Literature
*Cambridge History of Twentieth Century English Literature
*[[s:The Cambridge History of American Literature|Cambridge History of American Literature]]

Periodicals
*Liverpool Magazine (1890)
*Literary Garner (1835)

===United States===
See [[w:Category:American literature by state]]
*Dershem. An Outline of American State Literature. 1921

Arizona:
*Joseph Amasa Munk, History of Arizona Literature, 1925
*Mary G Boyer, Arizona in Literature, 1935
*Etulain, &quot;Contours of Culture in Arizona and the Modern West&quot; in Luey and Stowe, Arizona at  Seventy-five, 1987
*Diaz, &quot;A Bibliography of Bibliographies Relating to the History and Literature of Arizona and New Mexico&quot; (1958) 14 Arizona Quarterly 197

Colorado:
*Eugene Parsons, &quot;Colorado Literature&quot; in Stone, History of Colorado, 1918, volume 1, chapter 42, p 877 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-uVYAAAAMAAJ]
*Levette J Davidson, &quot;The Literature of Colorado&quot; in Hafen. Colorado and Its People: A Narrative and Topical History of the Centennial State. Volume 2. Chapter 8. Page 225 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sncXAAAAIAAJ]
*Fritz. &quot;Literature&quot;. Colorado, the Centennial State. 1941. p 417 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EU0UAAAAYAAJ]
*&quot;Books and Writers&quot;. Colorado, a Guide to the Highest State. 1941. p 96 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3o8GAQAAIAAJ]
*Eugene Parsons, &quot;The Study of Colorado Literature&quot; (1918) Colorado School Journal, vols 34-35, p 24 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QxNRAQAAMAAJ]
*&quot;A Plea for the Study of Colorado Literature&quot; (1918) The Trail: A Magazine &quot;for Colorado&quot;, vol 11, p 12 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K7QTAAAAYAAJ]

Oregon:
*Powers, Alfred. History of Oregon Literature. Metropolitan Press. 1935 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JzELAAAAMAAJ]
*Horner, John B. Oregon Literature. 1899 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3ecWSpoFMcQC&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==French==
See [[s:Category:French literature]]

Bibliographies and bibliographical works:
*A Critical Bibliography of French Literature. Syracuse University Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFJQl7eUrg4C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 5]
*Bassan, Breed and Spinelli. An Annotated Bibliography of French Language and Literature. 2nd Ed: 1976 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BdkaAAAAMAAJ]
*French XX Bibliography: A Bibliography for the Study of French Literature and Culture since 1885. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VxVxFxyDOmkC&amp;pg=PA19125#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Foulet. A Bibliography of Medieval French Literature for College Libraries. 1915 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=httNAQAAIAAJ]
*Kirsop. The Bibliography of French Literary History: Progress, Problems, Projects. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Xt7nAAAAMAAJ]

*Jaffe. Bibliography of French Literature in American Magazines in the 18th Century. Michigan State College Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Cy7GGsr1NI8C]
*Raimbert. French Literature in Mauritius (1800-1979): A Select Bibliography in the City Library of Port Louis. 1980 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eQYpAQAAIAAJ]
*French Literature in Early American Translation: A Bibliographical Survey of Books and Pamphlets Printed in the United States from 1668 Through 1820. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CYI0AQAAIAAJ]

History:
*Cambridge History of French Literature
*Coward. A History of French Literature: From Chanson de geste to Cinema. 2002. Paperback 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K8uS9vLpwuYC&amp;lpg=PP1&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hollier. A New History of French Literature. 1989. 1994. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nGQOodBVG9YC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Cazamian. A History of French Literature. Clarendon Press.1955. Reprinted 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W5PwAAAAMAAJ]
*Nitze and Dargan. A History of French Literature: From the Earliest Times to the Present. 1930. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QT0nAAAAMAAJ]
*Butler. A History of French Literature. 1923. Reissued 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPAoAAAAYAAJ]
*Dowden. A History of French Literature. (Literatures of the World). 1900 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWdcAAAAMAAJ]
*Wright. A History of French Literature. (Oxford French series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_O0oAAAAYAAJ]
*Schwarz. An Outline History of French Literature. 1924. 1932. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9_fnAAAAMAAJ]
*Demogeot. History of French Literature. Adapted from the French by Bridge. 1874. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LgxONYxlEogC&amp;pg=PP9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Brunetière. Manual of the History of French Literature. 1898. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WOHnAAAAMAAJ]

*Brereton. A Short History of French Literature. 1954. 2nd Ed:1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DegoAAAAYAAJ]
*Bisson. A Short History of French Literature: From the Middle Ages to the Present Day. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TLQywgEACAAJ]
*Hudson and Jack. A Short History of French Literature. 1919 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8xIPAAAAQAAJ]
*Saintsbury. A Short History of French Literature. 1882. 2nd Ed: 1884. 7th Ed: 1917 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WDoTAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AWFcAAAAMAAJ]

*Finch. French Literature: A Cultural History. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8L0Z8uYUWj0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Prendergast. History of Modern French Literature: From the Sixteenth Century to the Twentieth Century. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2QtpDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Laun. History of French Literature: From the Classical Renaissance until the End of the Reign of Louis XIV. 1883. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bdZEAQAAIAAJ]

*Farrant. Introduction to Nineteenth-Century French Literature. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=m4HjBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Vinet. History of French Literature in the Eighteenth Century. Translated by Bryce. 1854. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5M803wEuBswC&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Jacqueline Cerquiglini-Toulet. A New History of Medieval French Literature. Translated by Sara Preisig. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h42MQw6TfAcC&amp;pg=PT3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Konta. The History of French Literature: From the Oath of Strasburg to Chanticler. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g2FcAAAAMAAJ]

*Cambridge Companion to Medieval French Literature

*Holmes. A History of Old French Literature: From the origins to 1300. 1938. Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0UxcAAAAMAAJ]

*Sainstbury. A History of the French Novel (to the Close of the 19th Century). 1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GAxJAQAAIAAJ]

==Japanese==
*Ryōzō Matsumoto. Japanese Literature New and Old. Hokuseido Press. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EzftWTtGXzgC]
*J Ingram Bryan. The Literature of Japan. 1929. Kennikat Press. Port Washington. Reissued 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BwazAAAAIAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. Japanese Literature. 1898. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9nYuAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Epiphanius Wilson. Japanese Literature: Including Selections from Genji Monogatari and Classical Poetry and Drama of Japan. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Iy4NAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Katsuhiko Takeda. Essays on Japanese Literature. Waseda University Press. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VKkPAAAAYAAJ]
*Suzuki Sadami. The Concept of &quot;Literature&quot; in Japan. International Research Center for Japanese Studies. Kyoto. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DMQ_AQAAIAAJ]

Bibliography
*Modern Japanese Literature in Western Translations: A Bibliography. International House of Japan Library. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WZ7QAAAAMAAJ]

Periodicals
*Japanese Literature Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NyYHAQAAIAAJ]

Kokubungaku and nihonbungaku
*Tomoko Aoyama. &quot;From national literature to multicultural literature in Japanese language&quot;. Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. Chapter 4. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 53] to 72.

Reviewed
*Donald Richie. Japanese Literature Reviewed. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ejJmAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Shuichi Kato. A History of Japanese Literature: From the Man'yōshū to Modern Times. New Abridged Edition. Japan Library. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUxOuD0NS5kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edward Putzar. Japanese Literature: A Historical Outline. University of Arizona Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2kiBAAAAIAAJ]
*W G Aston. A History of Japanese Literature. (Literatures of the World). 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T4EMAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naomi Fukuda (ed). Literature. (Japanese History: A Guide to Survey Histories, Part 2). Center for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QsoUAQAAIAAJ]

Today
*A Survey of Japanese Literature Today. Japan P.E.N. Club. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OcFDAQAAIAAJ]

Contemporary
*Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai (Japan Cultural Society). Introduction to Contemporary Japanese Literature: Synopese of Major Works: 1956-1970. University of Tokyo Press. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XPQkHx6wR4IC]

Modern
*A Classified Catalogue of Modern Japanese Literature (Meiji, Taisho, Showa). University of Washington Library. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lD8XAQAAMAAJ]
*Routledge Handbook of Modern Japanese Literature. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EMpJDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*J Thomas Rimer and Van C Gessel (eds). The Columbia Anthology of Modern Japanese Literature. 2007. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BAg9tUJR1aEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Abridged. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VrEYtVFv67oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1].
*Karatani Kōjin. Origins of Modern Japanese Literature. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hPJO2vEQgjYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 
*Kan Kikuchi. History and Trends of Modern Japanese Literature. Tokyo. 1936. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TU4DAAAAMAAJ]
*Edward Mack. Manufacturing Modern Japanese Literature: Publishing, Prizes, and the Ascription of Literary Value. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WnDI6s9surUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Keene (ed). Modern Japanese Literature: From 1868 to the Present Day. Grove Press. 1956. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5yxkAAAAMAAJ]
*Saeki Shōichi. Hidden Dimensions in Modern Japanese Literature. The Japan Foundation, Office for the Japanese Studies Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OCYHAQAAIAAJ]

Meiji and Taisho
*Kimura Ki (editor and compiler). Japanese Literature: Manners and Customs in the Meiji-Taishó Era. Ōbunsha. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rBQrAAAAIAAJ]

Early modern
*Haruo Shirane (ed). Early Modern Japanese Literature: An Anthology, 1600-1900. Abridged Edition. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SN72QCVBpVAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Classical
*The Princeton Companion to Classical Japanese Literature [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BSmMbQhafJoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Introduction to Classic Japanese Literature. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WJAPAAAAYAAJ]

Traditional
*Haruo Shirane (ed). Traditional Japanese Literature: An Anthology, Beginnings to 1600. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LsHfIsIXgEgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Literary criticism; Literary studies
*Seth Jacobowitz and Jonathan E Abel (eds). Modern Japanese Literary Studies. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s-_AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Studies in Modern Japanese Literature: Essays and Translations in Honor of Edwin McClellan. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_5EPAAAAYAAJ]

Anthology
*Donald Keene. Anthology of Japanese Literature from the earliest era to the mid-nineteenth century. Grove Press. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9h8tAAAAMAAJ] Great Britain. 1956. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LCxkAAAAMAAJ]. Evergreen Ed: 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rumBAAAAIAAJ]

Novels

Modern novels
*Nancy Junko Beauchamp. Modern Japanese Novels in English: A Selected Bibliography. Service Center for Teachers of Asian Studies, Association for Asian Studies, Ohio State University. May 1974. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WltEAAAAIAAJ]
*Kinya Tsuruta and Thomas E Swann (eds). Approaches to the Modern Japanese Novel. Sophia University. Tokyo. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bhdkAAAAMAAJ]

Short stories

Modern short stories
*Thomas E Swann and Kinya Tsuruta (eds). Approaches to the Modern Japanese Short Story. Waseda University Press. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IJYPAAAAYAAJ]

Poetry
*&quot;Japan, Poetry of&quot;. The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. 4th Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uKiC6IeFR2UC&amp;&amp;pg=PA754#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 754]. See also articles &quot;Japan, Modern Poetry of&quot; and &quot;Japanese Poetics&quot;. 
*J Thomas Rimer and Robert E Morrell. Guide to Japanese Poetry. 1975: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EysyAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1984: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BPEaAAAAMAAJ].
*Yone Noguchi. The Spirit of Japanese Poetry. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5K8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Miyamori Asatarō. Masterpieces of Japanese Poetry Ancient and Modern.  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hnAmAQAAIAAJ]
*Dean Anthony Brink. Japanese Poetry and its Publics: From Colonial Taiwan to Fukushima. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IUk4DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Curtis Hidden Page. Japanese Poetry: An Historical Essay with Two Hundred and Thirty Translations. 1923. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rqEPAAAAYAAJ]
*Thomas Fitzsimmons. Japanese Poetry Now. Schocken Books. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TQ4QAAAAYAAJ]
*Leith Morton. An Anthology of Contemporary Japanese Poetry. Garland Publishing. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0OwPAAAAYAAJ]
*Leith Morton. Avant-Garde Japanese Poetry and Poetics: Contemporary Poetry Handbook, 2000–2021. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7obXEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Leith Morton. Modernism in Practice: An Introduction to Postwar Japanese Poetry. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3N5G6WvGLi0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harry and Lynn Guest and Kajima Shozo. Post-war Japanese Poetry. 1972. Penguin Books. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5QoQAAAAYAAJ] 
*Alexander Dolin. The Silver Age of Japanese Poetry: Romanticism and Symbolism. Akita International University Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0IdT0XOoLeoC]
*Steven D Carter. Traditional Japanese Poetry: An Anthology. Stanford University Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dq7TOrkTCP0C&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Basil Hall Chamberlain. The Classical Poetry of the Japanese. 1880. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-HUuAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Douglas Kenning. The Romanticism of 17th Century Japanese Poetry. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1fcZAQAAIAAJ]
*Robert H Brower and Earl Miner. Japanese Court Poetry. The Cresset Press. Great Britain. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Fztgn3lHX8UC]

Modern poetry
*A R Davis (ed). Modern Japanese Poetry. University of Queensland Press. 1978. The Open University Press. Milton Keynes. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v0aBAAAAIAAJ]
*Edith Marcombe Shiffert and Yuki Sawa. Anthology of Modern Japanese Poetry. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OTDRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ichiro Kono and Rikutaro Fukuda. An Anthology of Modern Japanese Poetry. Kenkyusha. Tokyo. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDpkAAAAMAAJ]

[[Category:Literature]]</text>
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      <text bytes="18401" sha1="llsfw0dl0m28l2ozkkvd8rx0vfmf3qd" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

See also [[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of literature.

See [[s:Category:Literature]], [[s:Category:History of literature]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: literature]] and [[w:Category:Works about literature]]

==World==
*Cassell's Encyclopaedia of World Literature. 1953. 2nd Ed: 1973. vol 1 (histories and general articles): [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=soIYAAAAIAAJ]. vol 3: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AIEYAAAAIAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA197#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

*Damrosch. What is World Literature? 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yY-17mtp9R8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series:
*Edmund Gosse (ed). Literatures of the World. D Appleton and Co [https://en.m.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:A_history_of_Bohemian_literature.pdf/444]

==English==
*Bateson. Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature. 1940. Watson, Supplement 1957.
*Concise Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature
*New Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature
*Annual Bibliography of English Language and Literature. Cambridge University
*Ewen. Bibliography of Eighteenth Century English Literature. Columbia University. 1935
*Marcuse. A Reference Guide for English Studies. University of Calfornia. 1990
*Bracken. Reference Works in British and American Literature. Libraries Unlimited. 1998
*Kennedy and Sands. A Concise Bibliography for Students of English. Stanford University
*Pelican Guide to English Literature
*[[w:The Cambridge History of English and American Literature|Cambridge History of English and American Literature]]
*[[s:The Cambridge History of English Literature|Cambridge History of English Literature]]
*Concise Cambridge History of English Literature
*New Cambridge History of English Literature
*Oxford History of English Literature
*Oxford Illustrated History of English Literature
*Short Oxford History of English Literature
*Routledge History of Literature in English
*Cambridge History of Early Medieval English Literature
*Cambridge History of Medieval English Literature
*Cambridge History of Early Modern English Literature
*Cambridge History of Victorian Literature
*Cambridge History of Twentieth Century English Literature
*[[s:The Cambridge History of American Literature|Cambridge History of American Literature]]

Periodicals
*Liverpool Magazine (1890)
*Literary Garner (1835)

===United States===
See [[w:Category:American literature by state]]
*Dershem. An Outline of American State Literature. 1921

Arizona:
*Joseph Amasa Munk, History of Arizona Literature, 1925
*Mary G Boyer, Arizona in Literature, 1935
*Etulain, &quot;Contours of Culture in Arizona and the Modern West&quot; in Luey and Stowe, Arizona at  Seventy-five, 1987
*Diaz, &quot;A Bibliography of Bibliographies Relating to the History and Literature of Arizona and New Mexico&quot; (1958) 14 Arizona Quarterly 197

Colorado:
*Eugene Parsons, &quot;Colorado Literature&quot; in Stone, History of Colorado, 1918, volume 1, chapter 42, p 877 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-uVYAAAAMAAJ]
*Levette J Davidson, &quot;The Literature of Colorado&quot; in Hafen. Colorado and Its People: A Narrative and Topical History of the Centennial State. Volume 2. Chapter 8. Page 225 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sncXAAAAIAAJ]
*Fritz. &quot;Literature&quot;. Colorado, the Centennial State. 1941. p 417 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EU0UAAAAYAAJ]
*&quot;Books and Writers&quot;. Colorado, a Guide to the Highest State. 1941. p 96 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3o8GAQAAIAAJ]
*Eugene Parsons, &quot;The Study of Colorado Literature&quot; (1918) Colorado School Journal, vols 34-35, p 24 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QxNRAQAAMAAJ]
*&quot;A Plea for the Study of Colorado Literature&quot; (1918) The Trail: A Magazine &quot;for Colorado&quot;, vol 11, p 12 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K7QTAAAAYAAJ]

Oregon:
*Powers, Alfred. History of Oregon Literature. Metropolitan Press. 1935 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JzELAAAAMAAJ]
*Horner, John B. Oregon Literature. 1899 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3ecWSpoFMcQC&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==French==
See [[s:Category:French literature]]

Bibliographies and bibliographical works:
*A Critical Bibliography of French Literature. Syracuse University Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFJQl7eUrg4C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 5]
*Bassan, Breed and Spinelli. An Annotated Bibliography of French Language and Literature. 2nd Ed: 1976 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BdkaAAAAMAAJ]
*French XX Bibliography: A Bibliography for the Study of French Literature and Culture since 1885. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VxVxFxyDOmkC&amp;pg=PA19125#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Foulet. A Bibliography of Medieval French Literature for College Libraries. 1915 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=httNAQAAIAAJ]
*Kirsop. The Bibliography of French Literary History: Progress, Problems, Projects. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Xt7nAAAAMAAJ]

*Jaffe. Bibliography of French Literature in American Magazines in the 18th Century. Michigan State College Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Cy7GGsr1NI8C]
*Raimbert. French Literature in Mauritius (1800-1979): A Select Bibliography in the City Library of Port Louis. 1980 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eQYpAQAAIAAJ]
*French Literature in Early American Translation: A Bibliographical Survey of Books and Pamphlets Printed in the United States from 1668 Through 1820. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CYI0AQAAIAAJ]

History:
*Cambridge History of French Literature
*Coward. A History of French Literature: From Chanson de geste to Cinema. 2002. Paperback 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K8uS9vLpwuYC&amp;lpg=PP1&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hollier. A New History of French Literature. 1989. 1994. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nGQOodBVG9YC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Cazamian. A History of French Literature. Clarendon Press.1955. Reprinted 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W5PwAAAAMAAJ]
*Nitze and Dargan. A History of French Literature: From the Earliest Times to the Present. 1930. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QT0nAAAAMAAJ]
*Butler. A History of French Literature. 1923. Reissued 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPAoAAAAYAAJ]
*Dowden. A History of French Literature. (Literatures of the World). 1900 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWdcAAAAMAAJ]
*Wright. A History of French Literature. (Oxford French series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_O0oAAAAYAAJ]
*Schwarz. An Outline History of French Literature. 1924. 1932. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9_fnAAAAMAAJ]
*Demogeot. History of French Literature. Adapted from the French by Bridge. 1874. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LgxONYxlEogC&amp;pg=PP9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Brunetière. Manual of the History of French Literature. 1898. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WOHnAAAAMAAJ]

*Brereton. A Short History of French Literature. 1954. 2nd Ed:1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DegoAAAAYAAJ]
*Bisson. A Short History of French Literature: From the Middle Ages to the Present Day. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TLQywgEACAAJ]
*Hudson and Jack. A Short History of French Literature. 1919 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8xIPAAAAQAAJ]
*Saintsbury. A Short History of French Literature. 1882. 2nd Ed: 1884. 7th Ed: 1917 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WDoTAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AWFcAAAAMAAJ]

*Finch. French Literature: A Cultural History. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8L0Z8uYUWj0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Prendergast. History of Modern French Literature: From the Sixteenth Century to the Twentieth Century. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2QtpDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Laun. History of French Literature: From the Classical Renaissance until the End of the Reign of Louis XIV. 1883. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bdZEAQAAIAAJ]

*Farrant. Introduction to Nineteenth-Century French Literature. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=m4HjBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Vinet. History of French Literature in the Eighteenth Century. Translated by Bryce. 1854. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5M803wEuBswC&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Jacqueline Cerquiglini-Toulet. A New History of Medieval French Literature. Translated by Sara Preisig. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h42MQw6TfAcC&amp;pg=PT3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Konta. The History of French Literature: From the Oath of Strasburg to Chanticler. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g2FcAAAAMAAJ]

*Cambridge Companion to Medieval French Literature

*Holmes. A History of Old French Literature: From the origins to 1300. 1938. Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0UxcAAAAMAAJ]

*Sainstbury. A History of the French Novel (to the Close of the 19th Century). 1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GAxJAQAAIAAJ]

==Japanese==
*Ryōzō Matsumoto. Japanese Literature New and Old. Hokuseido Press. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EzftWTtGXzgC]
*J Ingram Bryan. The Literature of Japan. 1929. Kennikat Press. Port Washington. Reissued 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BwazAAAAIAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. Japanese Literature. 1898. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9nYuAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Epiphanius Wilson. Japanese Literature: Including Selections from Genji Monogatari and Classical Poetry and Drama of Japan. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Iy4NAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Katsuhiko Takeda. Essays on Japanese Literature. Waseda University Press. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VKkPAAAAYAAJ]
*Suzuki Sadami. The Concept of &quot;Literature&quot; in Japan. International Research Center for Japanese Studies. Kyoto. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DMQ_AQAAIAAJ]

Bibliography
*Modern Japanese Literature in Western Translations: A Bibliography. International House of Japan Library. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WZ7QAAAAMAAJ]

Periodicals
*Japanese Literature Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NyYHAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:Proceedings of the Association for Japanese Literary Studies|Proceedings of the Association for Japanese Literary Studies]]

Kokubungaku and nihonbungaku
*Tomoko Aoyama. &quot;From national literature to multicultural literature in Japanese language&quot;. Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. Chapter 4. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 53] to 72.

Reviewed
*Donald Richie. Japanese Literature Reviewed. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ejJmAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Shuichi Kato. A History of Japanese Literature: From the Man'yōshū to Modern Times. New Abridged Edition. Japan Library. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUxOuD0NS5kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edward Putzar. Japanese Literature: A Historical Outline. University of Arizona Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2kiBAAAAIAAJ]
*W G Aston. A History of Japanese Literature. (Literatures of the World). 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T4EMAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naomi Fukuda (ed). Literature. (Japanese History: A Guide to Survey Histories, Part 2). Center for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QsoUAQAAIAAJ]

Today
*A Survey of Japanese Literature Today. Japan P.E.N. Club. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OcFDAQAAIAAJ]

Contemporary
*Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai (Japan Cultural Society). Introduction to Contemporary Japanese Literature: Synopese of Major Works: 1956-1970. University of Tokyo Press. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XPQkHx6wR4IC]

Modern
*A Classified Catalogue of Modern Japanese Literature (Meiji, Taisho, Showa). University of Washington Library. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lD8XAQAAMAAJ]
*Routledge Handbook of Modern Japanese Literature. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EMpJDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*J Thomas Rimer and Van C Gessel (eds). The Columbia Anthology of Modern Japanese Literature. 2007. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BAg9tUJR1aEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Abridged. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VrEYtVFv67oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1].
*Karatani Kōjin. Origins of Modern Japanese Literature. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hPJO2vEQgjYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 
*Kan Kikuchi. History and Trends of Modern Japanese Literature. Tokyo. 1936. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TU4DAAAAMAAJ]
*Edward Mack. Manufacturing Modern Japanese Literature: Publishing, Prizes, and the Ascription of Literary Value. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WnDI6s9surUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Keene (ed). Modern Japanese Literature: From 1868 to the Present Day. Grove Press. 1956. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5yxkAAAAMAAJ]
*Saeki Shōichi. Hidden Dimensions in Modern Japanese Literature. The Japan Foundation, Office for the Japanese Studies Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OCYHAQAAIAAJ]

Meiji and Taisho
*Kimura Ki (editor and compiler). Japanese Literature: Manners and Customs in the Meiji-Taishó Era. Ōbunsha. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rBQrAAAAIAAJ]

Early modern
*Haruo Shirane (ed). Early Modern Japanese Literature: An Anthology, 1600-1900. Abridged Edition. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SN72QCVBpVAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Classical
*The Princeton Companion to Classical Japanese Literature [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BSmMbQhafJoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Introduction to Classic Japanese Literature. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WJAPAAAAYAAJ]

Traditional
*Haruo Shirane (ed). Traditional Japanese Literature: An Anthology, Beginnings to 1600. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LsHfIsIXgEgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Literary criticism; Literary studies
*Seth Jacobowitz and Jonathan E Abel (eds). Modern Japanese Literary Studies. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s-_AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Studies in Modern Japanese Literature: Essays and Translations in Honor of Edwin McClellan. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_5EPAAAAYAAJ]

Anthology
*Donald Keene. Anthology of Japanese Literature from the earliest era to the mid-nineteenth century. Grove Press. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9h8tAAAAMAAJ] Great Britain. 1956. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LCxkAAAAMAAJ]. Evergreen Ed: 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rumBAAAAIAAJ]

Novels

Modern novels
*Nancy Junko Beauchamp. Modern Japanese Novels in English: A Selected Bibliography. Service Center for Teachers of Asian Studies, Association for Asian Studies, Ohio State University. May 1974. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WltEAAAAIAAJ]
*Kinya Tsuruta and Thomas E Swann (eds). Approaches to the Modern Japanese Novel. Sophia University. Tokyo. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bhdkAAAAMAAJ]

Short stories

Modern short stories
*Thomas E Swann and Kinya Tsuruta (eds). Approaches to the Modern Japanese Short Story. Waseda University Press. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IJYPAAAAYAAJ]

Poetry
*&quot;Japan, Poetry of&quot;. The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. 4th Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uKiC6IeFR2UC&amp;&amp;pg=PA754#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 754]. See also articles &quot;Japan, Modern Poetry of&quot; and &quot;Japanese Poetics&quot;. 
*J Thomas Rimer and Robert E Morrell. Guide to Japanese Poetry. 1975: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EysyAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1984: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BPEaAAAAMAAJ].
*Yone Noguchi. The Spirit of Japanese Poetry. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5K8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Miyamori Asatarō. Masterpieces of Japanese Poetry Ancient and Modern.  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hnAmAQAAIAAJ]
*Dean Anthony Brink. Japanese Poetry and its Publics: From Colonial Taiwan to Fukushima. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IUk4DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Curtis Hidden Page. Japanese Poetry: An Historical Essay with Two Hundred and Thirty Translations. 1923. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rqEPAAAAYAAJ]
*Thomas Fitzsimmons. Japanese Poetry Now. Schocken Books. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TQ4QAAAAYAAJ]
*Leith Morton. An Anthology of Contemporary Japanese Poetry. Garland Publishing. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0OwPAAAAYAAJ]
*Leith Morton. Avant-Garde Japanese Poetry and Poetics: Contemporary Poetry Handbook, 2000–2021. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7obXEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Leith Morton. Modernism in Practice: An Introduction to Postwar Japanese Poetry. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3N5G6WvGLi0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harry and Lynn Guest and Kajima Shozo. Post-war Japanese Poetry. 1972. Penguin Books. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5QoQAAAAYAAJ] 
*Alexander Dolin. The Silver Age of Japanese Poetry: Romanticism and Symbolism. Akita International University Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0IdT0XOoLeoC]
*Steven D Carter. Traditional Japanese Poetry: An Anthology. Stanford University Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dq7TOrkTCP0C&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Basil Hall Chamberlain. The Classical Poetry of the Japanese. 1880. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-HUuAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Douglas Kenning. The Romanticism of 17th Century Japanese Poetry. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1fcZAQAAIAAJ]
*Robert H Brower and Earl Miner. Japanese Court Poetry. The Cresset Press. Great Britain. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Fztgn3lHX8UC]

Modern poetry
*A R Davis (ed). Modern Japanese Poetry. University of Queensland Press. 1978. The Open University Press. Milton Keynes. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v0aBAAAAIAAJ]
*Edith Marcombe Shiffert and Yuki Sawa. Anthology of Modern Japanese Poetry. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OTDRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ichiro Kono and Rikutaro Fukuda. An Anthology of Modern Japanese Poetry. Kenkyusha. Tokyo. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDpkAAAAMAAJ]

[[Category:Literature]]</text>
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      <text bytes="18564" sha1="rhzmk0op2r579vsi0a92zjz8unja1y8" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

See also [[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of literature.

See [[s:Category:Literature]], [[s:Category:History of literature]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: literature]] and [[w:Category:Works about literature]]

==World==
*Cassell's Encyclopaedia of World Literature. 1953. 2nd Ed: 1973. vol 1 (histories and general articles): [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=soIYAAAAIAAJ]. vol 3: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AIEYAAAAIAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA197#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

*Damrosch. What is World Literature? 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yY-17mtp9R8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series:
*Edmund Gosse (ed). Literatures of the World. D Appleton and Co [https://en.m.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:A_history_of_Bohemian_literature.pdf/444]

==English==
*Bateson. Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature. 1940. Watson, Supplement 1957.
*Concise Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature
*New Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature
*Annual Bibliography of English Language and Literature. Cambridge University
*Ewen. Bibliography of Eighteenth Century English Literature. Columbia University. 1935
*Marcuse. A Reference Guide for English Studies. University of Calfornia. 1990
*Bracken. Reference Works in British and American Literature. Libraries Unlimited. 1998
*Kennedy and Sands. A Concise Bibliography for Students of English. Stanford University
*Pelican Guide to English Literature
*[[w:The Cambridge History of English and American Literature|Cambridge History of English and American Literature]]
*[[s:The Cambridge History of English Literature|Cambridge History of English Literature]]
*Concise Cambridge History of English Literature
*New Cambridge History of English Literature
*Oxford History of English Literature
*Oxford Illustrated History of English Literature
*Short Oxford History of English Literature
*Routledge History of Literature in English
*Cambridge History of Early Medieval English Literature
*Cambridge History of Medieval English Literature
*Cambridge History of Early Modern English Literature
*Cambridge History of Victorian Literature
*Cambridge History of Twentieth Century English Literature
*[[s:The Cambridge History of American Literature|Cambridge History of American Literature]]

Periodicals
*Liverpool Magazine (1890)
*Literary Garner (1835)

===United States===
See [[w:Category:American literature by state]]
*Dershem. An Outline of American State Literature. 1921

Arizona:
*Joseph Amasa Munk, History of Arizona Literature, 1925
*Mary G Boyer, Arizona in Literature, 1935
*Etulain, &quot;Contours of Culture in Arizona and the Modern West&quot; in Luey and Stowe, Arizona at  Seventy-five, 1987
*Diaz, &quot;A Bibliography of Bibliographies Relating to the History and Literature of Arizona and New Mexico&quot; (1958) 14 Arizona Quarterly 197

Colorado:
*Eugene Parsons, &quot;Colorado Literature&quot; in Stone, History of Colorado, 1918, volume 1, chapter 42, p 877 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-uVYAAAAMAAJ]
*Levette J Davidson, &quot;The Literature of Colorado&quot; in Hafen. Colorado and Its People: A Narrative and Topical History of the Centennial State. Volume 2. Chapter 8. Page 225 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sncXAAAAIAAJ]
*Fritz. &quot;Literature&quot;. Colorado, the Centennial State. 1941. p 417 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EU0UAAAAYAAJ]
*&quot;Books and Writers&quot;. Colorado, a Guide to the Highest State. 1941. p 96 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3o8GAQAAIAAJ]
*Eugene Parsons, &quot;The Study of Colorado Literature&quot; (1918) Colorado School Journal, vols 34-35, p 24 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QxNRAQAAMAAJ]
*&quot;A Plea for the Study of Colorado Literature&quot; (1918) The Trail: A Magazine &quot;for Colorado&quot;, vol 11, p 12 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K7QTAAAAYAAJ]

Oregon:
*Powers, Alfred. History of Oregon Literature. Metropolitan Press. 1935 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JzELAAAAMAAJ]
*Horner, John B. Oregon Literature. 1899 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3ecWSpoFMcQC&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==French==
See [[s:Category:French literature]]

Bibliographies and bibliographical works:
*A Critical Bibliography of French Literature. Syracuse University Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFJQl7eUrg4C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 5]
*Bassan, Breed and Spinelli. An Annotated Bibliography of French Language and Literature. 2nd Ed: 1976 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BdkaAAAAMAAJ]
*French XX Bibliography: A Bibliography for the Study of French Literature and Culture since 1885. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VxVxFxyDOmkC&amp;pg=PA19125#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Foulet. A Bibliography of Medieval French Literature for College Libraries. 1915 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=httNAQAAIAAJ]
*Kirsop. The Bibliography of French Literary History: Progress, Problems, Projects. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Xt7nAAAAMAAJ]

*Jaffe. Bibliography of French Literature in American Magazines in the 18th Century. Michigan State College Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Cy7GGsr1NI8C]
*Raimbert. French Literature in Mauritius (1800-1979): A Select Bibliography in the City Library of Port Louis. 1980 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eQYpAQAAIAAJ]
*French Literature in Early American Translation: A Bibliographical Survey of Books and Pamphlets Printed in the United States from 1668 Through 1820. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CYI0AQAAIAAJ]

History:
*Cambridge History of French Literature
*Coward. A History of French Literature: From Chanson de geste to Cinema. 2002. Paperback 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K8uS9vLpwuYC&amp;lpg=PP1&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hollier. A New History of French Literature. 1989. 1994. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nGQOodBVG9YC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Cazamian. A History of French Literature. Clarendon Press.1955. Reprinted 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W5PwAAAAMAAJ]
*Nitze and Dargan. A History of French Literature: From the Earliest Times to the Present. 1930. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QT0nAAAAMAAJ]
*Butler. A History of French Literature. 1923. Reissued 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPAoAAAAYAAJ]
*Dowden. A History of French Literature. (Literatures of the World). 1900 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWdcAAAAMAAJ]
*Wright. A History of French Literature. (Oxford French series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_O0oAAAAYAAJ]
*Schwarz. An Outline History of French Literature. 1924. 1932. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9_fnAAAAMAAJ]
*Demogeot. History of French Literature. Adapted from the French by Bridge. 1874. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LgxONYxlEogC&amp;pg=PP9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Brunetière. Manual of the History of French Literature. 1898. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WOHnAAAAMAAJ]

*Brereton. A Short History of French Literature. 1954. 2nd Ed:1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DegoAAAAYAAJ]
*Bisson. A Short History of French Literature: From the Middle Ages to the Present Day. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TLQywgEACAAJ]
*Hudson and Jack. A Short History of French Literature. 1919 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8xIPAAAAQAAJ]
*Saintsbury. A Short History of French Literature. 1882. 2nd Ed: 1884. 7th Ed: 1917 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WDoTAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AWFcAAAAMAAJ]

*Finch. French Literature: A Cultural History. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8L0Z8uYUWj0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Prendergast. History of Modern French Literature: From the Sixteenth Century to the Twentieth Century. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2QtpDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Laun. History of French Literature: From the Classical Renaissance until the End of the Reign of Louis XIV. 1883. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bdZEAQAAIAAJ]

*Farrant. Introduction to Nineteenth-Century French Literature. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=m4HjBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Vinet. History of French Literature in the Eighteenth Century. Translated by Bryce. 1854. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5M803wEuBswC&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Jacqueline Cerquiglini-Toulet. A New History of Medieval French Literature. Translated by Sara Preisig. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h42MQw6TfAcC&amp;pg=PT3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Konta. The History of French Literature: From the Oath of Strasburg to Chanticler. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g2FcAAAAMAAJ]

*Cambridge Companion to Medieval French Literature

*Holmes. A History of Old French Literature: From the origins to 1300. 1938. Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0UxcAAAAMAAJ]

*Sainstbury. A History of the French Novel (to the Close of the 19th Century). 1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GAxJAQAAIAAJ]

==Japanese==
*Ryōzō Matsumoto. Japanese Literature New and Old. Hokuseido Press. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EzftWTtGXzgC]
*J Ingram Bryan. The Literature of Japan. 1929. Kennikat Press. Port Washington. Reissued 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BwazAAAAIAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. Japanese Literature. 1898. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9nYuAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Epiphanius Wilson. Japanese Literature: Including Selections from Genji Monogatari and Classical Poetry and Drama of Japan. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Iy4NAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Katsuhiko Takeda. Essays on Japanese Literature. Waseda University Press. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VKkPAAAAYAAJ]
*Suzuki Sadami. The Concept of &quot;Literature&quot; in Japan. International Research Center for Japanese Studies. Kyoto. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DMQ_AQAAIAAJ]

Bibliography
*Modern Japanese Literature in Western Translations: A Bibliography. International House of Japan Library. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WZ7QAAAAMAAJ]

Periodicals
*Japanese Literature Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NyYHAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:Proceedings of the Association for Japanese Literary Studies|Proceedings of the Association for Japanese Literary Studies]]

Kokubungaku and nihonbungaku
*Tomoko Aoyama. &quot;From national literature to multicultural literature in Japanese language&quot;. Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. Chapter 4. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 53] to 72.

Reviewed
*Donald Richie. Japanese Literature Reviewed. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ejJmAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Shuichi Kato. A History of Japanese Literature: From the Man'yōshū to Modern Times. New Abridged Edition. Japan Library. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUxOuD0NS5kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edward Putzar. Japanese Literature: A Historical Outline. University of Arizona Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2kiBAAAAIAAJ]
*W G Aston. A History of Japanese Literature. (Literatures of the World). 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T4EMAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naomi Fukuda (ed). Literature. (Japanese History: A Guide to Survey Histories, Part 2). Center for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QsoUAQAAIAAJ]

Today
*A Survey of Japanese Literature Today. Japan P.E.N. Club. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OcFDAQAAIAAJ]

Contemporary
*Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai (Japan Cultural Society). Introduction to Contemporary Japanese Literature: Synopese of Major Works: 1956-1970. University of Tokyo Press. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XPQkHx6wR4IC]

Modern
*A Classified Catalogue of Modern Japanese Literature (Meiji, Taisho, Showa). University of Washington Library. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lD8XAQAAMAAJ]
*Routledge Handbook of Modern Japanese Literature. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EMpJDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*J Thomas Rimer and Van C Gessel (eds). The Columbia Anthology of Modern Japanese Literature. 2007. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BAg9tUJR1aEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Abridged. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VrEYtVFv67oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1].
*Karatani Kōjin. Origins of Modern Japanese Literature. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hPJO2vEQgjYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 
*Kan Kikuchi. History and Trends of Modern Japanese Literature. Tokyo. 1936. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TU4DAAAAMAAJ]
*Edward Mack. Manufacturing Modern Japanese Literature: Publishing, Prizes, and the Ascription of Literary Value. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WnDI6s9surUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Keene (ed). Modern Japanese Literature: From 1868 to the Present Day. Grove Press. 1956. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5yxkAAAAMAAJ]
*Saeki Shōichi. Hidden Dimensions in Modern Japanese Literature. The Japan Foundation, Office for the Japanese Studies Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OCYHAQAAIAAJ]

Meiji and Taisho
*Kimura Ki (editor and compiler). Japanese Literature: Manners and Customs in the Meiji-Taishó Era. Ōbunsha. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rBQrAAAAIAAJ]

Early modern
*Haruo Shirane (ed). Early Modern Japanese Literature: An Anthology, 1600-1900. Abridged Edition. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SN72QCVBpVAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Classical
*The Princeton Companion to Classical Japanese Literature [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BSmMbQhafJoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Introduction to Classic Japanese Literature. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WJAPAAAAYAAJ]

Traditional
*Haruo Shirane (ed). Traditional Japanese Literature: An Anthology, Beginnings to 1600. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LsHfIsIXgEgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Literary criticism; Literary studies
*Seth Jacobowitz and Jonathan E Abel (eds). Modern Japanese Literary Studies. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s-_AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Studies in Modern Japanese Literature: Essays and Translations in Honor of Edwin McClellan. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_5EPAAAAYAAJ]

Anthology
*Donald Keene. Anthology of Japanese Literature from the earliest era to the mid-nineteenth century. Grove Press. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9h8tAAAAMAAJ] Great Britain. 1956. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LCxkAAAAMAAJ]. Evergreen Ed: 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rumBAAAAIAAJ]

Novels

Modern novels
*Nancy Junko Beauchamp. Modern Japanese Novels in English: A Selected Bibliography. Service Center for Teachers of Asian Studies, Association for Asian Studies, Ohio State University. May 1974. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WltEAAAAIAAJ]
*Kinya Tsuruta and Thomas E Swann (eds). Approaches to the Modern Japanese Novel. Sophia University. Tokyo. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bhdkAAAAMAAJ]

Short stories
*Theodore W Goossen. The Oxford Book of Japanese Short Stories. 1997. Reissued 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VWfJkFfyBn0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Modern short stories
*Thomas E Swann and Kinya Tsuruta (eds). Approaches to the Modern Japanese Short Story. Waseda University Press. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IJYPAAAAYAAJ]

Poetry
*&quot;Japan, Poetry of&quot;. The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. 4th Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uKiC6IeFR2UC&amp;&amp;pg=PA754#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 754]. See also articles &quot;Japan, Modern Poetry of&quot; and &quot;Japanese Poetics&quot;. 
*J Thomas Rimer and Robert E Morrell. Guide to Japanese Poetry. 1975: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EysyAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1984: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BPEaAAAAMAAJ].
*Yone Noguchi. The Spirit of Japanese Poetry. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5K8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Miyamori Asatarō. Masterpieces of Japanese Poetry Ancient and Modern.  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hnAmAQAAIAAJ]
*Dean Anthony Brink. Japanese Poetry and its Publics: From Colonial Taiwan to Fukushima. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IUk4DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Curtis Hidden Page. Japanese Poetry: An Historical Essay with Two Hundred and Thirty Translations. 1923. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rqEPAAAAYAAJ]
*Thomas Fitzsimmons. Japanese Poetry Now. Schocken Books. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TQ4QAAAAYAAJ]
*Leith Morton. An Anthology of Contemporary Japanese Poetry. Garland Publishing. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0OwPAAAAYAAJ]
*Leith Morton. Avant-Garde Japanese Poetry and Poetics: Contemporary Poetry Handbook, 2000–2021. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7obXEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Leith Morton. Modernism in Practice: An Introduction to Postwar Japanese Poetry. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3N5G6WvGLi0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harry and Lynn Guest and Kajima Shozo. Post-war Japanese Poetry. 1972. Penguin Books. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5QoQAAAAYAAJ] 
*Alexander Dolin. The Silver Age of Japanese Poetry: Romanticism and Symbolism. Akita International University Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0IdT0XOoLeoC]
*Steven D Carter. Traditional Japanese Poetry: An Anthology. Stanford University Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dq7TOrkTCP0C&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Basil Hall Chamberlain. The Classical Poetry of the Japanese. 1880. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-HUuAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Douglas Kenning. The Romanticism of 17th Century Japanese Poetry. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1fcZAQAAIAAJ]
*Robert H Brower and Earl Miner. Japanese Court Poetry. The Cresset Press. Great Britain. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Fztgn3lHX8UC]

Modern poetry
*A R Davis (ed). Modern Japanese Poetry. University of Queensland Press. 1978. The Open University Press. Milton Keynes. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v0aBAAAAIAAJ]
*Edith Marcombe Shiffert and Yuki Sawa. Anthology of Modern Japanese Poetry. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OTDRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ichiro Kono and Rikutaro Fukuda. An Anthology of Modern Japanese Poetry. Kenkyusha. Tokyo. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDpkAAAAMAAJ]

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      <text bytes="19310" sha1="jbe3apsqnuz29dkew0u6ys8cv0bx0v2" xml:space="preserve">{{Bibliography}}

See also [[Universal Bibliography/Bibliography|Bibliography]]

This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of literature.

See [[s:Category:Literature]], [[s:Category:History of literature]], [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: literature]] and [[w:Category:Works about literature]]

==World==
*Cassell's Encyclopaedia of World Literature. 1953. 2nd Ed: 1973. vol 1 (histories and general articles): [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=soIYAAAAIAAJ]. vol 3: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AIEYAAAAIAAJ]. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&amp;pg=PA197#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false].

*Damrosch. What is World Literature? 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yY-17mtp9R8C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Series:
*Edmund Gosse (ed). Literatures of the World. D Appleton and Co [https://en.m.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:A_history_of_Bohemian_literature.pdf/444]

==English==
*Bateson. Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature. 1940. Watson, Supplement 1957.
*Concise Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature
*New Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature
*Annual Bibliography of English Language and Literature. Cambridge University
*Ewen. Bibliography of Eighteenth Century English Literature. Columbia University. 1935
*Marcuse. A Reference Guide for English Studies. University of Calfornia. 1990
*Bracken. Reference Works in British and American Literature. Libraries Unlimited. 1998
*Kennedy and Sands. A Concise Bibliography for Students of English. Stanford University
*Pelican Guide to English Literature
*[[w:The Cambridge History of English and American Literature|Cambridge History of English and American Literature]]
*[[s:The Cambridge History of English Literature|Cambridge History of English Literature]]
*Concise Cambridge History of English Literature
*New Cambridge History of English Literature
*Oxford History of English Literature
*Oxford Illustrated History of English Literature
*Short Oxford History of English Literature
*Routledge History of Literature in English
*Cambridge History of Early Medieval English Literature
*Cambridge History of Medieval English Literature
*Cambridge History of Early Modern English Literature
*Cambridge History of Victorian Literature
*Cambridge History of Twentieth Century English Literature
*[[s:The Cambridge History of American Literature|Cambridge History of American Literature]]

Periodicals
*Liverpool Magazine (1890)
*Literary Garner (1835)

===United States===
See [[w:Category:American literature by state]]
*Dershem. An Outline of American State Literature. 1921

Arizona:
*Joseph Amasa Munk, History of Arizona Literature, 1925
*Mary G Boyer, Arizona in Literature, 1935
*Etulain, &quot;Contours of Culture in Arizona and the Modern West&quot; in Luey and Stowe, Arizona at  Seventy-five, 1987
*Diaz, &quot;A Bibliography of Bibliographies Relating to the History and Literature of Arizona and New Mexico&quot; (1958) 14 Arizona Quarterly 197

Colorado:
*Eugene Parsons, &quot;Colorado Literature&quot; in Stone, History of Colorado, 1918, volume 1, chapter 42, p 877 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-uVYAAAAMAAJ]
*Levette J Davidson, &quot;The Literature of Colorado&quot; in Hafen. Colorado and Its People: A Narrative and Topical History of the Centennial State. Volume 2. Chapter 8. Page 225 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sncXAAAAIAAJ]
*Fritz. &quot;Literature&quot;. Colorado, the Centennial State. 1941. p 417 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EU0UAAAAYAAJ]
*&quot;Books and Writers&quot;. Colorado, a Guide to the Highest State. 1941. p 96 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3o8GAQAAIAAJ]
*Eugene Parsons, &quot;The Study of Colorado Literature&quot; (1918) Colorado School Journal, vols 34-35, p 24 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QxNRAQAAMAAJ]
*&quot;A Plea for the Study of Colorado Literature&quot; (1918) The Trail: A Magazine &quot;for Colorado&quot;, vol 11, p 12 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K7QTAAAAYAAJ]

Oregon:
*Powers, Alfred. History of Oregon Literature. Metropolitan Press. 1935 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JzELAAAAMAAJ]
*Horner, John B. Oregon Literature. 1899 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3ecWSpoFMcQC&amp;pg=PA1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

==French==
See [[s:Category:French literature]]

Bibliographies and bibliographical works:
*A Critical Bibliography of French Literature. Syracuse University Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IFJQl7eUrg4C&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 5]
*Bassan, Breed and Spinelli. An Annotated Bibliography of French Language and Literature. 2nd Ed: 1976 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BdkaAAAAMAAJ]
*French XX Bibliography: A Bibliography for the Study of French Literature and Culture since 1885. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VxVxFxyDOmkC&amp;pg=PA19125#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Foulet. A Bibliography of Medieval French Literature for College Libraries. 1915 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=httNAQAAIAAJ]
*Kirsop. The Bibliography of French Literary History: Progress, Problems, Projects. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Xt7nAAAAMAAJ]

*Jaffe. Bibliography of French Literature in American Magazines in the 18th Century. Michigan State College Press. 1951. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Cy7GGsr1NI8C]
*Raimbert. French Literature in Mauritius (1800-1979): A Select Bibliography in the City Library of Port Louis. 1980 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eQYpAQAAIAAJ]
*French Literature in Early American Translation: A Bibliographical Survey of Books and Pamphlets Printed in the United States from 1668 Through 1820. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CYI0AQAAIAAJ]

History:
*Cambridge History of French Literature
*Coward. A History of French Literature: From Chanson de geste to Cinema. 2002. Paperback 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K8uS9vLpwuYC&amp;lpg=PP1&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Hollier. A New History of French Literature. 1989. 1994. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nGQOodBVG9YC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Cazamian. A History of French Literature. Clarendon Press.1955. Reprinted 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W5PwAAAAMAAJ]
*Nitze and Dargan. A History of French Literature: From the Earliest Times to the Present. 1930. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QT0nAAAAMAAJ]
*Butler. A History of French Literature. 1923. Reissued 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sPAoAAAAYAAJ]
*Dowden. A History of French Literature. (Literatures of the World). 1900 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XWdcAAAAMAAJ]
*Wright. A History of French Literature. (Oxford French series). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_O0oAAAAYAAJ]
*Schwarz. An Outline History of French Literature. 1924. 1932. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9_fnAAAAMAAJ]
*Demogeot. History of French Literature. Adapted from the French by Bridge. 1874. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LgxONYxlEogC&amp;pg=PP9#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Brunetière. Manual of the History of French Literature. 1898. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WOHnAAAAMAAJ]

*Brereton. A Short History of French Literature. 1954. 2nd Ed:1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DegoAAAAYAAJ]
*Bisson. A Short History of French Literature: From the Middle Ages to the Present Day. 1943. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TLQywgEACAAJ]
*Hudson and Jack. A Short History of French Literature. 1919 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8xIPAAAAQAAJ]
*Saintsbury. A Short History of French Literature. 1882. 2nd Ed: 1884. 7th Ed: 1917 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WDoTAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AWFcAAAAMAAJ]

*Finch. French Literature: A Cultural History. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8L0Z8uYUWj0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Prendergast. History of Modern French Literature: From the Sixteenth Century to the Twentieth Century. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2QtpDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Laun. History of French Literature: From the Classical Renaissance until the End of the Reign of Louis XIV. 1883. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bdZEAQAAIAAJ]

*Farrant. Introduction to Nineteenth-Century French Literature. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=m4HjBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Vinet. History of French Literature in the Eighteenth Century. Translated by Bryce. 1854. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5M803wEuBswC&amp;pg=PR1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Jacqueline Cerquiglini-Toulet. A New History of Medieval French Literature. Translated by Sara Preisig. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h42MQw6TfAcC&amp;pg=PT3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

*Konta. The History of French Literature: From the Oath of Strasburg to Chanticler. 1914. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g2FcAAAAMAAJ]

*Cambridge Companion to Medieval French Literature

*Holmes. A History of Old French Literature: From the origins to 1300. 1938. Revised Ed: 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0UxcAAAAMAAJ]

*Sainstbury. A History of the French Novel (to the Close of the 19th Century). 1919. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GAxJAQAAIAAJ]

==Japanese==
*Ryōzō Matsumoto. Japanese Literature New and Old. Hokuseido Press. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EzftWTtGXzgC]
*J Ingram Bryan. The Literature of Japan. 1929. Kennikat Press. Port Washington. Reissued 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BwazAAAAIAAJ]
*Clay MacCauley. Japanese Literature. 1898. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9nYuAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Epiphanius Wilson. Japanese Literature: Including Selections from Genji Monogatari and Classical Poetry and Drama of Japan. 1900. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Iy4NAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PP7#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Katsuhiko Takeda. Essays on Japanese Literature. Waseda University Press. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VKkPAAAAYAAJ]
*Suzuki Sadami. The Concept of &quot;Literature&quot; in Japan. International Research Center for Japanese Studies. Kyoto. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DMQ_AQAAIAAJ]

Bibliography
*Modern Japanese Literature in Western Translations: A Bibliography. International House of Japan Library. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WZ7QAAAAMAAJ]

Periodicals
*Japanese Literature Today [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NyYHAQAAIAAJ]
*[[w:Proceedings of the Association for Japanese Literary Studies|Proceedings of the Association for Japanese Literary Studies]]

Kokubungaku and nihonbungaku
*Tomoko Aoyama. &quot;From national literature to multicultural literature in Japanese language&quot;. Kaori Okano and Yoshio Sugimoto (eds). Rethinking Japanese Studies: Eurocentrism and the Asia-Pacific Region. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. Chapter 4. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sEcrDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA53#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false 53] to 72.

Reviewed
*Donald Richie. Japanese Literature Reviewed. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ejJmAAAAMAAJ]

History
*Shuichi Kato. A History of Japanese Literature: From the Man'yōshū to Modern Times. New Abridged Edition. Japan Library. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wUxOuD0NS5kC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Edward Putzar. Japanese Literature: A Historical Outline. University of Arizona Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2kiBAAAAIAAJ]
*W G Aston. A History of Japanese Literature. (Literatures of the World). 1903. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T4EMAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Naomi Fukuda (ed). Literature. (Japanese History: A Guide to Survey Histories, Part 2). Center for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QsoUAQAAIAAJ]

Today
*A Survey of Japanese Literature Today. Japan P.E.N. Club. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OcFDAQAAIAAJ]

Contemporary
*Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai (Japan Cultural Society). Introduction to Contemporary Japanese Literature: Synopese of Major Works: 1956-1970. University of Tokyo Press. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XPQkHx6wR4IC]

Modern
*A Classified Catalogue of Modern Japanese Literature (Meiji, Taisho, Showa). University of Washington Library. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lD8XAQAAMAAJ]
*Routledge Handbook of Modern Japanese Literature. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EMpJDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*J Thomas Rimer and Van C Gessel (eds). The Columbia Anthology of Modern Japanese Literature. 2007. vol 2. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BAg9tUJR1aEC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
**Abridged. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VrEYtVFv67oC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false vol 1].
*Karatani Kōjin. Origins of Modern Japanese Literature. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hPJO2vEQgjYC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false] 
*Kan Kikuchi. History and Trends of Modern Japanese Literature. Tokyo. 1936. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TU4DAAAAMAAJ]
*Edward Mack. Manufacturing Modern Japanese Literature: Publishing, Prizes, and the Ascription of Literary Value. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WnDI6s9surUC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Donald Keene (ed). Modern Japanese Literature: From 1868 to the Present Day. Grove Press. 1956. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5yxkAAAAMAAJ]
*Saeki Shōichi. Hidden Dimensions in Modern Japanese Literature. The Japan Foundation, Office for the Japanese Studies Center. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OCYHAQAAIAAJ]

20th century and Showa era
*[https://www.nippon.com/en/series/c152/ Japanese Literature in the Twentieth Century: A Shōwa Retrospective]. Nippon.com
**[https://www.nippon.com/en/japan-topics/c15201/ Writing in the Shadow of Oppression: Japanese Books from 1926 to 1944]
**[https://www.nippon.com/en/japan-topics/c15202/ Shaped by Conflict: Japanese Literature After World War II]
**[https://www.nippon.com/en/japan-topics/c15203/ Seeking New Values in an Age of Growth: Japanese Books from 1955 to 1964]
**[https://www.nippon.com/en/japan-topics/c15204/ Historical Fiction and Social Issues: Japanese Books from 1965 to 1974]
**[https://www.nippon.com/en/japan-topics/c15205/ The Rise of Popular Fiction: Japanese Books in the 1970s and 1980s]

Meiji and Taisho
*Kimura Ki (editor and compiler). Japanese Literature: Manners and Customs in the Meiji-Taishó Era. Ōbunsha. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rBQrAAAAIAAJ]

Early modern
*Haruo Shirane (ed). Early Modern Japanese Literature: An Anthology, 1600-1900. Abridged Edition. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SN72QCVBpVAC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Classical
*The Princeton Companion to Classical Japanese Literature [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BSmMbQhafJoC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Introduction to Classic Japanese Literature. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WJAPAAAAYAAJ]

Traditional
*Haruo Shirane (ed). Traditional Japanese Literature: An Anthology, Beginnings to 1600. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LsHfIsIXgEgC&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Literary criticism; Literary studies
*Seth Jacobowitz and Jonathan E Abel (eds). Modern Japanese Literary Studies. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s-_AEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Studies in Modern Japanese Literature: Essays and Translations in Honor of Edwin McClellan. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_5EPAAAAYAAJ]

Anthology
*Donald Keene. Anthology of Japanese Literature from the earliest era to the mid-nineteenth century. Grove Press. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9h8tAAAAMAAJ] Great Britain. 1956. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LCxkAAAAMAAJ]. Evergreen Ed: 1960. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rumBAAAAIAAJ]

Novels

Modern novels
*Nancy Junko Beauchamp. Modern Japanese Novels in English: A Selected Bibliography. Service Center for Teachers of Asian Studies, Association for Asian Studies, Ohio State University. May 1974. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WltEAAAAIAAJ]
*Kinya Tsuruta and Thomas E Swann (eds). Approaches to the Modern Japanese Novel. Sophia University. Tokyo. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bhdkAAAAMAAJ]

Short stories
*Theodore W Goossen. The Oxford Book of Japanese Short Stories. 1997. Reissued 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VWfJkFfyBn0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]

Modern short stories
*Thomas E Swann and Kinya Tsuruta (eds). Approaches to the Modern Japanese Short Story. Waseda University Press. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IJYPAAAAYAAJ]

Poetry
*&quot;Japan, Poetry of&quot;. The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. 4th Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uKiC6IeFR2UC&amp;&amp;pg=PA754#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false p 754]. See also articles &quot;Japan, Modern Poetry of&quot; and &quot;Japanese Poetics&quot;. 
*J Thomas Rimer and Robert E Morrell. Guide to Japanese Poetry. 1975: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EysyAAAAMAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1984: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BPEaAAAAMAAJ].
*Yone Noguchi. The Spirit of Japanese Poetry. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5K8PAAAAYAAJ]
*Miyamori Asatarō. Masterpieces of Japanese Poetry Ancient and Modern.  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hnAmAQAAIAAJ]
*Dean Anthony Brink. Japanese Poetry and its Publics: From Colonial Taiwan to Fukushima. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IUk4DwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Curtis Hidden Page. Japanese Poetry: An Historical Essay with Two Hundred and Thirty Translations. 1923. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rqEPAAAAYAAJ]
*Thomas Fitzsimmons. Japanese Poetry Now. Schocken Books. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TQ4QAAAAYAAJ]
*Leith Morton. An Anthology of Contemporary Japanese Poetry. Garland Publishing. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0OwPAAAAYAAJ]
*Leith Morton. Avant-Garde Japanese Poetry and Poetics: Contemporary Poetry Handbook, 2000–2021. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7obXEQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Leith Morton. Modernism in Practice: An Introduction to Postwar Japanese Poetry. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3N5G6WvGLi0C&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Harry and Lynn Guest and Kajima Shozo. Post-war Japanese Poetry. 1972. Penguin Books. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5QoQAAAAYAAJ] 
*Alexander Dolin. The Silver Age of Japanese Poetry: Romanticism and Symbolism. Akita International University Press. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0IdT0XOoLeoC]
*Steven D Carter. Traditional Japanese Poetry: An Anthology. Stanford University Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dq7TOrkTCP0C&amp;pg=PP3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Basil Hall Chamberlain. The Classical Poetry of the Japanese. 1880. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-HUuAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PR3#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Douglas Kenning. The Romanticism of 17th Century Japanese Poetry. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1fcZAQAAIAAJ]
*Robert H Brower and Earl Miner. Japanese Court Poetry. The Cresset Press. Great Britain. 1962. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Fztgn3lHX8UC]

Modern poetry
*A R Davis (ed). Modern Japanese Poetry. University of Queensland Press. 1978. The Open University Press. Milton Keynes. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v0aBAAAAIAAJ]
*Edith Marcombe Shiffert and Yuki Sawa. Anthology of Modern Japanese Poetry. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OTDRAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false]
*Ichiro Kono and Rikutaro Fukuda. An Anthology of Modern Japanese Poetry. Kenkyusha. Tokyo. 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZDpkAAAAMAAJ]

[[Category:Literature]]</text>
      <sha1>jbe3apsqnuz29dkew0u6ys8cv0bx0v2</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feature boxes</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>271348</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2824205</id>
      <parentid>2643058</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T08:34:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Update for 2026</comment>
      <origin>2824205</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2027" sha1="rysvcxwuds7gkbqqxwq3yjxcc5vgjkx" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Feature boxes}}

'''Feature boxes''' are used to highlight interesting content, such as examples, scenarios, case studies, and interactive activities.

When well used, features boxes make chapters more engaging and interesting to read.

There are lots of ways to create feature boxes, but [[Help:Pretty boxes|pretty boxes]] are recommended.

To copy a feature box from another page, click &quot;Edit source&quot;, locate the box, copy the code, go to the target page, click &quot;Edit source&quot;, paste the box code, edit the contents, and then publish.

==Examples==
 This is the '''simplest box'''. It is created by using a space at the start of the text.

&lt;div&gt;
{|style= &quot;background:Gainsboro; border:2px Teal solid; padding:12px;&quot; 
|'''Basic box'''

* This is a basic wiki box.
* The background colour can be changed.
* The border colour and width can be changed.
* etc.
|}
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|1}}}|title=Example robelbox}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
This is a '''robelbox''' with a title and colour 1 from [[Help:Pretty boxes#Box colors|here]].
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
This is a &quot;round box&quot; with colour 3 from [[Template:RoundBoxTop|here]].

These boxes arguably work the best.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Examples of chapters which use feature boxes==
Examples of chapter which make effective use of feature boxes:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Criminal record self-stigma and motivation|Criminal record self-stigma and motivation]] (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Exergaming and fitness motivation|Exergaming and fitness motivation]] (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/False confession motivation|False confession motivation]] (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Female killer motivation|Female killer motivation]] (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Sharenting motivation|Sharenting motivation]] (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Stimming motivation|Stimming motivation]] (2019)


[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]]</text>
      <sha1>rysvcxwuds7gkbqqxwq3yjxcc5vgjkx</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824209</id>
      <parentid>2824205</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T08:36:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added [[Category:Boxes]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]]</comment>
      <origin>2824209</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2046" sha1="ahs945btwvutxzdhdxr2ayd2h75h8t3" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Feature boxes}}

'''Feature boxes''' are used to highlight interesting content, such as examples, scenarios, case studies, and interactive activities.

When well used, features boxes make chapters more engaging and interesting to read.

There are lots of ways to create feature boxes, but [[Help:Pretty boxes|pretty boxes]] are recommended.

To copy a feature box from another page, click &quot;Edit source&quot;, locate the box, copy the code, go to the target page, click &quot;Edit source&quot;, paste the box code, edit the contents, and then publish.

==Examples==
 This is the '''simplest box'''. It is created by using a space at the start of the text.

&lt;div&gt;
{|style= &quot;background:Gainsboro; border:2px Teal solid; padding:12px;&quot; 
|'''Basic box'''

* This is a basic wiki box.
* The background colour can be changed.
* The border colour and width can be changed.
* etc.
|}
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|1}}}|title=Example robelbox}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
This is a '''robelbox''' with a title and colour 1 from [[Help:Pretty boxes#Box colors|here]].
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
This is a &quot;round box&quot; with colour 3 from [[Template:RoundBoxTop|here]].

These boxes arguably work the best.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Examples of chapters which use feature boxes==
Examples of chapter which make effective use of feature boxes:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Criminal record self-stigma and motivation|Criminal record self-stigma and motivation]] (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Exergaming and fitness motivation|Exergaming and fitness motivation]] (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/False confession motivation|False confession motivation]] (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Female killer motivation|Female killer motivation]] (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Sharenting motivation|Sharenting motivation]] (2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Stimming motivation|Stimming motivation]] (2019)


[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]]
[[Category:Boxes]]</text>
      <sha1>ahs945btwvutxzdhdxr2ayd2h75h8t3</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>C language in plain view</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>285380</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2823880</id>
      <parentid>2823654</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T13:56:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Applications */</comment>
      <origin>2823880</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9878" sha1="l50qeam3gg6hxatieon52rkfeftlxc6" xml:space="preserve">=== Introduction ===
* Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]])

=== Handling Repetition ===
* Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Handling a Big Work ===
* Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Functions &amp; Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Functions &amp; Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Functions &amp; Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Handling Series of Data ===

==== Background ==== 
* Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]])
 
==== Basics ====
* Pointers ([[Media:C04.S1.Pointer.1A.20240524.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Arrays ([[Media:C04.S2.Array.1A.20240514.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.S3.ArrayPointer.1A.20240208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20221130.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.1111.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]])

==== Examples ==== 
* Spreadsheet Example Programs
:: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]])
:: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]])
:: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]])
:: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]])

==== Applications ==== 
* Address-of and de-reference operators ([[Media:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20260821.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA1.AppPointer.1A.20241121.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.SA2.AppArray.1A.20240715.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA3.AppArrayPointer.1A.20240210.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]])

=== Handling Various Kinds of Data ===
* Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Handling Low Level Operations ===
* Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Declarations ===
* Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]])
* Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]])
* Scope 


=== Class Notes ===

* TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]])
* Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library
* Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements
* Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers
* Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts
* Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops
* Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control
* Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions
* Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope
* Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion
* Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions
* Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications
* Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions
* Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications
* Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) 
* Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2)
* Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO
* Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions
* Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications
* Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum
* Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List 
* Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing
* Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing


&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;
See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/

== '''Old Materials '''==

until 201201
* Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]])
* Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]])
* Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]])
* Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]])
* Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]])
* Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]])
* Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]])
* Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]])
* Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]])
* Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]])
* Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]])
* Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]])
 
&lt;br&gt;

until 201107
* Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]])
* Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]])
* Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]])
* Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]])
* Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]])


go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ]

[[Category:C programming language]]

&lt;/br&gt;</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:U891419</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>298250</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2823941</id>
      <parentid>2571975</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T23:00:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U891419</username>
        <id>2966485</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* But first, before psychology... */</comment>
      <origin>2823941</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5420" sha1="q5cmwfvl6a3lfzpcomr752u171glite" xml:space="preserve">== Acknowledgement of Country ==
I acknowledge that I live and work on Aboriginal land.

Land which was taken from them without consent, treaty or compensation.

I pay my respect to Elders past and present.

== Hi there &amp; welcome :) ==
I'm a student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra (UC)], Australia, currently completing my [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/780AA/4/2023 Bachelor of Science in Psychology]. 

== Why psychology? ==

=== But first, before psychology... ===
My initial academic training (also UC) was in [[wikipedia:Natural_resource_management|natural resource management]], particularly parks &amp; recreation - the type of training you would do if you wanted a career as a national parks and wildlife [[wikipedia:Park_ranger|ranger]] or an [[wikipedia:Ecology|ecologist]]. This famous [https://www.nfsa.gov.au/collection/item/whats-wrong-skip-speaking-skippys-language Australian television character] influenced that early decision... or maybe it was just my deep love of the Australian bush :)

=== The link via environmental education... ===
After finishing my initial training I completed a graduate diploma in [[wikipedia:Environmental_education|environmental education]] (also at UC - you'd think I like studying here :) ) as that enabled me to explore more deeply the relationship that people, and their communities, have with the environment. 

The environmental education program of study was developed with multiple schools/areas of UC involved (sadly a rare thing!). It included subjects on learning and memory from the field of [[wikipedia:Psychology|psychology]]. 

=== So here I am and loving it... ===
I was hooked. From then onwards, I was always destined to do a deeper dive into the field of psychology.

== Why Wikiversity? ==
As a learning experience created by [[User:Jtneill|Dr James Neill]] (UC) for the unit ''[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]'', this is my first adventure into using a 'wiki' format of web presentation.  

While initial impressions of the 'wiki' format left me a little hungry for being able to format web pages with a little more flair, it is a challenge I have enjoyed greatly.
[[File:Planting trees.jpg|alt=Figure 1. Environmental volunteers undertaking tree planting.|thumb|450x450px|Figure 1. Environmental volunteers undertaking tree planting.]]

== What am I working on for Wikiversity at the moment? ==
I will be having a closer look at [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023|the 2023 book]] chapter relating to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Environmental volunteering motivation|Environmental volunteering motivation]] and the question - What motivates environmental volunteering?

== Social contribution ==
A summary and links to direct evidence of the social contributions that I have made are included below.

# Started the discussion topic: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/13238/discussion_topics/278727 Stuff (articles, videos, etc) related to Motivation and Emotion - post them here :)]
# Posted on X (Twitter): in relation to [https://twitter.com/Rakali_/status/1691759579036786890 ACT Landcare’s Wellbeing Through Nature Program using #emot23] 
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FActively_open-minded_thinking&amp;diff=2547170&amp;oldid=2447426 Fixed a spelling error in a chapter from the 2022 book.]
# Created in MS PowerPoint and uploaded onto Wikimedia Commons the figure: [[c:File:Motivations_categories_Adapted_from_West_et_al_(2021).jpg|Motivations categories Adapted from West et al (2021).jpg]]
# Created in MS PowerPoint and uploaded onto Wikimedia Commons the figure: [[c:File:Volunteer_Functions_Inventory_(VFI)_and_environmental_volunteering.jpg|Volunteer Functions Inventory (VFI) and environmental volunteering.jpg]]
# Created in MS PowerPoint and uploaded onto Wikimedia Commons the figure: [[c:File:Theory_of_Planned_Behavior.jpg|Theory of Planned Behavior.jpg]]
# Created in MS PowerPoint and uploaded onto Wikimedia Commons the figure: [[c:File:The_Organismic_Integration_Theory_taxonomy_of_motivation_regulation.jpg|The Organismic Integration Theory taxonomy of motivation regulation.jpg]]
# Created in MS PowerPoint and uploaded onto Wikimedia Commons the figure: [[c:File:Adapted_from_Ganzevoort,_W.,_&amp;_van_den_Born,_R._J._G._(2023).jpg|Adapted from Ganzevoort, W., &amp; van den Born, R. J. G. (2023).jpg]]
# Multiple posts made under the discussion topic: [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/13238/discussion_topics/278727 Stuff (articles, videos, etc) related to Motivation and Emotion - post them here :)]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FADHD_and_motivation&amp;diff=2559263&amp;oldid=2477416 Fixed a typo in a chapter from the 2022 book]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2020%2FAutism_spectrum_disorder_and_emotional_regulation&amp;diff=2559267&amp;oldid=2559266 Fixed a spelling error in a chapter from the 2022 book]
# Posted to the discussion topic '[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/13238/discussion_topics/278624 To-do-lists]' noting a related ABC News article that may be of interest to the chapter's author.
# Liked Jorja's discussion topic and post '[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/13238/discussion_topics/287873 Customised Images for your book chapter]' - sharing her work in AI produced images was awesome.</text>
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      <text bytes="378" sha1="d3c1vzvd4f9qvs55mmkwnd44mv5ziy5" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am Tania. I'm from Lithuania. 

I like these hobbies:

* Philosophy
* Europenian modernist poetry
* Animals

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Perfectionism and procrastination|Perfectionism and procrastination]] - What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it?

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="369" sha1="anvy1rieaq57cdzerwyn47lcpnr4mgs" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am Tania. I'm from Lithuania. 

== Hobbies ==
* Philosophy
* Europenian modernist poetry
* Animals

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Perfectionism and procrastination|Perfectionism and procrastination]] - What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it?

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>anvy1rieaq57cdzerwyn47lcpnr4mgs</sha1>
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      <text bytes="393" sha1="30ycmjggm3lfikn6wgqnlquin5c2tx9" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am Tania. I'm from [[wikipedia:Lithuania|Lithuania]]. 

== Hobbies ==
* Philosophy
* Europenian modernist poetry
* Animals

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Perfectionism and procrastination|Perfectionism and procrastination]] - What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it?

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="424" sha1="nki6pgv6q81i8tfvzus40d8hgtl82xq" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am Tania. I'm from [[wikipedia:Lithuania|Lithuania]]. 

== Hobbies ==
* Philosophy
* [[wikipedia:Modernist_poetry|Europenian modernist poetry]]
* Animals

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Perfectionism and procrastination|Perfectionism and procrastination]] - What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it?

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>nki6pgv6q81i8tfvzus40d8hgtl82xq</sha1>
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      <text bytes="512" sha1="46z9fyievudzvbr671qpt9fbqheqcfu" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am Tania. I'm from [[wikipedia:Lithuania|Lithuania]]. 

== Hobbies ==
* Philosophy, especially [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/existentialism/ existential philosophy]
* [[wikipedia:Modernist_poetry|Europenian modernist poetry]]
* Animals

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Perfectionism and procrastination|Perfectionism and procrastination]] - What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it?

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <comment>/* About me */add the Figure 1. Lithuania in European Union</comment>
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      <text bytes="597" sha1="cdbowlm12fljhh1ar94rx3c3ho3g16p" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
[[File:Lithuania in European Union.svg|thumb|Figure 1. Lithuania in European Union]]
I am Tania. I'm from [[wikipedia:Lithuania|Lithuania]]. 

== Hobbies ==
* Philosophy, especially [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/existentialism/ existential philosophy]
* [[wikipedia:Modernist_poetry|Europenian modernist poetry]]
* Animals

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Perfectionism and procrastination|Perfectionism and procrastination]] - What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it?

== Social contributions ==</text>
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    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Consumer emotion measurement</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
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      <id>2823925</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Reillyu3280706</username>
        <id>3106308</id>
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      <comment>/* Social Contribution from Reillyu3280706 */ new section</comment>
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      <text bytes="2046" sha1="67bsi4ye67chcud0w831rq5edv1noeh" xml:space="preserve">==Initial suggestions==
{{ping|Rhys Harmer}} Thanks for tackling this topic.
Some initial suggestions:
* Check out other related chapters and see how you can build on, link to, and integrate with that work:
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Consumerism]]
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]]
** [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Measurement]]
* What psychological theories can help to understand? What is the main research in this area?
Let me know if I can do anything else as you go along.
Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 00:01, 10 August 2023 (UTC)

== Social Contribution from  Reillyu3280706 ==

Hey! I was inspired by your use of ''Inside Out''&lt;nowiki&gt; as the opening scenario. I think it provides an engaging and relatable way of introducing the difficulty of measuring emotion, particularly your point that two people can watch the same film but experience different emotional responses. I also thought your focus questions create a clear progression from defining consumer emotion, to measuring it, considering individual differences, and applying this knowledge to business decisions. One suggestion could be to make the connection between the opening scenario and consumer behaviour slightly more explicit by including an example of how different emotional responses to the same product, advertisement, or experience could influence purchasing behaviour or indulgence and choice of the film. I think this could strengthen the link between your engaging scenario and the consumer focus of the chapter. This topic could have been addressed in an abundance of ways but your choice in a film which is so well known and easily accessible makes it all the more pleasant to read and I'd look forward to see how you continue with this project! ~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt; [[User:Reillyu3280706|Reillyu3280706]] ([[User talk:Reillyu3280706|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Reillyu3280706|contribs]]) 19:50, 21 August 2026 (UTC)</text>
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    <title>History of Topics in Special Relativity/Twin paradox</title>
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      <text bytes="108712" sha1="0ar2wf92oi5gt653x08pppdf375pux5" xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;width:20%; font-size:13px;&quot; align=right

|{{../Other Topics (header)}}

|}

==Early history of the twin paradox==

{{Lorentzbox|Text={{center|Date of article creation: 9 November 2023; Last major revision: 20 July 2026}}}}

a) When was the [[:w:twin paradox]] applied to life forms and human beings?

:*Historical accounts&lt;ref group=S name=miller /&gt;&lt;ref group=S name=pes /&gt;&lt;ref group=S name=during /&gt; report that {{slink||Einstein 1911-HU}} discussed the aging of living organisms, and that {{slink||Langevin 1911-HU}} and {{slink||Wiechert 1911-HU}} explicitly discussed the aging of human beings. 

:*More details in sections {{slink||Human beings in 1911|Twins from 1911 to 1920}}, including newspaper articles from 1911 written by {{slink||Lämmel 1911-HU}} and {{slink||Müller 1911-HU}} that clearly show that Einstein was the first to explicitly discuss the aging of human beings as well.

b) Who was the first to formulate the principle of maximal proper time along straight worldlines, upon which differential aging in the standard twin paradox is based?

:*Historical accounts&lt;ref group=S name=miller /&gt;&lt;ref group=S name=during /&gt; mention Langevin (1911), Laue (1911). 

:*More details in section {{slink||Maximal proper time}} with the contributions of Langevin (1911), Wiechert (1911), Study (1911), Laue (1911-13).

c) Who was the first to formulate [[w:Triangle inequality#Reversal in Minkowski space|inverse triangle inequality]] in Minkowski space, which represents the simplest version of the twin paradox?

:*See details in section {{slink||Triangle inequality}} with the contributions of Robb (1914-20), Eddington (1922), Rogers (1922).

d) Who was the first to show that any influence of proper acceleration on clocks can be neglected in the computation of the twin paradox from the viewpoint of the stay-at-home twin?

:*Historical accounts&lt;ref group=S name=miller /&gt;&lt;ref group=S name=pes /&gt; mention Einstein (1911), Laue (1913). 

:*More details in section {{slink||Negligibility of proper acceleration}} with the contributions of Einstein (1911), Wiechert (1911), Laue (1913), Lorentz (1913).

e) Who was the first to introduce the three clock/brother example that completely removes acceleration from the clock/twin paradox?

:*Historical accounts&lt;ref group=S name=debs /&gt;&lt;ref group=S name=alizzi /&gt; date it back to Lange (1927) and Lord Halsbury (1957).

:*More details in section {{slink||Relay (three brothers) experiment}} with the contributions of Grünbaum (1911) and Wiechert (1920-22).

f) Who was the first to use acceleration as an asymmetry indicator?

:*Historical accounts&lt;ref group=S name=miller /&gt;&lt;ref name=cuvaj group=S /&gt;&lt;ref group=S name=pes /&gt; mention Langevin (1911), Einstein (1918). 

:*More details in section {{slink||Acceleration as asymmetry indicator}} with the contributions of Langevin (1911), Sommerfeld (1913), Lorentz (1913), Einstein (1914-20).

g) Who was the first to use different frame distribution as asymmetry indicator as an asymmetry indicator?

:*Historical accounts&lt;ref group=S name=miller /&gt;&lt;ref group=S name=pes /&gt; mention Laue (1911-13). 

:*More details in section {{slink||Frame distribution as asymmetry indicator}} with the contributions of Laue (1911-13), Bloch (1918).

h) Who was the first to describe the perspective of the traveler?

:*Historical accounts&lt;ref group=S name=miller /&gt;&lt;ref group=S name=beng /&gt; mention Langevin (1911), Lorentz (1914), Einstein (1918). 

:*More details in section {{slink||Perspective of the traveler}} with the contributions of Langevin (1911), Lorentz (1913-14), Einstein (1918), Thirring (1921).

i) Who was the first to describe a round-trip experiment in curved spacetime?

:*See section {{slink||Curved spacetime}} with the contribution of Becquerel (1922).

j) Who was the first to denote the round-trip experiment as paradoxical?

:*Historical accounts&lt;ref group=S name=miller /&gt;&lt;ref group=S name=during /&gt; point to Laue (1911).

:*See section {{slink||Paradoxical?}} for details.

k) Who was the first to misunderstand the twin paradox?

:*See section {{slink||Misunderstandings}} with the contributions of Berg (1910), Wiechert (1911), Campbell (1911/12), Gruner (1912).

l) What were Einstein's contributions?

:*See section {{slink||Einstein's contributions}}.

==Human beings in 1911==

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;background-color:white;&quot;

![[w:Albert Einstein|Einstein]] 

|-

|{{anchor|Einstein 1905}}In 1905&lt;ref name=einstein05 /&gt; he showed that a clock moving on a round-trip away from A and back along a polygonal or curved path, is retarded with respect to a clock stationary at A by approximately &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{2}t(v/V)^{2}&lt;/math&gt; at reunion. For example, a clock on the equator is retarded with respect to a clock on the pole. He described this consequence as being &quot;peculiar&quot; (German: eigentümlich).

{{anchor|Einstein 1911-HU}}In a lecture given on January 1911&lt;ref name=einstein11a /&gt; (published in November), he extended this &quot;funny&quot; (German: drollig) experiment to living organisms:

{| 

! width=55% | Einstein wrote

! English translation

|-

| style=&quot;padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;&quot; |Wenn wir z. B. einen lebenden Organismus in eine Schachtel hineinbrächten und ihn dieselbe Hin- und Herbewegung ausführen lassen wie vorher die Uhr, so könnte man es erreichen, dass dieser Organismus nach einem beliebig langen Fluge beliebig wenig geändert wieder an seinen ursprünglichen Ort zurückkehrt, während ganz entsprechend beschaffene Organismen, welche an den ursprünglichen Orten ruhend geblieben sind, bereits längst neuen Generationen Platz gemacht haben. Für den bewegten Organismus war die lange Zeit der Reise nur ein Augenblick, falls die Bewegung annähernd mit Lichtgeschwindigkeit erfolgte!

| style=&quot;padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;&quot; |For example, if we put a living organism in a box and make it undergo the same back and forth movement as the clock before, we could achieve that this organism returns to its original location with arbitrary little change after a flight of arbitrary length, whereas completely identical organisms that remained at rest in the original location have long since made room for new generations. To the moving organism, the long journey was only a moment if the movement happened close to the speed of light!

|}

{{Lorentzbox|Text=Two participants of that lecture, {{slink||Lämmel 1911-HU}} and {{slink||Müller 1911-HU}}, report that Einstein also talked about the aging of ''human beings''.}}

|-

!{{anchor|Lämmel 1911-HU}}[[w:Rudolf Lämmel|Lämmel]]

|-

|He attended Einstein's 1911 lecture and gave a popular report about it in the Swiss newspaper &quot;[[w:Neue Zürcher Zeitung|Neue Zürcher Zeitung]]&quot; published on 28 April 1911,&lt;ref name=lammel /&gt; including additional details. Regarding the round-trip clock experiment he wrote:

{| 

! width=50% | Lämmel wrote

! English translation

|-

| style=&quot;padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;&quot; |Bewegt sich eine Uhr mit Lichtgeschwindigkeit längs einer Geraden, auf der gerichtete Uhren stehen, so scheint die bewegte Uhr, beurteilt vom Standpunkt der ruhenden aus, im oben stizzierten Sinn, stillzustehen. Kehrt die Uhr, nach einem Ruck, mit Lichtgeschwindigkeit wieder zurück zur Zentral-Uhr, so ist, nach Einstein, für den Beobachter bei der Zentral-Uhr die Sache so, als ob ein mit der bewegten Uhr mitgeführter Beobachter (samt dessen Uhr) nicht gealtert hätte. Hinge also des letzteren Alter von den Angaben des ruhenden Beobachters ab, so könnte der von einer großen Reise ins Weltall zurückkehrende Beobachter bei der Zentral-Uhr spätere Generationen antreffen – er selber hätte nicht gealtert. Welche Bedeutung diese ''ad absurdum'' geführte Gedankenspielerei etwa hat, läßt sich heute nicht absehen – vielleicht, ja wahrscheinlich ist sie ohne jeden Einfluß auf die tatsächlichen Verhältnisse. Aber man sieht dabei immerhin, daß die Physik imstande ist, die kühnsten Träume der Phantasie noch – zu überbieten.

| style=&quot;padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;&quot; |Let a clock be moving at speed of light along a line on which regulated clocks are standing, then the moving clock's hand appears to be standing still (in the sense described above) as judged from the standpoint of the resting one. If the clock, after one jolt, comes back with light speed to the central clock, then according to Einstein the matter presents itself to the observer at the central clock, as if the observer comoving with the clock (together with his clock itself) hasn't been grown older. Thus if the age of the latter would depend on the indications of the resting observer, the observer returning from a great journey into space could meet later generations at the central-clock – he himself hasn't been grown older. The importance of this play of thought led ''ad absurdum'' cannot be seen today – maybe, or even probably, it is without any influence on the actual situations. Though at least one can see that physics is able to – surpass – even the boldest dreams and fantasies.

|}

Lämmel in December 1920 (published 1921)&lt;ref name=lammel2 /&gt; again alluded to Einstein's lectures in Zürich (possibly the one from 1911, and maybe also later ones), describing a discussion between himself and Einstein. After Einstein concluded that the travelers who came back after their journey will probably meet their former contemporaries as old men while they themselves could have been away for only a few years, Lämmel objected that this conclusion is only drawn with respect to rods and clocks, but not with respect to living beings. Einstein responded though, that all processes in the blood, in the nerves etc. are eventually periodical oscillations, i.e. motions. Yet to any such motion the relativity principle applies, thus the conclusion regarding the unevenly rapid aging it permissive.

{{Lorentzbox|Text=While the official publication of Einstein's January lecture ({{slink||Einstein 1911-HU}}) mentions the aging of organisms, Lämmel recalls the reference to the aging of a human space traveler (&quot;observer returning from a great journey into space&quot;). This means that Einstein was the first to use human beings in the clock/twin paradox on January 16 which was first published by Lämmel on April 28, 1911. In comparison, {{slink||Langevin 1911-HU}} used space travelers in a lecture on April 10 with publication in July, and {{slink||Wiechert 1911-HU}} used space travelers in lectures held between March 25 and May 23 with publication in July/September. It seems very unlikely that before April 28, Lämmel became somehow aware of the content of Langevin's or Wiechert's lectures held a few weeks earlier, in order to use them in his description of Einstein's lecture.}}

|-

!{{anchor|Langevin 1911-HU}}[[w:Paul Langevin|Langevin]]

|-

|On 10 April 1911, published July 1911,&lt;ref name=langevin1 /&gt; he held a now famous lecture popularizing the clock/twin paradox which he derived from the proper time integral as described in {{slink||Langevin 1911-PT}}. He demonstrated that a moving radioactive sample of radium is less evolved and less aged and therefore more active at return then the ones that remained in the laboratory. He also used light signals and the Doppler effect to visualize the effect. The most famous part concerned his description of the aging of human space travelers:

{| 

! width=50% | Langevin wrote

! [[:s:Translation:The Evolution of Space and Time|English Wikisource translation]]

|-

| style=&quot;padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;&quot; |Cette remarque fournit le moyen, à celui d’entre nous qui voudrait y consacrer deux années de sa vie, de savoir ce que sera la Terre dans deux cents ans, d’explorer l’avenir de la Terre en faisant dans la vie de celle-ci un saut en avant qui pour elle durera deux siècles et pour lui durera deux ans, mais ceci sans espoir de retour, sans possibilité de venir nous informer du résultat de son voyage puisque toute tentative du même genre ne pourrait que le transporter de plus en plus avant.

Il suffirait pour cela que notre voyageur consente à s’enfermer dans un projectile que la Terre lancerait avec une vitesse suffisamment voisine de celle de la lumière, quoique inférieure, ce qui est physiquement possible, en s’arrangeant pour qu’une rencontre, avec une étoile par exemple, se produise au bout d’une année de la vie du voyageur et le renvoie vers la Terre avec la même vitesse. Revenu à la Terre ayant vieilli de deux ans, il sortira de son arche et trouvera notre globe vieilli de deux cents ans si sa vitesse est restée dans l’intervalle inférieure d’un vingt-millième seulement à la vitesse de la lumière. Les faits expérimentaux les plus sûrement établis de la physique nous permettent d’affirmer qu’il en serait bien ainsi.

| style=&quot;padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;&quot; |This remark provides the means for any among us who wants to devote two years of his life, to find out what the Earth will be in two hundred years, and to explore the future of the Earth, by making in his life a jump ahead that will last two centuries for Earth and for him it will last two years, but without hope of return, without possibility of coming to inform us of the result of his voyage, since any attempt of the same kind could only transport him increasingly further.

For this it is sufficient that our traveler consents to be locked in a projectile that would be launched from Earth with a velocity sufficiently close to that of light but lower, which is physically possible, while arranging an encounter with, for example, a star that happens after one year of the traveler's life, and which sends him back to Earth with the same velocity. Returned to Earth he has aged two years, then he leaves his ark and finds our world two hundred years older, if his velocity remained in the range of only one twenty-thousandth less than the velocity of light. The most established experimental facts of physics allow us to assert that this would actually be so.

|}

{{Lorentzbox|Text=Reading his lecture in full, one finds the word &quot;paradoxical&quot; only in relation to the constancy of light speed, not on relation to the round-trip clock experiment.}}

|-

!{{anchor|Wiechert 1911-HU}}[[w:Emil Wiechert|Wiechert]]

|-

|In lectures on 25 March and 23 May 1911, submitted July and published September 1911,&lt;ref name=wiechert11 /&gt; he described the round-trip clock experiment with two equal clocks regulated to the same rate and brought to the same pointer position, or by introducing the same chemical process two times, or by introducing ''two life forms that began their life at the same time''. At the end of his paper he applied this to human travelers:

{|

! width=50% | Wiechert wrote

! English translation

|-

| style=&quot;padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;&quot; |Nehmen wir aber wieder eine Relativgeschwindigkeit an, die bis auf 3 Proz. der Lichtgeschwindigkeit nahekommt, dann wird das Verhältnis der empfundenen Zeitlängen wie 4:1. Das Bild mag etwas weiter noch ausgemalt werden. Denken wir uns, daß ein Beobachter durch den Raum unseres Sternhimmels mit dieser Geschwindigkeit in einer Kreisbahn mit einem Radius von 16 Lichtjahren fährt, dann wird er nach unserer Zeitrechnung nach je 100 Jahren wieder an unserem Sonnensystem vorüberkommen. In seinem Gefährt wird dabei die Zentrifugalkraft so auf ihn einwirken, daß sie gemäß den Relativitätsgesetzen der Einwirkung der Schwerkraft auf uns Erdenbewohner gleich erscheint. Es sind also die wirkenden Kräfte nur so groß, daß der Phantasie die Möglichkeit geboten wird, den Reisenden als menschliches Wesen zu denken. Da hier dauernd &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1-v^{2}/c^{2}}&lt;/math&gt; ist, fließt die Eigenzeit für den Reisenden viermal langsamer dahin, als für die Bewohner der Gestirne. Wenn er also nach 100 unserer Jahre wieder zu unserem Sonnensystem zurückkehrt, wird er sich selbst nur um 25 Jahre gealtert fühlen. Erreicht er nach der Entwicklung seines Körpers und nach seiner Zeitempfindung ein Alter von 75 Jahren, so entspricht dies doch einer dreimaligen Wiederkehr zu unserem Sonnensystem, also 300 unserer Erdenjahre.

| style=&quot;padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;&quot; |Yet if we again assume a relative velocity approximating the speed of light by 3 percent, then the ratio of the experienced duration of time becomes 4:1. This image can be further extended. Let's imagine that an observer travels with that velocity on a circular path at a radius of 16 light years through the space of our galaxy, then according to our time calculation he passes by our solar system every 100 years. In his vehicle the centrifugal force will act on him in such a way, that in accordance with the relativity laws it will appear to be equal to the force of gravity acting upon the inhabitants of Earth. Thus the acting forces are only thus big, in order to give our fantasy the possibility to imagine the traveler as a human being. Since we have &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1-v^{2}/c^{2}}&lt;/math&gt; throughout, proper time flows four times slower for the traveler than for the inhabitants of the stars. Thus when he comes back to our solar system after 100 of our years, he will feel to have aged only by about 25 years. If he reaches an age of 75 years according to the development of his body and his own time experience, then this corresponds to a threefold return to our solar system, i.e. 300 of our Earth years.

|}

{{Lorentzbox|Text=a) Wiechert (1915)&lt;ref name=wiechert15 /&gt; later provided a short historical survey of the clock/twin paradox. He referred to the fact that already {{slink||Einstein 1905}} considered the case of two clocks (&quot;Einstein's clock experiment&quot;), and even though [[w:Hermann Minkowski|Minkowski]] himself didn't consider the case, his proper time formula provides the result in a straight forward manner. The latter was done by himself in lectures on 25 March and 23 May 1911, as well as by Langevin published in July 1911. Wiechert pointed out that he himself and Langevin used &quot;humorist&quot; examples in order to clarify the situation: While Wiechert argued that one has to make a journey in order to stay young, Langevin argued that one has to romp about in a laboratory in order to stay young. Both of them used human beings, arguing that their physical and mental life should have been influenced in the same way as any other process in nature.

b) The dates given by Wiechert (1915) are not complete. The correct ones are:

*Langevin's lecture on 10 April 1911, published in July.

*Wiechert's lectures on 25 March and 23 May 1911, submitted on July 26, published in September.

*He was still unaware of Einstein's lecture from January 1911, published in November 1911.}}

|-

!{{anchor|Müller 1911-HU}}[[w:Fritz Müller-Partenkirchen|Müller]]

|-

|The freelance writer and law student Fritz Müller (who was later known as [[w:Fritz Müller-Partenkirchen|Müller-Partenkirchen]]) attended Einstein's lecture and wrote a popular report about it in the German newspaper &quot;[[w:Berliner Tageblatt|Berliner Tageblatt]]&quot; on 16th and 23rd October 1911,&lt;ref name=muller /&gt; in which he gave further details (compare with {{slink||Lämmel 1911-HU}}). Regarding the clock/twin paradox he wrote:

{| 

! width=50% | Müller wrote

! English translation

|-

| style=&quot;padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;&quot; |Zwei gleichgehende Uhren sollen je einen Beobachter haben und nebeneinander ruhen. Nun soll die eine mit ihrem Beobachter plötzlich mit Lichtgeschwindigkeit in den Weltenraum hinausreisen. Vorher haben die beiden vereinbart, sich alle Sekunden mit einem Lichtsignal die Zeit zu telegraphieren. [...] In unserem Grenzfall, wo die Reise mit Lichtgeschwindigkeit vor sich geht, müßte der ruhende Beobachter erklären, jene andere Uhr käme in der Zeit überhaupt nicht voran. Die Zeit stünde dort still. Tatsächlich kommen die Einsteinschen Gleichungen zu diesem Resultat. Für den mit der Uhr reisenden Beobachter, sagt Einstein, gelte dasselbe. Das heißt, im Urteil des Zurückbleibenden würde jener niemals alt. „Und wenn er auf einer gebrochenen Reiselinie wieder an seinen Ausgangspunkt zurückkehrte?&quot; fragt man den Vortragenden in der Diskussion. – „So bliebe er in unserem Urteil so jung wie bei der Ausreise,&quot; erwidert Einstein mit vollem Ernst, „selbst wenn wir Zurückgebliebenen inzwischen Männer mit weißen Bärten geworden sind – die Gleichungen liefern für jede Richtung der Bewegung, auch für eine gebrochene Bewegung, unerschütterlich die selben Resultate.&quot; – Wir sehen einander an. Das klingt märchenhaft. Märchenhaft? Gewiß, die alten Märchen vom Mönch von Heisterbach, vom Rip van Winkle, von Urashima Taro steigen auf. Merkwürdig, wie die Volksphantasie bei den Deutschen, bei den Amerikanern, bei den Japanern in der gleichen Richtung gearbeitet hat – alle drei Märchen erzählen ja von Leuten, deren Leben still steht, viele hundert Jahre lang, während die andern altern. So fanden sie bei ihrer Rückkehr ein anderes Land und eine andere Generation.

| style=&quot;padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;&quot; |Two synchronous clocks at rest next to each other, shall each be accompanied by an observer. Now one of them, together with its observer, suddenly travels into space at the speed of light. Previously, both have arranged that every second they telegraph their time to each other using light signals. [...] In our limiting case where the journey happens at light speed, the resting observer would have to declare that the other clock would not proceed in time at all. Time would stand still at this place. Einstein's equations indeed produce this result. As to the observer traveling with the clock, says Einstein, the same is true. That means in the judgment of the remaining one, the other one would never become old. Then the lecturer [i.e. Einstein] was asked in the discussion: &quot;And if he comes back to his starting point on a curved travel path?&quot;, to which Einstein replied in full earnest: &quot;Then in our judgment he would remain as young as he was at departure, even if we remaining ones became men with white beards in the meantime, the equations unshakably give the same result in every direction of motion, also for curved motion&quot;. We look at each other. That sounds fabulous. Fabulous? Of course, the old fairy tales of [[w:Heisterbach Abbey|w:The monk of Heisterbach]] or [[w:Rip Van Winkle]] or [[w:Urashima Tarō]] come forward. Strange, how the folk fantasy of the Germans, the Americans, the Japanese worked in the same direction, all three fairy tales indeed tell about people whose life stands still, many hundred years long, while the other ones grow old. Thus they found another country and another generation when they returned.

|}

{{Lorentzbox|Text=Müller's account confirms {{slink||Lämmel 1911-HU}} that Einstein indeed mentioned human beings, but his description also suggests that Einstein was the first to use mutually sent light signals. However, as this was published in October, it cannot be excluded that Müller's description of light signals was influenced by {{slink||Langevin 1911-HU}}, published in July, in which light signals were used as well.}}

|}

==Twins from 1911 to 1920==

We now provide a list of authors who employed ''twins'', i.e. ''two'' life forms or humans that initially were of ''same age'' when the round-trip began:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;background-color:white;&quot;

|-

! Author !! Date !! Description

|-

|[[w:Emil Wiechert|Wiechert]]&lt;ref name=wiechert11 /&gt;

|1911

|Two life forms that begin their life at the ''same time'' (German: &quot;Zwei Lebewesen [..] die ihr Leben gleichzeitig beginnen&quot;), of which the moving one returns retarded in its progression with respect to the stationary one.

|-

|[[w:Paul Gruner|Gruner]]&lt;ref name=gruner /&gt;

|1912

|Two persons of ''same age'' (French: &quot;deux personnes du même âge&quot;), of which the moving one returns less developed than stationary one.

|-

|[[w:Max von Laue|Laue]]&lt;ref name=laue3 /&gt;

|1913

|The moving life form returns younger than its ''former agemates'' (German: &quot;ehemaligen Altersgenossen&quot;).

|-

|[[w:Hermann Weyl|Weyl]]&lt;ref name=weyl /&gt;

|Easter 1918

|

{| 

! width=50% | German original

! English translation

|-

| style=&quot;padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;&quot; |Von zwei Zwillingsbrüdern, die sich in einem Weltpunkt A trennen, bleibe der eine in der Heimat (d. h. ruhe dauernd in einem tauglichen Bezugsraum), der andere aber unternehme Reisen, bei denen er Geschwindigkeiten (relativ zur »Heimat«) entwickelt, die der Lichtgeschwindigkeit nahekommen; dann wird sich der Reisende, wenn er dereinst in die Heimat zurückkehrt, als merklich jünger herausstellen denn der Seßhafte.

|Suppose we have two twin-brothers who take leave from one another at a world-point A, and suppose one remains at home (that is, permanently at rest in an allowable reference-space), whilst the other sets out on voyages, during which he moves with velocities (relative to “home”) that approximate to that of light. When the wanderer returns home in later years he will appear appreciably younger than the one who stayed at home. 

|}

{{Lorentzbox|Text=Weyl was the first to ''explicitly use twins'' in relation to the round-trip experiment. The fourth edition (1920) of that book was translated from German into English and French in 1922.}}

|-

|[[w:Albert Einstein|Einstein]]&lt;ref name=einstein20 /&gt;

|1920/21

|{{Anchor|Einstein 1921-TW}}

{| 

! width=50% | German original

! English translation

|-

| style=&quot;padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;&quot; | Trifft A wieder bei B ein, so kann es sich ereignen, daß der beharrende Zwilling inzwischen 60 Erdjahre alt geworden ist, während der zurückkehrende nur 15 Jahre zählt, oder sich gar noch im Säuglingsstadium befindet. [..] Bei diesen Zwillingen, erklärte Einstein, haben wir zunächst eine ''Gefühls -Paradoxie'' vor uns. Eine ''Denk-Paradoxie'' würde indeß nur dann vorliegen, wenn sich für das Verhalten der beiden Geschöpfe kein zureichender Grund anführen ließe. 

|If A then returns to B, it may happen that the twin who stayed at home is now sixty years old, whereas the wanderer is only fifteen years of age, or is perhaps only an infant still. [..] In the case of these two twins, Einstein declared, we have merely a paradox of ''feeling''. It would be a paradox of ''thought'' only if no sufficient ground could be suggested for the behaviour of these two creatures. 

|}

{{Lorentzbox|Text=This was based on an interview of Einstein by Moszkowski. While the expression &quot;clock paradox&quot; was used since 1911/12 (see section {{slink||Paradoxical?}}), this seems to be the first time that it was rebranded as &quot;twin paradox&quot;. The copyright mark indicates 1920, while the title page indicates 1921. The translation from German into English also appeared in 1921.}}

|}

==Maximal proper time==

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;background-color:white;&quot;

|-

! Author !! Early examples

|-

|[[w:Paul Langevin|Langevin]]

1911

|{{anchor|Langevin 1911-PT}}In April 1911 (published July),&lt;ref name=langevin1 /&gt; he described the round-trip experiment without formulas using two portions of matter present at two events happening at the same place. The ''integration of proper time'' along the entire wordlines shows that the portion of matter that starts a closed cycle by receding and finally coming back, will have a ''smaller proper time'' than the one that stayed behind.

In October 1911 (published 1912),&lt;ref name=langevin2 /&gt; Langevin again showed that the portion of matter that described a closed cycle will have a ''smaller proper time'' &lt;math&gt;R&lt;/math&gt; than the one that stayed in an inertial frame, which is defined by the equation:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}V^{2}\left(t-t_{0}\right)^{2}=d^{2}-R\\
\left[d^{2}=\left(x-x_{0}\right)^{2}+\left(y-y_{0}\right)^{2}+\left(z-z_{0}\right)^{2}\right]
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt; 

|-

|[[w:Emil Wiechert|Wiechert]]&lt;ref name=wiechert11 /&gt;

Lectures March-May 1911

submitted July

published September

|{{anchor|Wiechert 1911-PT}}Let two equal processes be observed in two equal material systems colocated in two moments (1) and (2), and let there velocities have been changed in arbitrarily different ways in the meantime. It follows that the ratio of advancement of those processes is given by the two intervals &lt;math&gt;\Delta\tau &lt;/math&gt; of their respective ''proper times''. He concluded that any round-trip clock experiment can be easily comprehended from that theorem by computation. The corresponding integral is:

:&lt;math&gt;\Delta\tau=\int_{1}^{2}d\tau=\int_{1}^{2}dt\sqrt{1-\frac{\mathfrak{v}^{2}}{c^{2}}}&lt;/math&gt; 

|-

|[[w:Eduard Study|Study]]&lt;ref name=study /&gt;

June 1911

|Minkowski's concept of worldlines implies that the straight path between two points of the same worldline is the ''longest'' among all paths between those points, if the path length on a worldline is defined by the related proper time.

{{Lorentzbox|Text=Study's book was purely mathematical without mentioning clocks or the round-trip experiment, alluding to his result only in a footnote.}}

|-

|[[w:Max von Laue|Laue]]

1911-13

|{{anchor|Laue 1911/12-PT}}In December 1911 (published 1912),&lt;ref name=laue1 /&gt; Laue showed without formulas that the round-trip experiment is represented by a curved worldline, which at worldpoint A decomposes into a row of curves, after which all of them will be re-united at worldpoint B to a single line. Of all curves connecting the points A and B having time-like direction throughout, the straight connection has the ''longest proper time.''

{{anchor|Laue 1912/13-PT}}In December 1912 (published 1913) in the second edition of this relativity book,&lt;ref name=laue1 /&gt; Laue described the proper time integral between events 1 and 2 of a slowly accelerated clock covering a broken line and a stationary clock covering a straight worldline. Of all worldlines covering 1 and 2, the straight line has the ''longest proper time''. Therefore the traveling clock in the round-trip experiment is retarded at reunion, because its curved worldline corresponds to a shorter proper time. This result he presented in terms of the following inequality, of which the right-hand side refers to the straight curve of the stationary clock, while all others possible curves are represented on left-hand side:

:&lt;math&gt;\tfrac{1}{c}\int_{1}^{2}\sqrt{du^{2}-\left(dx^{2}+dy^{2}+dz^{2}\right)}&lt;\tfrac{1}{c}\int_{1}^{2}du&lt;/math&gt; 

{{Lorentzbox|Text={{anchor|Sommerfeld 1913-PT}}Similar treatments can be found in the textbooks of [[w:Arnold Sommerfeld|Sommerfeld]] (1913),&lt;ref name=sommerfeld /&gt; [[w:Hermann Weyl|Weyl]] (1918),&lt;ref name=weyl /&gt; [[w:Wolfgang Pauli|Pauli]] (1921),&lt;ref name=pauli /&gt; [[w:August Kopff|Kopff]] (1921),&lt;ref name=kopff /&gt; [[w:Jean Becquerel|Becquerel]] (1922).&lt;ref name=becqu1 /&gt;}}

|}

==Triangle inequality==

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;background-color:white;&quot;

|-

! Author !! Early examples

|-

|valign=top|[[w:Alfred Robb|Robb]]

1914-1920

|{{anchor|Robb 1914-TR}}In 1914&lt;ref name=robb1 /&gt; he showed that there are three types of triangles formed by intervals in Minkowski space, depending on whether one deals with &quot;separation lines&quot; (spacelike intervals), &quot;optical lines&quot; (lightlike intervals), or &quot;inertia lines&quot; (timelike intervals representing the path of nonaccelerated particles defined by &lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \left(x_{1}-x_{0}\right)^{2}+\left(y_{1}-y_{0}\right)^{2}+\left(z_{1}-z_{0}\right)^{2}-c^{2}\left(t_{1}-t_{0}\right)^{2}&lt;0}&lt;/math&gt;). As to a triangle formed by inertia lines, he showed that the sum of a certain two sides is ''less'' than that of the third one. 

{{Lorentzbox|Text=So the triangle inequality derived from time-like intervals in Minkowski space is ''[[w:Triangle inequality#Reversal in Minkowski space|inverse]]'' to the inequality in Euclidean space. This inverse inequality directly represents the most simple variant of the twin paradox: the traveler follows two sides of the time-triangle, while the stay-at-home observer follows the third side indicating maximal proper time.}}

[[File:RobbTriangle.svg|right|150px]]
In 1920&lt;ref name=robb2 /&gt; Robb gave a numerical example of the triangle ABC with time-like intervals (&quot;inertia lines&quot;) defined by coordinates

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix} &amp; x &amp; y &amp; z &amp; t\\
A\  &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0\\
B\  &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 10\\
C\  &amp; 4 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 5
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt; 

which he plugged into 

:&lt;math&gt;\bar{s}^{2}=\left(t_{1}-t_{0}\right)^{2}-\left(x_{1}-x_{0}\right)^{2}-\left(y_{1}-y_{0}\right)^{2}-\left(z_{1}-z_{0}\right)^{2}&lt;/math&gt; 

from which he obtained the sides AB=10, AC=3, CB=3 and the inequality &lt;math&gt;AC+CB&lt;AB&lt;/math&gt;.

|-

|[[w:Arthur Eddington|Eddington]]&lt;ref name=edding2 /&gt;

1922

|He distinguished between the &quot;space-triangle&quot; for spacelike intervals, and the &quot;time-triangle&quot; for time-like intervals. The latter is measured with a clock from A to B and from B to C, with the sum of those readings ''is always less'' than the reading of a clock measuring directly from A to C. In the ordinary space-triangle any two sides are together greater than the third side; in the time-triangle two sides are together ''less'' than the third side. 

|-

|Rogers&lt;ref name=rogers /&gt;

1922

|He showed that the &quot;pure time-triangle&quot; C, A, B (in their proper time order) satisfies the relation &lt;math&gt;\cosh C=\tfrac{\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}}{2\alpha\beta}&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;\cosh C&lt;/math&gt; denotes the unit-scalar product of the vectors CA, CB, and &lt;math&gt;\alpha,\beta,\gamma &lt;/math&gt; the real and positive intervals BC, CA, AB. Since &lt;math&gt;\alpha&gt;\beta &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\cosh C&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;, it follows that &lt;math&gt;\alpha&gt;\beta+\gamma &lt;/math&gt;. That is, &quot;the greatest side of pure time-triangle is greater than the sum of the other two sides&quot;. It follows at once that the stationary value of the proper time integral is an &quot;absolute maximum&quot;.

|}

==Negligibility of proper acceleration==

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;background-color:white;&quot;

|-

! Author !! Early examples

|-

|valign=top |[[w:Albert Einstein|Einstein]]

1905-1918


|In 1905,&lt;ref name=einstein05 /&gt; Einstein used velocity time dilation &lt;math&gt;\tau=t\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v}{V}\right)^{2}}&lt;/math&gt; to derive the retardation of a clock performing a round-trip with constant speed &lt;math&gt;v&lt;/math&gt; along a polygonal path or a continuously curved line, without mentioning any influence of acceleration at turnaround.

{{anchor|Einstein 1911-VA}} In 1911 (published 1912),&lt;ref name=einstein3 /&gt; Einstein said that special relativity doesn't say anything about what happened to the clock's pointer position during the acceleration that changes the clock's direction along the round-trip, yet the influence of this change must be getting smaller the longer the clock ''is moving uniformly'', i.e. the longer one chooses the dimensions of the path.

{{anchor|Einstein 1912-VA}}In an unpublished manuscript on special relativity from 1912,&lt;ref name=einst12manu /&gt; he pointed out that any influence of acceleration during the round-trip experiment, can be neglected if one makes the time of acceleration negligible with respect to the total time of motion along the polygonal path. 

{{anchor|Einstein 1914a-VA}}In a letter from April 1914,&lt;ref name=einstpetz /&gt; Einstein showed that any ''finite'' acceleration at turnaround during the round-trip experiment can only influence the clock in a ''finite'' way, thus it can be neglected by minimizing the time of acceleration with respect to the time of uniform translation. So it ''must be concluded'' that the clock is retarded at reunion after traveling on a polygonal path.

{{anchor|Einstein 1914b-VA}}During a conversation in May 1914,&lt;ref name=rowe group=S /&gt; Einstein is reported to have replied that the accelerations during the round-trip are &quot;irrelevant for the amount of the time difference&quot;. (Compare with {{slink||Einstein 1914b-AC}}) 

{{anchor|Einstein 1918-VA}}In his famous &quot;Dialog about Objections against the Theory of Relativity&quot; from 1918,&lt;ref name=einstein18 /&gt; Einstein pointed out that any effect of velocity changes at turnaround must be limited, thus the traveling clock must be retarded at reunion due to time dilation if one makes the path AB and back along the round-trip long enough. (Compare with {{slink||Einstein 1918-AC}})

|-

|[[w:Emil Wiechert|Wiechert]]&lt;ref name=wiechert11 /&gt;

1911

|{{Anchor|Wiechert 1911-VA}}[[File:WiechertTwin.svg|110px|right]] He demonstrated that differential aging along the round-trip cannot be caused during the passage from one velocity to another (i.e. acceleration) at turnaround, because the same result also follows when ''both'' A and B experience the ''same velocity changes'' with respect to another frame, only with the difference that B has relative velocities &lt;math&gt;+u&lt;/math&gt;  and &lt;math&gt;-u&lt;/math&gt; for a long time, while A is brought after a short time from relative velocity &lt;math&gt;+u&lt;/math&gt; to relative rest at which it remains a long time, and then it is brought to relative velocity &lt;math&gt;-u&lt;/math&gt;  for a short time.

{{Lorentzbox|Text=He was probably the first to use an example in which both accelerate with same magnitude.}}

|-

|[[w:Max von Laue|Laue]]&lt;ref name=laue3 /&gt;

1913

|{{anchor|Laue 1913-VA}}He showed that the problem of the influence of acceleration at turnaround in the round-trip experiment, can be eliminated by ''arbitrarily'' enlarging the time in inertial motion.

{{Lorentzbox|Text=This is the same argument as given in {{slink||Einstein 1911-VA}}. The Einstein-Laue argument was also used by others such as [[w:Hans Thirring|Thirring]] (1921)&lt;ref name=thirring /&gt; or [[w:Max Born|Born]] (1921).&lt;ref name=born /&gt;}}

|-

|[[w:Hendrik Lorentz|Lorentz]]&lt;ref name=lorentz1 /&gt;

1913

|He pointed out that any effect of acceleration on the traveling clock at turnaround, can be separated from the time dilation effect since only the latter depends on the distance traversed along the round-trip.

{{Lorentzbox|Text=Similarly, [[w:Wolfgang Pauli|Pauli]] (1921) stated that the arising infinitesimal accelerations at turnaround are certainly independent of the total travel time and ''therefore easy to eliminate''.&lt;ref name=pauli /&gt;}}
|}

==Relay (three brothers) experiment==

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;background-color:white;&quot;

|-

! Author !! Early examples

|-

|[[w:de:Fritz Grünbaum (Physiker)|Grünbaum]]&lt;ref name=gbaum /&gt;

1911

|He discussed a one-way time dilation experiment in which the first clock is set into motion from the origin and then moving to the second clock. He argued that one can avoid the problem of acceleration experienced by the first clock when set into motion, by replacing it with a ''third'' clock that is already in motion with constant velocity and is synchronized at the origin with the first clock.

{{Lorentzbox|Text=While Grünbaum didn't discuss round-trip experiments, his introduction of a third clock in order to avoid acceleration is the basis of the three-brother experiment.}}

|-

|valign=top|[[w:Emil Wiechert|Wiechert]]

1920-1922

|In 1920 (published 1921),&lt;ref name=wiechert20 /&gt; Wiechert explained how to completely remove acceleration from the round-trip experiment: Bodies A, B, C move undisturbed and non-accelerated in different directions. A and B pass each other at time (1), B and C pass each other at a later time (2), and C and A finally pass each other at an even later time (3). So in this setup, the condition of C is the continuation of the condition of B. On any of the three bodies one can count the oscillations of light of a certain spectral-line, in which case relativity predicts that the ''combined sum of all oscillations'' on B+C is smaller than the number of oscillations on A alone. Wiechert also held that one can replace the light oscillations by the life functions of human-like beings which live on A, B and C. For instance, while the inhabitants of B+C only had time for one meal, there were arbitrarily many generations on A who follow after each other by death and birth.

[[File:Wiechert1922a.png|180px|right]]
In 1921 (published 1922),&lt;ref name=wiechert21 /&gt; Wiechert extended his previous acceleration-free round-trip experiment to an arbitrary number of non-accelerated bodies &lt;math&gt;B_{1}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;B_{2}&lt;/math&gt;, ..., which constitutes a &quot;relay&quot; (German: Stafette) starting from body A and back again. The first B passes A and moves away, and after some time the last B comes back to A. Since any B body continues the fate of the previous one, all bodies &lt;math&gt;B_{1}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;B_{2}&lt;/math&gt;, ..., combined have emitted fewer oscillations than A alone during the relay race. Wiechert pointed out that instead of light oscillations one can also choose the aging of life forms.

{{Lorentzbox|Text=Such relay experiments were later independently rediscovered in English language papers&lt;ref name=debs group=S /&gt; such as by Lange (1927)&lt;ref group=S name=lange /&gt; in which the brothers synchronize their times when they pass each other (“three brother experiment”).}}
|}

==Acceleration as asymmetry indicator==

While it was known that any direct influence of [[w:proper acceleration]] on clocks can be neglected in the computation of the inertial frame of the stay-at-home twin (see previous section {{slink||Negligibility of proper acceleration}}), the very fact that only one of them is accelerating is still useful as an asymmetry argument in order to show that there is no contradiction to the relativity principle.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;background-color:white;&quot;

|-

! Author !! Early examples

|-

|[[w:Paul Langevin|Langevin]]&lt;ref name=langevin1 /&gt;

1911

|{{Anchor|Langevin 1911-AC}}He derived differential aging in the round-trip experiment using the proper time integral along worldlines (see {{slink||Langevin 1911-PT}}) and used acceleration as an asymmetry indicator: The result of the round-trip experiment is &quot;another example of the absolute character of acceleration&quot; in which the &quot;asymmetry occurred because only the traveler, in the middle of his journey, has undergone an acceleration that changes the direction of his velocity&quot;. 

|-

|[[w:Arnold Sommerfeld|Sommerfeld]]&lt;ref name=sommerfeld /&gt;

1913

|After he showed (see {{slink||Sommerfeld 1913-PT}}) that retardation of time in the round-trip experiment derived from the proper time integral rests on the assumption that the clock's rate ''only depends on its momentary velocity'' (now called &quot;clock hypothesis&quot;), he used acceleration as an asymmetry indicator: There is no contradiction to the relativity principle since one of the clocks has to be accelerated in order to come back, thus the retardation in the round-trip experiment does not demonstrate &quot;motion&quot;, but &quot;accelerated motion&quot;.

|-

|[[w:Hendrik Lorentz|Lorentz]]

1913&lt;ref name=lorentz1 /&gt;

|After he derived differential aging in the round-trip experiment from velocity time dilation and pointed out the negligibility of proper acceleration for the computation, he used acceleration as an asymmetry indicator: There is no contradiction to the relativity principle, since one of them changes velocity and accelerates; the relativity principle does not require symmetry between inertial and non-inertial observers.

|-

|valign=top|[[w:Albert Einstein|Einstein]]

1914-1920

|{{anchor|Einstein 1914b-AC}} During a conversation in 1914,&lt;ref name=rowe group=S /&gt; Einstein is reported to have said that moving clock B is retarded because it was accelerating in contrast to clock A; while those accelerations are ''irrelevant'' for the ''amount'' of the time difference, their ''presence'' nevertheless cause B to fall behind (&quot;accelerated motions are absolute&quot;).

{{anchor|Einstein 1918-AC}}In his famous &quot;Dialog about Objections against the Theory of Relativity&quot; from 1918&lt;ref name=einstein18 /&gt;, Einstein pointed out the negligibility of velocity changes from the viewpoint of an inertial frame (see {{slink||Einstein 1918-VA}}). Then he used ''acceleration as an asymmetry indicator'' in order to show, that there is no contradiction to the relativity principle, because relativity only predicts the equivalence of non-accelerated inertial frames: &quot;only K is such a frame while K' is temporarily accelerated, thus the retardation of U2 with respect to U1 cannot be used to construe a contradiction against the theory.&quot; 

{{anchor|Einstein 1920-AC}}Einstein is reported to have said in an interview from 1920:&lt;ref name=einstein20 /&gt;
{| 

! width=50% | German original

! English translation

|-

| style=&quot;padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;&quot; |Bei diesen Zwillingen, erklärte Einstein, haben wir zunächst eine ''Gefühls-Paradoxie'' vor uns. Eine ''Denk-Paradoxie'' würde indeß nur dann vorliegen, wenn sich für das Verhalten der beiden Geschöpfe kein zureichender Grund anführen ließe. Dieser Grund für das Jüngerbleiben des A ergibt sich vom Gesichtspunkt der speziellen Relativitätstheorie aus der Tatsache, daß das betreffende Geschöpf — und nur dieses — Beschleunigungen erlitten hat.

| style=&quot;padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;&quot; |In the case of these two twins,&quot; Einstein declared, &quot;we have merely a paradox of ''feeling''. It would be a paradox of ''thought'' only if no sufficient ground could be suggested for the behaviour of these two creatures . This ground, which counts for the comparative youth of A, is given, from the point of view of the special theory of relativity, by the fact that the creature in question, and only this creature, has been subject to accelerations.&quot;
|}

In a discussion from 1922,&lt;ref name=morand /&gt; Einstein is reported to have said that there is no contradiction in the round-trip experiment (in terms of a train leaving the station and returning later): The relativity principle is not applicable to this case, because the train is not in a Galilean system (i.e. inertial frame) any longer during the period of velocity change at turnaround, i.e. the ensemble of two frames having velocities in opposite direction is not an inertial frame. There is no reciprocity between a frame that changes direction and one that doesn't.

|}

==Frame distribution as asymmetry indicator==

Because any direct influence of proper acceleration on the traveling clock at turnaround can be neglected (see {{slink||Negligibility of proper acceleration}}), the importance of {{slink||Acceleration as asymmetry indicator}} is limited to the mere fact that it reveals that only the traveler was in a non-inertial frame as only he changed his inertial frames, thus instead of emphasizing the occurrence of proper acceleration at turnaround, it's possible to describe the asymmetry more geometrically by emphasizing the different distribution of inertial frames of the twins along their worldlines.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;background-color:white;&quot;

|-

! Author !! Early examples

|-

|valign=top|[[w:Max von Laue|Laue]]

1911-1913

|{{Anchor|Laue 1911/12-VA}} In 1911/12,&lt;ref name=laue1 /&gt; he pointed out that during the time of separation, that clock is most advanced which was at rest in an inertial frame all the time; namely there is ''always one, and only one inertial frame'', in which the locations of separation and re-encounter lie in the same geometric point. He clarified this fact by alluding to different paths in spacetime (compare with {{slink||Laue 1911/12-PT}}).

In 1912/13,&lt;ref name=laue2 /&gt; he argued that in the round-trip experiment, we indeed can decide, which one of the clocks was steadily at rest in one and the same reference system, and which one was in the meantime at rest in two or more such systems. Among them there is of course a real physical difference. He clarified this fact by alluding to different paths in spacetime (compare with {{slink||Laue 1912/13-PT}}).

In 1913&lt;ref name=laue3 /&gt; Laue pointed out:

{| 

! width=50% | German original

! English translation

|-

| style=&quot;padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;&quot; | Aber nach unseren Voraussetzungen ruht während der Zeit der Trennung die erste Uhr in ''einem'' berechtigten Bezugssystem, die zweite hingegen ruht zwar sowohl bei der Hin- wie bei der Rückbewegung in berechtigten Bezugssystemen, aber notwendig in ''zwei verschiedenen. Deshalb'' unterscheiden sich beider Schicksale physikalisch. Ließe man die zweite Uhr in der ihr anfangs erteilten Bewegung und schickte man ihr dafür die erste Uhr nach einiger Zeit mit größerer Geschwindigkeit nach, so würde beim Zusammentreffen die erste gegen die zweite zurückgeblieben sein; denn jetzt hat die erste während der Trennung in zwei verschiedenen Systemen geruht. (Footnote: Dem naheliegenden Einwand, daß wir über den Gang einer Uhr während eines Geschwindigkeits''wechsels'' nichts aussagen können, begegnet man am einfachsten mit dem Hinweis, daß man die Zeiten der gleichförmigen Bewegung ''beliebig'' groß gegen die der Beschleunigung machen kann.)

| style=&quot;padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;&quot; | However, by our presuppositions, one clock is at rest in ''one'' valid reference system during the time of separation, while the second one is at rest in valid reference systems both during the forward- and the backward motion, but necessarily in ''two different ones. Therefore'' the two fates differ physically. If the second clock remains in the motion which was given to it at the start, and if after some time it is followed by the first clock with greater velocity, then the first one would be retarded with respect to the second one at the encounter; since now it was the first one that was at rest in two different systems during the separation. (Footnote: The objection which is near at hand, that we cannot say anything about the rate of a clock during a velocity ''change'', can be met most simply by the allusion, that we can render the times of uniform motion ''arbitrarily'' great with respect to acceleration..)
|}

|-

|[[w:Werner Bloch|Bloch]]&lt;ref name=bloch /&gt;

September 1918

|{{anchor|Bloch 1918-VA}} He represented the frames with three movable slots K, K' and K”, provided with hooks on which one can hang clocks at the origins of K and K'; while one clock always hangs on a hook of slot K, the other clock moved away with K' and after some time was transferred (neglecting any effect of acceleration) by a mechanical device to slot K” that moves in the other direction, by which it comes back; there is no contradiction to the relativity principle, as one clock rested in one inertial frame while the other one rested in two such frames.

|}

==Perspective of the traveler==

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;background-color:white;&quot;

|-

! Author !! Early examples

|-

|[[w:Paul Langevin|Langevin]]&lt;ref name=langevin1 /&gt;

1911

|{{anchor|Langevin 1911-LI}}[[Image:rstd4.gif|170px|right]] After deriving differential aging from the proper time integral in {{slink||Langevin 1911-PT}} and using human beings in {{slink||Langevin 1911-HU}}, he described the perspectives of both observers using light signals and the Doppler effect. When they separate they see each other live 200 times slower, while at return they see each other live 200 times faster. So ''from the explorer's viewpoint'', in the first year he sees the Earth perform the actions of two days, while in the second year he sees the Earth perform the actions of two centuries. The asymmetry can be seen by noticing, that the observer on Earth in 200 years sees the explorer performs the actions of 1 year. Then the explorer turns around, after which the observer on Earth in 2 days sees the projectile perform the actions of another year.

{{Lorentzbox|Text=Langevin used &lt;math&gt;v=c\left(1-\tfrac{1}{20000}\right)&lt;/math&gt;, producing Lorentz factor &lt;math&gt;\gamma\approx100&lt;/math&gt; and Doppler factor &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{c+v}{c-v}}\approx200&lt;/math&gt;.}}

|-

|[[w:Hendrik Lorentz|Lorentz]]

Lectures published in 1913&lt;ref name=lorentz1 /&gt;

Similar treatment in 1914&lt;ref name=lorentz3 /&gt;

|{{anchor|Lorentz 1913/14-LI}}Described the round-trip experiment in terms of inertial observer A (equipped with clock K) and traveling observer B (equipped with clock K'). In the frame of A, clock K' is retarded with respect to K at reunion due to time dilation. He then described the perspective of the traveling observer B by using two-way propagation of light from K' to K and back to K', leading to three periods defined by the moment of B's turnaround: In the first period the light signals return to K' before turnaround; in the second period the signals are emitted before turnaround and return after turnaround; in the third period emission and return of the signals are both happening after turnaround. Lorentz showed that K is time dilated by a factor of &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1-v^{2}/c^{2}}&lt;/math&gt; with respect to K' in the first and third period, but in the second period K is ticking ''faster'' than K' by a factor of &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{c+v}{c-v}}&lt;/math&gt; which overcompensates the dilation in the other periods and explains, even from the perspective of B, why K' is retarded with respect to K at reunion.

{{Lorentzbox|Text=In a review of the German translation of Lorentz's book, Einstein (1914) didn't directly mention Lorentz's treatment of the twin paradox, but he wrote that nobody who is seriously interested in relativity should neglect to read that book.&lt;ref name=einstlor /&gt; [[w:Wolfgang Pauli|Pauli]] (1921) refers to Lorentz's book as one of three papers that analyze the twin paradox more closely.&lt;ref name=pauli /&gt;}}

|-

|valign=top| [[w:Albert Einstein|Einstein]]

1916-1920

|{{anchor|Einstein 1916-EP}}In a lecture from 1916,&lt;ref name=einstein16 /&gt; of which only an abstract was published, Einstein spoke about the &quot;clock paradox of special relativity from the standpoint of [[w:general relativity]].&quot;

{{anchor|Einstein 1918a-EP}}In a letter from September 1918,&lt;ref name=einadl /&gt; Einstein showed that general relativity makes the inertial frame K and and the accelerated frame K' of the clocks in the round-trip experiment &quot;equally justified&quot;, explaining the time difference in K' by combining the influence of velocity and gravitational potential on clocks.

{{anchor|Einstein 1918-EP}}In his famous &quot;Dialog about Objections against the Theory of Relativity&quot; from November 1918,&lt;ref name=einstein18 /&gt; aimed at clarifying misconceptions of the clock paradox, he explained that there is no paradox in special relativity because there is no symmetry between clock U1 at rest in inertial frame K and clock U2 at rest in accelerated frame K' (see {{slink||Einstein 1918-AC}}). Yet [[w:general relativity]] and the [[w:equivalence principle]] allow the treatment of this problem also from the standpoint of frame K', where clock U2 remains at rest all of the time while U1 makes the following movements: (1) It is accelerated by a homogeneous gravitational field in the negative direction, (2) it moves with constant velocity &lt;math&gt;-v&lt;/math&gt;, (3) it is accelerated in the positive direction until it turns around and comes by with constant velocity &lt;math&gt;+v&lt;/math&gt;, (4) it moves with velocity &lt;math&gt;+v&lt;/math&gt;, (5) it is accelerated in the negative direction until it stops. Clock U1 is retarded with respect to U2 in periods 2) and 4) due to velocity time dilation, but this retardation is overcompensated by the faster rate of U1 during period 3), because U1 is at a higher gravitational potential. He argued that the computation (which he didn't provide) shows that the advance of U1 in period 3) is double its retardation during periods 2) and 4). Einstein concluded that by this consideration &quot;the paradox is completely resolved&quot;. Using [[w:Mach's principle]], he pointed out that the gravitational field in K' might be induced by the masses of the universe that are accelerated in this frame.

{{anchor|Einstein 1918b-EP}}In a letter to Einstein from December 1918, [[w:Max Jakob|Jakob]] doubted the result that the advance in period 3) is double the retardation during periods 2) and 4). Einstein responded by letter,&lt;ref name=einstein18b /&gt; in which he used the gravitational time dilation factor &lt;math&gt;1+\Phi/c^{2}&lt;/math&gt; in K' in order to show that U1 at distance &lt;math&gt;l&lt;/math&gt; is advancing by &lt;math&gt;\Phi/c^{2}=2vl/c^{2}&lt;/math&gt; in period 3), which is indeed the double of approximated delay &lt;math&gt;vl/c^{2}&lt;/math&gt; caused by velocity time dilation during periods 2) and 4).

{{anchor|Einstein 1921-EP}}Einstein is reported to have said in an interview from 1920,&lt;ref name=einstein20 /&gt; that while acceleration explains the age difference between the stationary twin B and the traveling twin A in terms of special relativity (see {{slink||Einstein 1920-AC}}), the &quot;proper&quot; description in terms of general relativity is as follows:

{| 

! width=50% | German original

! English translation

|-

| style=&quot;padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;&quot; | Eine tiefere Erfassung des Grundes ist indeß nur auf dem Boden der „Allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie&quot; zu erlangen, die uns erkennen läßt, daß von A aus beurteilt ein Zentrifugalfeld existiert, von B aus betrachtet aber nicht; und dieses Feld hat einen Einfluß auf den relativen Ablauf und die Raschheit der Lebensvorgänge.

| style=&quot;padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;&quot; | A proper grasp of the reason is furnished only when we adopt the general theory of relativity, which tell us that, from the point of view of A, a centrifugal field exists, whereas it is absent from the point of view of B. This field exerts an influence on the relative rate of happening of the events of life.&quot;
|}

{{Lorentzbox|Text=a) Einstein's explanation was quickly adopted in the textbooks of [[w:Werner Bloch|Bloch]] (1920),&lt;ref name=bloch2 /&gt; [[w:Wolfgang Pauli|Pauli]] (1921),&lt;ref name=pauli /&gt; [[w:August Kopff|Kopff]] (1921),&lt;ref name=kopff /&gt; [[w:Karl Bollert|Bollert]] (1921),&lt;ref name=bollert1 /&gt; [[w:Max Born|Born]] (1921),&lt;ref name=born /&gt; expressing the view that general relativity is &quot;necessary&quot; to provide the &quot;complete&quot; solution of the twin paradox.
b) From a modern standpoint, however, Einstein's explanation has nothing to do with general relativity, but is rather an application of accelerated frames and &quot;pseudo&quot;-gravitational fields to flat Minkowski space of ''special'' relativity.&lt;ref name=weiss group=S /&gt;}}

|-

|[[w:Hans Thirring|Thirring]]&lt;ref name=thirring /&gt;

April 1921

|{{anchor|Thirring 1921-DS}}[[Image:Twin Paradox Minkowski Diagram.svg|right|200px]]
He described the round-trip experiment by using two platforms K (clock A) and K' (clock B) each equipped with rows of clocks. He first demonstrated the symmetry of time dilation and the mutual relativity of simultaneity on the platforms and its effect on clock synchronization. The K clocks that B passes are all advanced because of &lt;math&gt;t'=\gamma\left(t-vx/c^{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;, and the same is true after turnaround since only the direction of velocity has to be changed in the Lorentz transformation &lt;math&gt;t'-t'_{0}=\gamma\left(t+vx/c^{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt; leading to the effect of clock desynchronization, where &lt;math&gt;t'_{0}&lt;/math&gt; is a constant depending on which clock one uses as standard for the new synchronization. He graphically showed using Minkowski diagrams, that this simultaneity jump due to desynchronization amounts to double the velocity time dilation during the inertial phases, explaining why A is more advanced than B at reunion. 

{{Lorentzbox|Text=Using clock B as synchronization standard, Thirring's constant is given by &lt;math&gt;t'_{0}=2l\gamma v/c^{2}=2t\gamma v^{2}/c^{2}&lt;/math&gt; with &lt;math&gt;l=vt&lt;/math&gt; as position of turnaround. A similar explanation was subsequently given by Langevin (1922).&lt;ref name=morand /&gt;}}

|}

==Curved spacetime==

While the previous examples are defined in flat Minkowski spacetime and therefore can be fully discussed in terms of special relativity, [[general relativity]] is required when [[:w:spacetime curvature]] in the presence of mass and energy cannot be neglected any more.&lt;ref name=koks group=S /&gt; 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;background-color:white;&quot;

|-

! Author !! Early examples

|-

|[[w:Jean Becquerel|Becquerel]]&lt;ref name=becqu1 /&gt;

1922

|After defining gravitational time dilation &lt;math&gt;d\tau=\sqrt{1-\tfrac{2GM}{c^{2}r}}dt&lt;/math&gt; in terms of the [[w:Schwarzschild metric]] around a material center, he discussed the following round-trip experiment: There are two identical clocks A and B placed next to each other, at a point very far from the material center, initially marking the same time &lt;math&gt;t&lt;/math&gt;. Let us transport clock A to a point where the field is more intense, at a distance &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; from the center; this clock will measure time &lt;math&gt;\int d\tau&lt;/math&gt; which is shorter than &lt;math&gt;\int dt&lt;/math&gt;, thus it will run more slowly. If we bring clock A back to clock B, we will have to note that it is retarded with respect to B.

|}

==Paradoxical?==

{| class=wikitable style=&quot;background-color:white;&quot;

! width=50% | German original of [[w:Max von Laue|Laue]] (1911/12):&lt;ref name=laue1&gt;Laue introduces the word &quot;paradox&quot;, alludes to Berg and discusses Wiechert, in: {{citation |author=Laue, M. v. |title=Zwei Einwände gegen die Relativitätstheorie und ihre Widerlegung |journal=Physikalische Zeitschrift |volume=13 |issue=3|date=February 1912|orig-date=Submitted December 1911|pages=118–120|url=https://resolver.sub.uni-hamburg.de/kitodo/PPN891110208_0013/page/148}}; {{icon|wikisource}} See also English translation [[:s:Translation:Two Objections Against the Theory of Relativity and their Refutation|Two Objections Against the Theory of Relativity and their Refutation]] on Wikisource&lt;/ref&gt;

! English translation

|-

|Unter all den paradox erscheinenden Folgerungen aus der Zeittransformation der Relativitätstheorie gibt es wohl keine, gegen welche sich der natürliche Menschenverstand bei jedem, der der Sache noch ungewohnt ist, so sehr sträubt, wie gegen die, daß die Zeitangabe einer Uhr von ihrem Bewegungszustand abhängen soll. Schon in seiner grundlegenden Arbeit hat Einstein diese Paradoxie auf die Spitze getrieben in einem Gedankenexperiment, welches neuerdings von Langevin in einem auch sonst sehr lesenswerten Vortrage besonders hübsch erläutert worden ist.

|Of all apparently paradox consequences that stem from the time-transformation of the theory of relativity, there is probably none against which the common sense of anyone who is still unfamiliar with the matter is more reluctant, than the one according to which the time indication of a clock shall be dependent on its state of motion. Already in his fundamental paper, Einstein has driven this paradox to the extreme by a thought experiment, recently explained in a very nice way by Langevin in a lecture that is also very readable in other respects.

|-

|colspan=2|{{Lorentzbox|Text=Laue was probably the first to denote the round-trip experiment as paradoxical (even though he pointed out that there are no real contradictions). Subsequently, [[:w:Paul Gruner|Gruner]] (1912)&lt;ref name=gruner /&gt; and others including Einstein (1918)&lt;ref name=einstein18 /&gt; explicitly used the expression &quot;clock paradox&quot; (French: Paradoxe des horloges, German: Uhrenparadoxon), whereas [[w:Rudolf Seeliger|Seeliger]] (1913)&lt;ref name=seel /&gt; spoke of the &quot;familiar Einstein-Langevinian paradox&quot; (German: &quot;bekannte Einstein-Langevinsche Paradoxon&quot;).}}

|}

==Misunderstandings==

{| class=wikitable style=&quot;background-color:white;&quot; 

! width=50% padding=10 | German original by [[w:Otto Berg (scientist)|Berg]] (1910):&lt;ref name=berg /&gt;

! English translation

|-

| style=&quot;padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;&quot; |Im Punkte &lt;math&gt;x = 0&lt;/math&gt; des Systems S befinde sich eine Uhr, eine andere im Punkte &lt;math&gt;x'=0&lt;/math&gt; von S'. Diese zweite bewege sich mit S' bis zum Punkte &lt;math&gt;x = a&lt;/math&gt;, kehre dort um und bewege sich nun mit der Geschwindigkeit &lt;math&gt;v&lt;/math&gt; zurück bis zum Punkte &lt;math&gt;x= 0&lt;/math&gt;. Welche Zeit müssen beide Uhren in dem Moment angeben, wo sie sich wieder treffen? Wir beantworten diese Frage zunächst vom Standpunkt des Beobachters in S. Die Uhr in &lt;math&gt;x' = 0&lt;/math&gt; hat sich mit der Geschwindigkeit &lt;math&gt;v&lt;/math&gt; bis zum Punkte &lt;math&gt;x = a&lt;/math&gt; bewegt; dazu brauchte sie die Zeit &lt;math&gt;\tau=\tfrac{a}{v}&lt;/math&gt;. Zum Rückweg ist dieselbe Zeit nötig. Nach der Zeit &lt;math&gt;2\tau=2\tfrac{a}{v}&lt;/math&gt; ist die Uhr also wieder im Punkte &lt;math&gt;x = 0&lt;/math&gt; angelangt. Wir stellen uns nun auf den Standpunkt des Beobachters in S'. Für diesen führt nach dem Relativitätsprinzip das System S genau dieselben Bewegungen aus wie das System S' für den Beobachter in S, nur in entgegengesetzter Richtung. Die Zeit bis zum Zusammentreffen beider Uhren ist also im System S' ebenfalls gegeben durch &lt;math&gt;2\tau=2\tfrac{a}{v}&lt;/math&gt;. Betrachtungen, die auf anschauliche Vorstellungen, wie Nachgehen von Uhren, gestützt sind, führen hier leicht zu Irrtümern, von denen auch die Fachlitteratur nicht frei ist.

| style=&quot;padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;&quot; |There is a clock at point &lt;math&gt;x=0&lt;/math&gt; of system S, and another one at point &lt;math&gt;x'=0&lt;/math&gt; of S'. The second one moves together with S' until point &lt;math&gt;x=a&lt;/math&gt;, turns around and now moves back with speed &lt;math&gt;v&lt;/math&gt; to point &lt;math&gt;x=0&lt;/math&gt;. Which time must both clocks indicate at the moment at which they encounter again? We answer this question at first from the standpoint of the observer in S. The clock at &lt;math&gt;x=0&lt;/math&gt; has been moving with speed &lt;math&gt;v&lt;/math&gt; until point &lt;math&gt;x=a&lt;/math&gt;, for which it required time &lt;math&gt;\tau=\tfrac{a}{v}&lt;/math&gt;. The same time is required for the way back. After time &lt;math&gt;2\tau=2\tfrac{a}{v}&lt;/math&gt; the clock has thus arrived again at point &lt;math&gt;x=0&lt;/math&gt;. Let's now take the standpoint of the observer in S'. In his view in accordance with the relativity principle, system S is conducting exactly the same motions as those of system S' with respect to the observer in S, only in opposite direction. Thus the time until the meeting of both clocks is given by &lt;math&gt;2\tau=2\tfrac{a}{v}&lt;/math&gt; in system S' as well. Considerations based on illustrative notions, such as the retardation of clocks, easily lead to mistakes at this place, of which also the professional literature isn't free.

|-

|colspan=2|{{Lorentzbox|Text=Berg was probably the first to turn the relativity principle against asymmetric aging in the round-trip experiment, claiming that both clocks must indicate the same time at reunion. See [[w:Twin paradox]] as well as sections {{slink||Acceleration as asymmetry indicator|Frame distribution as asymmetry indicator|Perspective of the traveler}} for the solution of that problem.}}

|-

! width=50% | German original by [[w:Emil Wiechert|Wiechert]] (1911)&lt;ref name=wiechert11 /&gt;

! English translation

|-

|colspan=2| Even though he correctly derived differential clock aging in the round-trip experiment, he claimed that effects like time dilation are &quot;apparent&quot; if one admits Einstein's &quot;unconditional&quot; relativity principle in which there is no aether and all &quot;strides&quot; (i.e. non-accelerated motions) are physically equivalent, but they are &quot;real&quot; if one admits the existence of an aether in the framework of a &quot;conditional&quot; relativity principle in which all strides are physically non-equivalent or anisotropic. This led him to the following interpretation of the clock paradox:

|-

| style=&quot;padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;&quot; |[...] so muß am Schluß des Versuches B in seinem Fortschritt gegenüber A im Verhältnis &lt;math&gt;1:\sqrt{1-u^{2}/c^{2}}&lt;/math&gt; zurückgeblieben sein. Und dieses Zurückbleiben ist unbedingt reell, denn die beiden Gebilde A und B können ja unter gleichen Umständen unmittelbar beieinander verglichen werden. Hier ist es ganz sicher ausgeschlossen, an einen Schein zu glauben, der durch unsere Auffassung der Zeit bewirkt wird. So ist denn also auch die Folgerung unabwendbar, daß für den Verlauf der Weltvorgänge die Schreitungen nicht gleichwertig sind, ''und damit sind wir von neuem zu einem Schluß gekommen, welcher der Unbedingtheit des Relativitätsprinzipes durchaus widerspricht.'' [...] Man kann den Versuch noch mannigfach variieren, z. B. so, daß A ebenso wie B zwei verschiedene Schreitungen, &lt;math&gt;+u&lt;/math&gt; und &lt;math&gt;-u&lt;/math&gt;, nacheinander inne hat. Wird dann zu A der Wert &lt;math&gt;u_{1}&lt;/math&gt;, zu B  der Wert &lt;math&gt;u_{2}&lt;/math&gt;, zugeordnet, so muß der Vergleich von A  und B am Schluß des Versuches ergeben, daß B  oder A in seinem Fortschritt zurückgeblieben erscheint, je nachdem die Schreitungen &lt;math&gt;+u_{1}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;-u_{1}&lt;/math&gt;, oder &lt;math&gt;+u_{2}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;-u_{2}&lt;/math&gt; weiter auseinanderliegen. ''Vielleicht ist gerade diese Formulierung des Satzes besonders geeignet, um die Ungleichwertigkeit der verschiedenen Schreitungen klar und deutlich zu zeigen.''

| style=&quot;padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;&quot; | [...] thus B's progress must be retarded with respect to A's in the ratio &lt;math&gt;1:\sqrt{1-u^{2}/c^{2}}&lt;/math&gt; at the end of the experiment. And this retardation is definitely real, since both bodies A and B indeed can be immediately compared side by side under the same conditions. Here it is certainly excluded to believe that this is an appearance due to our conception of time. Thus the consequence is unavoidable too, that the strides are not equivalent in the course of the world processes, ''and therefore we again came to a conclusion that completely contradicts the unconditionality of the relativity principle.'' [...] One can vary this experiment in many ways, for instance, so that A in the same way as B successively undergoes two different strides &lt;math&gt;+u&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;-u&lt;/math&gt;. If we apply the value &lt;math&gt;u_{1}&lt;/math&gt; to A and &lt;math&gt;u_{2}&lt;/math&gt; to B, then the comparison of A and B at the end of the experiment must give the result, that B or A is retarded in its progress depending on whether the strides &lt;math&gt;+u_{2},-u_{2}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;+u_{1},-u_{1}&lt;/math&gt; are further apart. ''Probably it is precisely this formulation of the theorem that is particularly suitable to demonstrate the non-equivalence of the different strides clearly and explicitly.''

|-

|colspan=2|{{Lorentzbox|Text=This interpretation was directly rebutted by Laue (1911/12) who demonstrated the geometrical meaning of differential aging in Minkowski space, see sections {{slink||Laue 1911/12-PT|Laue 1911/12-VA}}, showing that there is no need to assume non-equivalance or anisotropy of motions. Laue added, that as long as there is no experimental contradiction to the relativity principle, the question after the aether can be banned from physics and left to philosophy.&lt;ref name=laue1 /&gt;}}

|-

! width=50% | German original by [[w:Norman Robert Campbell|Campbell]] (November 1911, published 1912)&lt;ref name=camp /&gt;

! English translation

|-

|colspan=2|After describing the round-trip experiment (as given by Wiechert) according to which the traveling clock B is retarded when it returns with respect to stationary clock A, he abandoned differential clock aging as follows: 

|-

| style=&quot;padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;&quot; |Dieser Schluß ist nicht richtig. Die Beziehung zwischen &lt;math&gt;t&lt;/math&gt;, der Ablesung an der Uhr auf A seitens des Beobachters auf A und &lt;math&gt;t'&lt;/math&gt;, der Ablesung an der Uhr auf B seitens des Beobachters auf A, ist (unter der Annahme, daß zu Beginn des Versuchs &lt;math&gt;t=t'&lt;/math&gt; ist)
:&lt;math&gt;t'=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}\left(t-vz/c^{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;. 
Der Unterschied zwischen &lt;math&gt;t'&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;t&lt;/math&gt; ist eine Funktion von &lt;math&gt;z&lt;/math&gt; und &lt;math&gt;v&lt;/math&gt; allein. Wenn man diesen Größen ihre früheren Werte wiedergibt, indem man die beiden Uhren wieder zur Koinzidenz bringt, während sie relativ zueinander ruhen, so geht der Unterschied zwischen &lt;math&gt;t'&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;t&lt;/math&gt; wieder auf null zurück, gleichviel, welche Werte &lt;math&gt;z&lt;/math&gt; und &lt;math&gt;v&lt;/math&gt; während der Zwischenzeit gehabt haben mögen. Wenn an irgendeinem Punkte der Bahn die Geschwindigkeit von B relativ zu A eine endliche plötzliche Änderung erfährt, so erfährt auch der Wert von &lt;math&gt;v&lt;/math&gt; eine endliche plötzliche Änderung.

| style=&quot;padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;&quot; |This conclusion is not correct. The relationship between &lt;math&gt;t&lt;/math&gt; as the reading on the clock on A by the observer on A, and &lt;math&gt;t'&lt;/math&gt; as the reading on the clock on B by the observer on A, is given by (assuming that &lt;math&gt;t=t'&lt;/math&gt; at the beginning of the experiment)
:&lt;math&gt;t'=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}\left(t-vz/c^{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;. 
The difference between &lt;math&gt;t'&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;t&lt;/math&gt; is a function of &lt;math&gt;z&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;v&lt;/math&gt; alone. If these quantities are given their previous values by bringing the two clocks back to coincidence during which they are at rest relative to one another, the difference between &lt;math&gt;t'&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;t&lt;/math&gt; goes back to zero, no matter what values &lt;math&gt;z&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;v&lt;/math&gt; may have had in the meantime. If at any point on the path the speed of B experiences a finite sudden change relative to A, then the value of &lt;math&gt;t'&lt;/math&gt; also undergoes a finite sudden change.

|-

|colspan=2|{{Lorentzbox|Text=So Campbell claims that any time difference during the outbound path is wiped out during the inbound path. His mistake is obvious: Campbell is confusing coordinate differences stemming from the Lorentz transformation of ''events'' (which indeed depend on position and direction) with differences in ''clock aging'' derived from the proper time integral (which is ''accumulative'' and independent of position and direction.)}}

|-

! width=50% | French original by [[w:Paul Gruner|Gruner]] (March 1912):&lt;ref name=gruner /&gt;

! English translation

|-

| style=&quot;padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;&quot; |[...] deux personnes du même âge, se séparant dans des systèmes de « marche » très différents et retournant après un laps de temps assez long, constateront une différence d'âge très sensible. [...] le principe de relativité exige toujours la ''réciprocité parfaite'' des phénomènes entre deux systèmes qui possèdent un mouvement relatif. Si, dans l'exemple cité, les deux personnes du même âge se séparent avec une vitesse relative pour se retrouver plus tard, la constatation d'une différence d'âge sera parfaitement mutuelle : A dira positivement que B est resté en arrière dans son développement, et B affirmera avec le même droit que c'est A qui ne s'est pas développé assez vite. Ainsi le principe absolu de la relativité montre ses conséquences les plus extrèmes et il est clair que l'introduction de l’éther n'est plus en état de résoudre cette contradiction irréductible et inconcevable.

| style=&quot;padding: 0px 20px 0px 20px;&quot; | [...] two people of same age, separating into very different systems of motion and returning after a quite long period of time, will notice a very significant age difference. [...] the principle of relativity always requires the ''perfect reciprocity'' of the phenomenons between two systems that possess relative motion. When, in the cited example, the two persons of same age are separated by some relative velocity only to meet again later, the finding of an age difference will be perfectly mutual: A will positively say that B stayed behind in its development, and B will assert with same right that it was A who has not developed fast enough. By that, the absolute relativity principle shows its most extreme consequences and it is clear, that the introduction of the aether is no longer able to resolve this irreducible and inconceivable contradiction.

|-

|colspan=2|{{Lorentzbox|Text=Gruner was probably the first to claim that combining the round-trip experiment with the symmetry of time dilation leads to the contradictory situation, that both must attribute younger age to one another at reunion. At the end of his paper, we also find the expression &quot;clock paradox&quot; (French: paradoxe des horloges). See [[w:Twin paradox]] as well as sections {{slink||Acceleration as asymmetry indicator|Frame distribution as asymmetry indicator|Perspective of the traveler}} for the solution of that problem.}}

|}

==Einstein's contributions==

1905:&lt;ref name=einstein05 /&gt; Introduction of the &quot;peculiar&quot; (German: eigentümlich) round-trip experiment with clocks, describing a polygonal path, an continuously curved path, and an experiment comparing a clock at the pole with one at the equator.

January 1911 (published November):&lt;ref name=einstein11a /&gt; In a lecture from January, Einstein extended the &quot;funny&quot; (German: drollig) round-trip experiment to living organisms. According to [[w:Rudolf Lämmel]] in April 1911&lt;ref name=lammel /&gt; and [[w:Fritz Müller-Partenkirchen|Fritz Müller]] in October 1911,&lt;ref name=muller /&gt; Einstein spoke of human beings as well.

January 1911 (published January 1912):&lt;ref name=einstein3 /&gt; During a discussion with Einstein directly after the previous lecture, [[w:Fritz Müller-Partenkirchen|Fritz Müller]] claimed that any time difference during the round-trip should vanish at reunion, in analogy to the fact that the Lorentz contraction of a moving rod vanishes when it is at rest again. Einstein showed that the analogy is incorrect: While the clock rates are indeed the same again when they are mutually at rest, the clocks do not indicate the same time at reunion because &quot;clocks are carriers of the time differential&quot;; he went on to show that any possible influence of acceleration during the turnaround can be made negligible by elongating the constant velocity periods. 

1912:&lt;ref name=einst12manu /&gt; In an unpublished manuscript on special relativity, Einstein showed that if system &lt;math&gt;\Sigma'&lt;/math&gt; makes a round-trip along a polygon, then its inner processes will be retarded with respect to resting system &lt;math&gt;\Sigma &lt;/math&gt; at reunion. He pointed out that any influence of acceleration can be neglected if one makes the time of acceleration negligible with respect to the total time of motion along the polygon. 

April 1914:&lt;ref name=einstpetz /&gt; [[w:Joseph Petzoldt]] criticized asymmetric clock aging in the round-trip experiment as a &quot;fallback into absolutist way of thinking&quot;, claiming that special relativity requires that any difference between the clocks vanishes when their relative velocity is zero again, even though he added that any treatment of the clock paradox in special relativity is unrealistic anyway, since the theory only concerns uniform motions and therefore cannot handle velocity changes, so one has to modify the theory. Einstein responded by letter in which he praised Petzoldt's philosophical take on relativity, yet he rejected Petzoldt's conclusions concerning the clock paradox by showing that any finite acceleration at turnaround during the round-trip can only influence the clock in a finite way and therefore can be neglected by minimizing the time of acceleration with respect to the time of uniform translation, so it &quot;must be concluded&quot; that the clock traveling on a polygonal path is retarded at reunion.

May 1914:&lt;ref name=rowe group=S /&gt; During a conversation with [[w:Ernst Gehrcke]] who claimed that the clock paradox contradicts the relativity principle, Einstein replied that clock B is retarded because it was accelerating in contrast to clock A; while those accelerations are irrelevant for the amount of the time difference, their presence nevertheless cause B to fall behind (&quot;accelerated motions are absolute in the theory of relativity&quot;).

1916:&lt;ref name=einstein16 /&gt; In a lecture of which only an abstract was published, Einstein spoke about the &quot;clock paradox of special relativity from the standpoint of general relativity.&quot;

September 1918:&lt;ref name=einadl /&gt; In a letter to Einstein, [[w:Friedrich Adler (politician)|Friedrich Adler]] (while in prison for the [[w:Assassination of Karl von Stürgkh]]) claimed that the clock paradox which he described on a circular round-trip contradicts the special relativity principle, and also referred to the similar opinions of Berg and Petzoldt. Einstein responded by letter and explained that there is no contradiction as one of them accelerates; he then showed that general relativity makes both inertial frame K and accelerated frame K' equally justified, explaining the time difference in K' by combining the influence of velocity and gravitational potential, concluding that &quot;Berg and Petzoldt were wrong&quot;.

November 1918:&lt;ref name=einstein18 /&gt; In a fictitious dialogue between a relativity critic and a relativity apologist written by Einstein, the &quot;critic&quot; said that special relativity must predict differential clock aging in round-trip experiments, which was confirmed by the &quot;relativist&quot; who regretfully noted that even some pro-relativity authors tried to &quot;circumvent this unavoidable result&quot;. Yet the critic claimed that this leads to a contradiction: From the viewpoint of K, clock U1 is at rest while the clock U2 was in motion and therefore returns being retarded with respect to U1, but from the viewpoint of K', clock U2 is at rest while clock U1 was in motion and therefore returns being retarded with respect to U2, which was rebutted by the relativist by pointing out the acceleration of U2. Then the critic claimed that this problem &quot;rises again from the dead&quot; in general relativity which allows to symmetrically treat both K and K', which was rebutted by the relativist using the equivalence principle: In K', the rate increase of U1 during turnaround period 3) is &quot;the double&quot; of its velocity time dilation in the inertial periods 2) and 4). 

December 1918:&lt;ref name=einstein18b /&gt; In a letter to Einstein, [[w:Max Jakob]] doubted the result from Einstein's dialogue, according to which the advance of U1 in period 3) is the double of its retardation during periods 2) and 4). Einstein responded by letter, in which he used the gravitational time dilation factor &lt;math&gt;1+\Phi/c^{2}&lt;/math&gt; in K' in order to show that U1 at distance &lt;math&gt;l&lt;/math&gt;  is advancing by &lt;math&gt;\Phi/c^{2}=2vl/c^{2}&lt;/math&gt; in period 3), which is indeed the double of approximated delay &lt;math&gt;vl/c^{2}&lt;/math&gt; caused by velocity time dilation during periods 2) and 4).

1920:&lt;ref name=einstein20 /&gt; In conversations with [[w:Alexander Moszkowski]] between 1919 and 1920, Einstein argued that differential aging of the twins is rather a paradox of feeling, not a paradox of thought, because the latter would only arise if there were no reason for the asymmetric aging. The reason in special relativity lies in the fact that one of them suffered accelerations, while a deeper understanding of that question is obtained by using general relativity. Einstein argued that our &quot;common sense&quot; is located in the realm of feeling and analogy drawn from our ordinary experience; since there is no analogy to the example of the twins in our experience, it might appear paradoxical to the common sense, while it appears logical and necessary in light of intensified abstraction of the trained scientific mind.

August 1920:&lt;ref name=rowe group=S /&gt; At an anti-relativity event organized by the right-wing agitator [[w:Paul Weyland]] during which [[w:antisemitic]] leaflets were distributed and [[w:swastika]]s offered at the entrance, a lecture was given by Gehrcke re-iterating his criticism of the twin paradox, claiming that the stationary first organism is old or even dead at reunion while the second organism was in motion and therefore stayed young, but from the standpoint of the second organism he himself is old or even dead while the first organism was in motion and stayed young, thus relativity is either contradictory or it leads to different realities and physical [[w:solipsism]]. Einstein who was present at that event, directly responded in a newspaper article;&lt;ref name=einst20 /&gt; after suspecting antisemitic motives of his critics, he specifically addressed Gehrcke's objections regarding the &quot;well known example of the clocks (or twins)&quot;, remarking that the charge of solipsism will be &quot;greeted by the experts as a joke&quot;, and characterized the claim that relativity requires mutual retardation of two co-located clocks as a &quot;deliberate attempt to misinform the lay public&quot;.

1922:&lt;ref name=morand /&gt;&lt;ref name=nord /&gt; [[w:Paul Painlevé]], Einstein and Langevin discussed the clock paradox at a meeting in Paris. Painlevé imagined a clock on a train that performs a round-trip with constant speed and returns being retarded with respect to the station clock, yet he claimed that the relativity principle also allows to say that the station clock performed the round-trip and returned being retarded with respect to the train clock, in contradiction to the previous result. Einstein replied that the relativity principle cannot be applied since the train is not in a Galilean system (i.e. inertial frame) any longer during the period of velocity change at turnaround, i.e. the ensemble of two systems having velocities in opposite direction is not an inertial frame; there is no reciprocity between a frame that changes direction and one that doesn't. Langevin consequently gave a detailed analysis in terms of the Lorentz transformation.

1954:&lt;ref name=einstein54 /&gt; In a letter, Einstein explained the &quot;well known clock paradoxon&quot; using two clocks &lt;math&gt;B_{1}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;B_{2}&lt;/math&gt;; clock &lt;math&gt;B_{2}&lt;/math&gt; has to reverse its speed in order to come back, thus it was initially at rest in inertial frame &lt;math&gt;S_{2}&lt;/math&gt; and then at rest in &lt;math&gt;S_{2}^{+}&lt;/math&gt;, whereas &lt;math&gt;B_{1}&lt;/math&gt; constantly remains at rest in &lt;math&gt;S_{1}&lt;/math&gt;, which explains the asymmetry between them.

==Historical references==

&lt;references&gt;

&lt;ref name=einstein05&gt;See p. 904f in: {{Citation |author=Einstein, A. |date=1905 |title=Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper|journal=Annalen der Physik |volume=322 |issue=10 |pages=891–921 |doi=10.1002/andp.19053221004|quote=Reprinted in ''The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein'', Vol. 2, Document 23}}. See also: [https://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/einstein/specrel/www/ English translation at fourmilab].&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=einstein11a&gt;See p. 10. in: {{Citation |author=Einstein, A. |title=Die Relativitäts-Theorie|journal=Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Zürich, Vierteljahresschrift |volume=56 |issue=1-2|pages=1–14 |date=27 November 1911|orig-date=Lecture 16 January 1911|url=https://archive.org/details/naturforschendegesellschaftinzurich_vierteljahrsschriftdernaturforschendengesellschaftinzur_v56_1911/page/n11/mode/2up|quote=Reprinted in ''The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein'', Vol. 3, Document 17}}.&lt;br /&gt; The publication date 27 November 1911 can be seen on the [https://archive.org/details/naturforschendegesellschaftinzurich_vierteljahrsschriftdernaturforschendengesellschaftinzur_v56_1911/page/n5/mode/2up Title page and TOC of issue 1-2].&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=einstein3&gt;Discussion between Einstien, Müller, Lämmel and others after the Zürich lecture: {{Citation |author=Einstein, A.; Müller, F., Lämmel, R.|title=Diskussion zu &quot;Die Relativitäts-Theorie&quot;|journal=Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Zürich, Vierteljahresschrift |volume=56 |pages=II-IX |date=January 1912|orig-date=Lecture on 16 January 1911|url=https://archive.org/details/naturforschendegesellschaftinzurich_vierteljahrsschriftdernaturforschendengesellschaftinzur_v56_1911/page/n587/mode/2up|quote=Reprinted in  ''The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein'', Vol. 3, Document 18, and in the corresponding English translation volume}}&lt;br /&gt; While the discussion already happened on January 1911, the publication followed one year later in January 1912 in the session proceedings (Sitzungsberichte) of the third issue, see [https://www.ngzh.ch/publikationen/vjs/56/3 Full issue Nr. 3] with [http://www.ngzh.ch/archiv/1911_56/56_1-2/56_3.pdf Title page and TOC] and the [http://www.ngzh.ch/archiv/1911_56/56_3/56_30.pdf Sitzungsberichte including Einstein's discussion on pp. II-IX]. &lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=einst12manu&gt;See p. 46 in: {{Citation |author=Einstein, A. |date=1912 |chapter=Document 1: Einstein's manuscript on the special theory of relativity|title=The collected papers of Albert Einstein|volume=4|pages=3-108|trans-chapter=See also the English translation in the corresponding translation volume}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=einstlor&gt;{{Citation|author=Einstein, A.|date=1914|title=Review of &quot;Lorentz, H. A. – Das Relativitätsprinzip&quot; |journal=Die Naturwissenschaften|volume=2|pages=1018|url=https://archive.org/details/CAT31421305002/page/1018/mode/2up|quote=Reprinted in  ''The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein'', Vol. 6, Document 11}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=einstpetz&gt;{{Citation |author=Einstein, A. |date=1914 |chapter=Document 5: Letter from Einstein to Petzoldt|title=The collected papers of Albert Einstein|volume=8a|pages=16-17|trans-chapter=See also the English translation in the corresponding translation volume}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=einstein16&gt;See p. 423f in: {{Citation |author=Einstein, A. |date=1916 |title=Announcement of Einstein's lecture &quot;Über einige anschauliche Überlegungen aus dem Gebiete der Relativitätstheorie&quot;|journal=Berliner Sitzungsberichte|pages=423|volume=1916 (part 1)|url=https://archive.org/details/sitzungsberichte1916deutsch/page/423/mode/2up}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=einadl&gt;Letter exchange between Einstein and Adler in which the critique on the clock paradox by Berg (1910) and Petzoldt (1914) was mentioned, together with the general relativity solution in terms of the gravitational potential, in: {{Citation |author=Einstein, A. |date=1918 |chapter=Adler's letter in Document 620 and Einstein's reply in Document 628|title=The collected papers of Albert Einstein|volume=8a|pages=16-17|trans-chapter=See also the English translation in the corresponding translation volume}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=einstein18&gt;Einstein discussed in terms of inertial frames (special relativity) on pp. 697f; accelerated frames (general relativity) on pp. 698f.; distant masses (Mach's principle) on pp. 700f. in: {{citation |author=Einstein, A.|title=Dialog über Einwände gegen die Relativitätstheorie|date=November 1918|volume=6|issue=48|journal=Die Naturwissenschaften|pages=697-702|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_naturwissenschaften_1918-11-29_6_48|quote=Reprinted in ''The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein'', Vol. 7, Document 13}}; See also English translation [[:s:Translation:Dialog about Objections against the Theory of Relativity|Dialog about Objections against the Theory of Relativity]] on Wikisource.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=einstein18b&gt;Letter exchange between Max Jakob and Einstein from December 1918, in: {{Citation |author=Einstein, A. |date=1918 |chapter=Jakob's letter in Document 661c and Einstein's reply in Document 663a|title=The collected papers of Albert Einstein|volume=10|pages=189-190}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=einstein20&gt;Interview of Einstein by Moszkowski, see p. 204f. in: {{citation |author=Moszkowski, A.|title=Einstein. Einblicke in seine Gedankenwelt|orig-date=Copyright date 1920 |date=1921|place=Hamburg|url=https://www.archive.org/details/einsteineinblick00moszuoft}}; See also English translation by H. L. Brose (1921): [https://archive.org/details/einsteinsearch00moszrich Einstein, the searcher], p. 206&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=einst20&gt;{{Citation|author=Einstein, A.|date=27 August 1920|journal=Berliner Tageblatt|title=Meine Antwort - Ueber die anti-relativitätstheoretische G. m. b. H.|issue=402|pages=1-2|url=https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/newspaper/item/YH65KFT53MOG4SMXDXK4IVUPTR3QRY7Q?issuepage=1|quote=Reprinted in &quot;The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein&quot;, Vol. 7, Document 45}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=einstein54&gt;Letter from Einstein to N. V. Pope from March 1954; [[w:Albert Einstein Archives]], Object number 27-88 ([https://ein-web.adlibhosting.com/aea/Details/archive/110021626 Online dataset]); Scanned version as [https://groups.google.com/group/npachat/attach/d3121322d37764f2/Einstein%20letter.doc?part=0.1 Word document on Usenet] published by [https://groups.google.com/g/npachat/c/Haoib97d6OA/m/8mR30yITEtMJ Pope himself])&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=morand&gt;Discussion between Painlevé, Einstein, and Langevin on p. 316ff in: {{citation |author=Morand, M.|title=Einstein au collège de france|date=April 1922|journal=La Nature|volume=50|issue=2511|pages=315-320|url=http://cnum.cnam.fr/CGI/fpage.cgi?4KY28.102/319/100/620/5/613}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=lammel&gt;{{Citation|author=Lämmel, R.|date=28 April 1911|title=Die Relativitäts-Lehre|journal=Neue Zürcher Zeitung|volume=117|pages=1|url=https://www.e-newspaperarchives.ch/?a=d&amp;d=NZZ19110428-01.2.4.1}}; English translation of the part concering the twin pardox at [[:v:History of Topics in Special Relativity/Twin paradox#Lämmel 1911-Hum|Wikiversity:Early history of the twin paradox - Lämmel]]&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=lammel2&gt;See p. 84ff in: {{Citation|author=Lämmel, R.|date=1921|orig-date=Preface December 1920|title=Die Grundlagen der Relativitätstheorie|place=Berlin|publisher=Springer|url=https://archive.org/details/diegrundlagende00lmgoog}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=langevin1&gt;He derived differential aging from the proper time integral; pointed out that this demonstrates the &quot;absolute nature of acceleration&quot; with respect to an aether, see: {{citation |author=Langevin, P.|title=[[:s:fr:L’Évolution de l’espace et du temps|L’Évolution de l’espace et du temps]]|journal=Scientia |volume=X |pages=31–54 |date=July 1911|orig-date=Lecture 10 April 1911}}; English translation [[:s:en:Translation:The Evolution of Space and Time|The Evolution of Space and Time]] on Wikisource&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=langevin2&gt;See p. 329 in: {{citation |author=Langevin, P. |title=Le temps, l'espace et la causalité dans la physique moderne |journal=Bulletin de la Société française de philosophie |volume=12 |orig-date=Lecture October 1911|date=1912|pages=1-28|url=http://ahp.li/1f7fc22d283fdf0deeca.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=wiechert11&gt;See p. 745f. general description and proper time; 757f. space travel; in: {{Citation |author=Wiechert, E. |date=September 1911|orig-date=Lectures March-May 1911, submitted 26 July|title=[[:s:de:Relativitätsprinzip und Äther|Relativitätsprinzip und Äther]]|journal=Physikalische Zeitschrift |volume=12 |issue=17-18 |pages=[https://resolver.sub.uni-hamburg.de/kitodo/PPN891110208_0012/page/741 689-707] published September 1; [https://resolver.sub.uni-hamburg.de/kitodo/PPN891110208_0012/page/789 737–758] published September 15}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=wiechert15&gt;See p. 46 (Einstein, Langevin, Wiechert) and pp. 51f (Laue versus Wiechert) in: {{citation |author=Wiechert, E.|contribution=Die Mechanik im Rahmen der allgemeinen Physik| title=Die Kultur der Gegenwart: Physik|volume=3.3.1|date=1915 |orig-date=Submitted July 1914|pages=1–78|contribution-url=https://www.archive.org/details/physikunterredak00warbuoft}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=wiechert20&gt;See p. 46f in: {{citation |author=Wiechert, E.|title=Der Äther im Weltbild der Physik|orig-date=Presented December 1920|date=1921|journal=Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse|pages=29-70|url=http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/dms/resolveppn/?PPN=GDZPPN00250586X}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=wiechert21&gt;See p. 25ff in: {{citation |author=Wiechert, E.|title=[[:s:de:Prinzipielles über Äther und Relativität|Prinzipielles über Äther und Relativität]]|date=1922|orig-date=Lecture September 1921|journal=Physikalische Zeitschrift|volume=23|pages=25-28}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=muller&gt;See p. 9 in: {{Citation|author=Müller, F.|date=October 1911|journal=Berliner Tageblatt|title=[[:s:de:Das Zeitproblem (1911)|Das Zeitproblem]]|pages=[https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/newspaper/item/2QKOIOLGNVQILTCEZQOGQPLTRVLPM5PZ?query=zeit&amp;issuepage=9 Part 1 published 16 October 1911] and [https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/newspaper/item/IO44I6QBC4SVV5YUKUDSGXYIPQUXXBN5?query=zeit&amp;issuepage=11 Part 2 published 23 October 1911]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=gruner&gt;See p. 253f in: {{Citation |author=Gruner, P. |title=[[:s:fr:Rapport sur la dernière discussion concernant le principe de la relativité et l’éther|Rapport sur la dernière discussion concernant le principe de la relativité et l’éther]] |journal=Archives des sciences physiques et naturelles |volume=33|issue=4 |pages=252-254 |date=March 1912}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=laue3&gt;See p. 113f in: {{citation |author=Laue, M. v. |title=Das Relativitätsprinzip |journal=Jahrbücher der Philosophie |volume=1 |date=1913 |pages=99–128}}; {{icon|wikisource}} See also English translation of [[:s:Translation:The Principle of Relativity (Laue, Philosophy)|The Principle of Relativity]] on Wikisource&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=weyl&gt;See p. 147f. in: {{Citation |author=Weyl, H. |date=March 1918|title=Raum-Zeit-Materie (first edition)|publisher=Berlin: Springer|url=https://archive.org/details/RaumZeitMaterieVolIMeinerFrauGewidmet}}; English translation of the 4th edition by H. Brose (1921): [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/43006 Space—Time—Matter], pp. 278f.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=gbaum&gt;See footnote on p. 507 in: {{Citation|author=Grünbaum, F. |title=Über einige ideelle Versuche zum Relativitätsprinzip|journal=Physikalische Zeitschrift|volume=12|pages=500–509|date=1911|url=https://resolver.sub.uni-hamburg.de/kitodo/PPN891110208_0012/page/540}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=laue1&gt;Laue introduces the word &quot;paradox&quot;, alludes to Berg and discusses Wiechert, in: {{citation |author=Laue, M. v. |title=Zwei Einwände gegen die Relativitätstheorie und ihre Widerlegung |journal=Physikalische Zeitschrift |volume=13 |issue=3|date=February 1912|orig-date=Submitted December 1911|pages=118–120|url=https://resolver.sub.uni-hamburg.de/kitodo/PPN891110208_0013/page/148}}; {{icon|wikisource}} See also English translation [[:s:Translation:Two Objections Against the Theory of Relativity and their Refutation|Two Objections Against the Theory of Relativity and their Refutation]] on Wikisource&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=laue2&gt;See p. 42f. for general description; p. 58f. in terms of proper time; in: {{Citation |author=Laue, M. v. |orig-date=Preface December 1912|date=1913 |title=Das Relativitätsprinzip (Second Edition) |publisher=Vieweg |place=Braunschweig|url=https://preserver.beic.it/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE4597082}}; See also English translation [[:s:Translation:The Principle of Relativity (Laue 1913)|The Principle of Relativity, Second edition, Part III]] on Wikisource&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=laue3&gt;See p. 113f in: {{citation |author=Laue, M. v. |title=Das Relativitätsprinzip |journal=Jahrbücher der Philosophie |volume=1 |date=1913 |pages=99–128}}; {{icon|wikisource}} See also English translation of [[:s:Translation:The Principle of Relativity (Laue, Philosophy)|The Principle of Relativity]] on Wikisource&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=berg&gt;See p. 369f in: {{Citation |author=Berg, O. |date=1910 |title=Das Relativitätsprinzip der Elektrodynamik |journal=Abhandlungen der Fries'schen Schule |volume=3 |issue=2|pages=333-382 |url=http://hdl.handle.net/2027/hvd.hnuynk?urlappend=%3Bseq=351}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=camp&gt;See p. 123f in: {{Citation |author=Campbell, N. |title=Relativitätsprinzip und Äther: Eine Entgegnung an Herrn Wiechert |journal=Physikalische Zeitschrift |volume=13 |pages=120-128 |issue=3|orig-date=Submitted December 1911|date=February 1912|url=https://resolver.sub.uni-hamburg.de/kitodo/PPN891110208_0013/page/150}}. The is based on an English manuscript translated by Max Iklé, and Campbell's first name was Germanised as &quot;Normann&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=seel&gt;{{Citation|author=Seeliger, R.|title=Review of &quot;P. Gruner – Rapport sur la dernière discussion concernant le principe de la relativité et l'éther&quot;|journal=Die Fortschritte der Physik|volume=68|issue=2|pages=336|date=1913|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fSJGAQAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA336}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=study&gt;See footnote on p. 111 in: {{citation |author=Study, E. |title=Vorlesungen über ausgewählte Gegenstände der Geometrie |date=June 1911|url=https://archive.org/details/vorlesungenber00studuoft|publisher=B.G. Teubner|place=Leipzig}} &lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=robb1&gt;See pp. 356ff. in: {{Citation|author=Robb, A.|date=1914|title=A theory of time and space|place=Cambridge|publisher=University Press|url=https://archive.org/details/theoryoftimespac00robbrich}} &lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=robb2&gt;See §12 in: {{citation |author=Robb, A. A.|title=The Straight Path|date=1920 |journal=Nature|pages=599|volume=104|issue=2623|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1920-02-05_104_2623/page/598/mode/2up}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=edding2&gt;See p. 22 in: {{Citation |author=Eddington, A. S. |date=1922 |title=The theory of relativity, and its influence on scientific thought |publisher=Oxford Clarendon Press |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924005748573}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=rogers&gt;{{citation |author=Rogers, R. A. P.|title=The Time-Triangle and Time-Triad in Special Relativity|date=November 1922|journal=Nature|volume=110|issue=2769|pages=698–699|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1922-11-25_110_2769/page/698/mode/2up}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=lorentz1&gt;See pp. 37f, 55ff in: {{citation |author=Lorentz, H. A.|date=1913|title=Het relativiteitsbeginsel : drie voordrachten gehouden in Teyler's stichting|publisher=De Erven Loosjes |place=Haarlem|url=https://resolver.kb.nl/resolve?urn=MMKB24:063387000:00005}}; German translation on pp. 31f, 47f in: {{citation |author=Lorentz, H. A.|date=1914| title=Das Relativitätsprinzip. Drei Vorlesungen gehalten in Teylers Stiftung zu Haarlem|publisher=B.G. Teubner |place=Leipzig and Berlin|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_89PPAAAAMAAJ}}; See also the transcription [[:s:de:Das Relativitätsprinzip (Lorentz)|Das Relativitätsprinzip]] on German Wikisource and the English translation [[:s:Translation:The Principle of Relativity (Lorentz)|The Principle of Relativity]] on English Wikisource&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=lorentz3&gt;See §12 in: {{citation |author=Lorentz, H. A.|title=Considérations élémentaires sur le principe de relativité|date=1914 |journal=Revue générale des sciences pures et appliquées|pages=179-186|url=https://archive.org/details/revuegnraled25pari/page/178/mode/2up}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bloch&gt;See pp. 67 ff. in: {{Citation | author=Bloch, W.| date=September 1918|title=Einführung in die Relativitätstheorie| publisher=B. G. Teubner |url=https://hdl.handle.net/2027/njp.32101040276907}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bloch2&gt;See pp. 69ff. (special relativity) and 102ff. (general relativity) in: {{Citation | author=Bloch, W.| date=1920 |title=Einführung in die Relativitätstheorie (second edition)| publisher=B. G. Teubner |url=https://www.archive.org/details/einfhrungindier00blocgoog}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=bollert1&gt;See p. 6 (special relativity), pp. 24-26 (EP) in: {{citation |author=Bollert, K.|title=Einstein’s Relativitätstheorie und ihre Stellung im System der Gesamterfahrung |date=April 1921|publisher=Steinkopff|url=https://archive.org/details/dbc.wroc.pl.001504}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=born&gt;See pp. 190f. (special relativity), 250f (EP) in: {{Citation | author=Born, M.| date=1921 |title=Die Relativitätstheorie Einsteins und ihre physikalischen Grundlagen (Second edition)| publisher=Springer | place=Berlin|url=https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015017387310}}; The [https://preserver.beic.it/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE5426498 first edition (1920)] of Born's book didn't include the twin paradox. English translation of the third edition by H. Brose (1924): [https://archive.org/details/einsteinstheoryo00born Einstein's theory of relativity]&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=pauli&gt;See p. 558f (general description); p. 624f (proper time); p. 713f (accelerated frames); in: {{Citation |author=Pauli, W. |date=1921 |journal=Encyclopädie der Mathematischen Wissenschaften|title=Die Relativitätstheorie|pages=539–776|volume=5|issue=2 |url=http://resolver.sub.uni-goettingen.de/purl?PPN360709672}}; English translation by G. Field (1958): [https://books.google.com/books?id=rc3DAgAAQBAJ Theory of Relativity]&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=thirring&gt;See p. 209ff in: {{citation |author=Thirring, H.|title=Über das Uhrenparadoxon in der Relativitätstheorie|date=April 1921|journal=Naturwissenschaften|volume=9|issue=18|pages=209-212|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_naturwissenschaften_1921-04-01_9_13/mode/2up}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=sommerfeld&gt;See p. 71 in: {{citation |author=Sommerfeld, A. |date=May 1913|chapter=Remarks on Minkowski's &quot;Space and Time&quot;|title=Das Relativitätsprinzip|editor=Otto Blumenthal|pages=69-73|url=https://www.archive.org/details/dasrelativittsp00minkgoog}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=kopff&gt;See pp. 45ff (special relativity and proper time); pp. 117ff (EP); pp. 189ff (Mach's principle), in: {{citation |author=Kopff, A.|title=Grundzüge der Einsteinschen Relativitätstheorie |date=February 1921|publisher=S. Hirzel|place=Leipzig|url=https://www.archive.org/details/grundzgedereins00kopfgoog}}; English translation by H. Levy (1923): [https://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015017188817 The mathematical theory of relativity].&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=becqu1&gt;See p. 48ff (proper time), p. 240f (general relativity) in: {{citation |author=Becquerel, J.|title=[[:s:fr:Le Principe de relativité et la théorie de la gravitation|Le Principe de relativité et la théorie de la gravitation]] |date=1922 |publisher=Gauthier-Villars|place=Paris}}; See also p. 57ff (proper time), p. 177f (general relativity) in: {{citation |author=Becquerel, J.|title=[[:s:fr:Exposé élémentaire de la théorie d’Einstein et de sa généralisation|Exposé élémentaire de la théorie d’Einstein et de sa généralisation]]|date=1922 |publisher=Payot|place=Paris}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=nord&gt;Discussion between Painlevé, Einstein, and Langevin on pp. 146ff in: {{citation |author=Nordmann, C.|title=[[s:fr:Einstein expose et discute sa théorie|Einstein expose et discute sa théorie]]|date=May 1922|journal=Revue des deux mondes|volume=IX|pages=129-166}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;/references&gt;

==Secondary sources==

&lt;references group=S&gt;

&lt;ref name=miller&gt;{{Citation |author=Miller, A. I. |date=1981 |title=Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905–1911) |place=Reading |publisher=Addison–Wesley |isbn=978-0-201-04679-3}}; See section 7.4.13 (Langevin, Wiechert, Laue, Einstein), footnotes 29-34 of chapter 7 (Petzoldt, Sommerfeld, Bergson, Einstein)&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=lange&gt;{{Citation|author=Lange, L.|date=1927|title=The clock paradox of the theory of relativity|journal=The American Mathematical Monthly|volume=34|issue=1|pages=22-30|jstor=2299914}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=pes&gt;{{Citation |author=Pesic, P. |date=2003 |title=Einstein and the twin paradox |journal=European Journal of Physics |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=585–590 |doi=10.1088/0143-0807/24/6/004}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=during&gt;{{Citation |author=During, É. |date=2014 |title=Langevin ou le paradoxe introuvable |journal=Revue de métaphysique et de morale |volume=84 |pages=513-527 |doi=10.3917/rmm.144.0513|doi-access=free}}; See pp. 515f (Langevin), 520f. (Einstein, Laue, Weyl, Painlevé).&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=debs&gt;{{Citation |author=Debs, T. A., &amp; Redhead, M. L. |title=The twin paradox and the conventionality of simultaneity |date=1996 |journal=American Journal of Physics |volume=64|issue=1| pages=384-392 |doi=10.1119/1.18252}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=alizzi&gt;{{Citation |author=Alizzi, A., Sen, A., &amp; Silagadze, Z. K.|title=Do moving clocks slow down? |year=2022 |journal=European Journal of Physics |volume=43|issue=6|pages=065601 |doi=10.1088/1361-6404/ac93ca|arxiv=2209.12654}}; Appendix B with reference to Lange and Halsbury&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=beng&gt;{{Citation |author=Benguigui, L. G. |date=2020 |title=A Tale Of Two Twins: The Langevin Experiment Of A Traveler To A Star |publisher=World Scientific|isbn=9789811219115}}; See early solutions (Einstein, Langevin, Lorentz, Born/Kopff) and the Bergson controversy. A shorter version appeared in {{arxiv|1212.4414}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=rowe&gt;{{Citation|author=Rowe, D. E.|date=2006|title=Einstein's allies and enemies: Debating relativity in Germany 1916–1920|journal=Interactions: Mathematics, Physics and Philosophy|pages=231-280|publisher=Springer|doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-5195-1_8}}; Covering the criticism of Gehrcke starting with 1912; discussion between Einstein and Gehrcke in 1914; Einstein's dialogue (1918) as response to antirelativists; the Weyland event in 1920 and Einstein's response.&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=weiss&gt;Weiss, W. (Physics FAQ): [https://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SR/TwinParadox/twin_gr.html The Twin Paradox: The Equivalence Principle Analysis]&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=cuvaj&gt;{{Citation |author=Cuvaj, C. |date=1971 |title=Paul Langevin and the theory of relativity|journal=Japanese studies in the history of science|volume=10| pages=113-142|url=http://www.isc.meiji.ac.jp/~sano/hssj/pdf/Cuvaj_C-1972-Langevin_Relativity-JSHS-No_10-pp113-142.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref name=koks&gt;Koks, D. (2018): [https://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SR/sr-gr.html Physics FAQ: Where is the Boundary between Special and General Relativity?]&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;/references&gt;

[[Category:History of special relativity]]

[[Category:Paradoxes]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Bully Metric Timestamps</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
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      <comment>/* Anchoring Bully Timestamps */</comment>
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      <text bytes="59190" sha1="40ssabdneihp14s5r62secfp5n20m5e" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

== One Solar Radius ==
[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]
The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (&lt;math&gt;R_\odot&lt;/math&gt;) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period.

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere.

Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

=== Naked Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt;.]]


[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}}
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is a Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
Initially in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, which is a different orbital velocity.

Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in  parsecs assuming  1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 396,635
| 416,000

|-
| 1 / 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 24,789.7
| 26,000.0

|-
| 1 / 32
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 1,549.36
| 1,625.00

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 52,000

|-
| 1 / 52
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1,000

|-
| 1 / 52,000
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26,000'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1
|}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored to the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

==== A surrogate for the Sun ====
The path of the Solar System's Galactic Ecliptic Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} 
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = full| title  = Bully Timestamp Anchor| quote  = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

=== Bullies in the Bully System ===
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in '''Figure 5a''':

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was &quot;sweetheart&quot;. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, &quot;lover&quot;. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align  = center | width  = full | title  = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | quote  = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== The Earth and Moon ===
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This value can vary by 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to gravitational tugs from neighboring planets; however, when these fluctuations are averaged out, the century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is utility in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. Surprisingly, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = 100%| title  = Bully Timestamp Duration
| quote  = {{ordered list
  | The Sun orbits one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
  | The Sun orbits one Galactic Year per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully Timestamps.
  | The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
  }}
}}

==== Earth's tropical year ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed is not constant throughout the year. The Earth moves more slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Therefore, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, winter was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. After that, it took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to spring being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to summer. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over 21,000 years.

[[File:TBD_Place_Holder.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=TBD.|'''Figure 5c: '''How the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from spring to summer is correlated with a large green dot and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large red dot appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from summer to autumn, and a large blue dot, back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from winter to spring. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,400 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly 25,000 years.

{{Quote box| align  = center | width  = 100% | title  = Bully Time Anchor | 
quote = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred one month after the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. The other Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE and 8329 CE, will also be roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
{{ordered list
  | Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.
  | Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.
  | Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.
  }}
}}

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | quote = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred one month after the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. The other Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE and 8329 CE, will also be roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
&lt;ol&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;
}}


The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession the tropical year is roughly 1,224 seconds shorter than the sidereal year. The difference between the sidereal and tropical year lengths is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp. So the time required for 25,825 tropical years is roughly equivalent to 25,824 sidereal years.

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

==== The Bully Mnemonic ====

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]


==== The power of two ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance (Parsecs)&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;44&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;18.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 415,935

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;14.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 25,996

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{32}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;10.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 1,624.74

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;15.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 51,991

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-15.666&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;25.334&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
|}

The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is remarkably close to 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
Furthermore, these values (16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; and 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''.

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>40ssabdneihp14s5r62secfp5n20m5e</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2823886</id>
      <parentid>2823885</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T16:20:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Earth's tropical year */</comment>
      <origin>2823886</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="58492" sha1="p6fwhbi06u5pvtqi82y696fjxy1csyj" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

== One Solar Radius ==
[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]
The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (&lt;math&gt;R_\odot&lt;/math&gt;) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period.

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere.

Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

=== Naked Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt;.]]


[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}}
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is a Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
Initially in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, which is a different orbital velocity.

Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in  parsecs assuming  1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 396,635
| 416,000

|-
| 1 / 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 24,789.7
| 26,000.0

|-
| 1 / 32
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 1,549.36
| 1,625.00

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 52,000

|-
| 1 / 52
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1,000

|-
| 1 / 52,000
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26,000'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1
|}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored to the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

==== A surrogate for the Sun ====
The path of the Solar System's Galactic Ecliptic Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} 
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = full| title  = Bully Timestamp Anchor| quote  = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

=== Bullies in the Bully System ===
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in '''Figure 5a''':

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was &quot;sweetheart&quot;. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, &quot;lover&quot;. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align  = center | width  = full | title  = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | quote  = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== The Earth and Moon ===
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This value can vary by 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to gravitational tugs from neighboring planets; however, when these fluctuations are averaged out, the century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is utility in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. Surprisingly, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = 100%| title  = Bully Timestamp Duration
| quote  = {{ordered list
  | The Sun orbits one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
  | The Sun orbits one Galactic Year per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully Timestamps.
  | The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
  }}
}}

==== Earth's tropical year ====
The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession the tropical year is roughly 1,224 seconds shorter than the sidereal year. The difference between the sidereal and tropical year lengths is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp. So the time required for 25,825 tropical years is roughly equivalent to 25,824 sidereal years.

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed is not constant throughout the year. The Earth moves more slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Therefore, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, winter was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. After that, it took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to spring being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to summer. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over 21,000 years.

[[File:TBD_Place_Holder.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=TBD.|'''Figure 5c: '''How the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from spring to summer is correlated with a large green dot and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large red dot appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from summer to autumn, and a large blue dot, back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from winter to spring. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,400 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly 25,000 years.

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | quote = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred one month after the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. The other Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE and 8329 CE, will also be roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
&lt;ol&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;
}}

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

==== The Bully Mnemonic ====

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]


==== The power of two ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance (Parsecs)&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;44&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;18.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 415,935

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;14.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 25,996

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{32}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;10.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 1,624.74

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;15.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 51,991

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-15.666&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;25.334&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
|}

The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is remarkably close to 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
Furthermore, these values (16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; and 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''.

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>p6fwhbi06u5pvtqi82y696fjxy1csyj</sha1>
    </revision>
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        <username>Unitfreak</username>
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      <comment>/* Earth's Seasons and Milky Way visibility */</comment>
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      <text bytes="58492" sha1="k68sv1cpmvxdq0djx42z3a4mma2825u" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

== One Solar Radius ==
[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]
The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (&lt;math&gt;R_\odot&lt;/math&gt;) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period.

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere.

Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

=== Naked Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt;.]]


[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}}
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is a Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
Initially in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, which is a different orbital velocity.

Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in  parsecs assuming  1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 396,635
| 416,000

|-
| 1 / 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 24,789.7
| 26,000.0

|-
| 1 / 32
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 1,549.36
| 1,625.00

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 52,000

|-
| 1 / 52
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1,000

|-
| 1 / 52,000
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26,000'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1
|}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored to the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

==== A surrogate for the Sun ====
The path of the Solar System's Galactic Ecliptic Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} 
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = full| title  = Bully Timestamp Anchor| quote  = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

=== Bullies in the Bully System ===
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in '''Figure 5a''':

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was &quot;sweetheart&quot;. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, &quot;lover&quot;. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align  = center | width  = full | title  = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | quote  = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== The Earth and Moon ===
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This value can vary by 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to gravitational tugs from neighboring planets; however, when these fluctuations are averaged out, the century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is utility in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. Surprisingly, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = 100%| title  = Bully Timestamp Duration
| quote  = {{ordered list
  | The Sun orbits one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
  | The Sun orbits one Galactic Year per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully Timestamps.
  | The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
  }}
}}

==== Earth's tropical year ====
The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession the tropical year is roughly 1,224 seconds shorter than the sidereal year. The difference between the sidereal and tropical year lengths is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp. So the time required for 25,825 tropical years is roughly equivalent to 25,824 sidereal years.

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed is not constant throughout the year. The Earth moves more slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Therefore, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, winter was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. After that, it took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to spring being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to summer. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over 21,000 years.

[[File:TBD_Place_Holder.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=TBD.|'''Figure 5c: '''How the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from spring to summer is correlated with a large green dot and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large red dot appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from summer to autumn, and a large blue dot, back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from winter to spring. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,400 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly 25,000 years.

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | quote = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred one month after the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. The other Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE and 8329 CE, will also be roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
&lt;ol&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;
}}

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

==== The Bully Mnemonic ====

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]


==== The power of two ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance (Parsecs)&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;44&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;18.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 415,935

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;14.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 25,996

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{32}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;10.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 1,624.74

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;15.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 51,991

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-15.666&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;25.334&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
|}

The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is remarkably close to 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
Furthermore, these values (16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; and 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''.

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
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      <text bytes="58637" sha1="abx6av77gr1czeygfopa98cb520heml" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

== One Solar Radius ==
[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]
The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (&lt;math&gt;R_\odot&lt;/math&gt;) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period.

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere.

Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

=== Naked Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt;.]]


[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}}
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is a Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
Initially in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, which is a different orbital velocity.

Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in  parsecs assuming  1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 396,635
| 416,000

|-
| 1 / 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 24,789.7
| 26,000.0

|-
| 1 / 32
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 1,549.36
| 1,625.00

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 52,000

|-
| 1 / 52
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1,000

|-
| 1 / 52,000
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26,000'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1
|}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored to the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

==== A surrogate for the Sun ====
The path of the Solar System's Galactic Ecliptic Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} 
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = full| title  = Bully Timestamp Anchor| quote  = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

=== Bullies in the Bully System ===
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in '''Figure 5a''':

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was &quot;sweetheart&quot;. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, &quot;lover&quot;. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align  = center | width  = full | title  = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | quote  = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== The Earth and Moon ===
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This value can vary by 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to gravitational tugs from neighboring planets; however, when these fluctuations are averaged out, the century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is utility in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. Surprisingly, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = 100%| title  = Bully Timestamp Duration
| quote  = {{ordered list
  | The Sun orbits one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
  | The Sun orbits one Galactic Year per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully Timestamps.
  | The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
  }}
}}

==== Earth's tropical year ====
The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession the tropical year is roughly 1,224 seconds shorter than the sidereal year. The difference between the sidereal and tropical year lengths is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp. So the time required for 25,825 tropical years is roughly equivalent to 25,824 sidereal years.

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed is not constant throughout the year. The Earth moves more slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Therefore, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, winter was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. After that, it took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to spring being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to summer. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over 21,000 years.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|600px|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from spring to summer is correlated with a large green dot and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large red dot appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from summer to autumn, and a large blue dot, back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from winter to spring. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,400 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly 25,000 years.

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | quote = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred one month after the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. The other Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE and 8329 CE, will also be roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
&lt;ol&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;
}}

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

==== The Bully Mnemonic ====

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]


==== The power of two ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance (Parsecs)&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;44&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;18.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 415,935

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;14.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 25,996

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{32}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;10.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 1,624.74

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;15.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 51,991

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-15.666&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;25.334&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
|}

The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is remarkably close to 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
Furthermore, these values (16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; and 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''.

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2823901</id>
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        <username>Unitfreak</username>
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      <comment>/* Anchoring Bully Timestamps */</comment>
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      <text bytes="58639" sha1="dznpjd6c34bi9mugc4vwpqxdyjxqe4s" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

== One Solar Radius ==
[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]
The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (&lt;math&gt;R_\odot&lt;/math&gt;) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period.

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere.

Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

=== Naked Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt;.]]


[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}}
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is a Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
Initially in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, which is a different orbital velocity.

Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in  parsecs assuming  1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 396,635
| 416,000

|-
| 1 / 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 24,789.7
| 26,000.0

|-
| 1 / 32
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 1,549.36
| 1,625.00

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 52,000

|-
| 1 / 52
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1,000

|-
| 1 / 52,000
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26,000'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1
|}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

==== A surrogate for the Sun ====
The path of the Solar System's Galactic Ecliptic Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} 
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = full| title  = Bully Timestamp Anchor| quote  = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

=== Bullies in the Bully System ===
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in '''Figure 5a''':

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was &quot;sweetheart&quot;. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, &quot;lover&quot;. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align  = center | width  = full | title  = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | quote  = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== The Earth and Moon ===
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This value can vary by 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to gravitational tugs from neighboring planets; however, when these fluctuations are averaged out, the century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is utility in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. Surprisingly, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = 100%| title  = Bully Timestamp Duration
| quote  = {{ordered list
  | The Sun orbits one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
  | The Sun orbits one Galactic Year per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully Timestamps.
  | The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
  }}
}}

==== Earth's tropical year ====
The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession the tropical year is roughly 1,224 seconds shorter than the sidereal year. The difference between the sidereal and tropical year lengths is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp. So the time required for 25,825 tropical years is roughly equivalent to 25,824 sidereal years.

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed is not constant throughout the year. The Earth moves more slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Therefore, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, winter was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. After that, it took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to spring being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to summer. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over 21,000 years.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|600px|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from spring to summer is correlated with a large green dot and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large red dot appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from summer to autumn, and a large blue dot, back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from winter to spring. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,400 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly 25,000 years.

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | quote = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred one month after the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. The other Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE and 8329 CE, will also be roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
&lt;ol&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;
}}

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

==== The Bully Mnemonic ====

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Year \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;


The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]


==== The power of two ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance (Parsecs)&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;44&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;18.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 415,935

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;14.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 25,996

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{32}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;10.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 1,624.74

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;15.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 51,991

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-15.666&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;25.334&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
|}

The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is remarkably close to 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
Furthermore, these values (16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; and 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''.

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>dznpjd6c34bi9mugc4vwpqxdyjxqe4s</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2823902</id>
      <parentid>2823901</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T17:34:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The Bully Mnemonic */</comment>
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      <text bytes="57484" sha1="1umd14j5hsai40elc5qjsawi90bl640" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

== One Solar Radius ==
[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]
The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (&lt;math&gt;R_\odot&lt;/math&gt;) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period.

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere.

Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

=== Naked Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt;.]]


[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}}
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is a Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
Initially in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, which is a different orbital velocity.

Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in  parsecs assuming  1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 396,635
| 416,000

|-
| 1 / 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 24,789.7
| 26,000.0

|-
| 1 / 32
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 1,549.36
| 1,625.00

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 52,000

|-
| 1 / 52
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1,000

|-
| 1 / 52,000
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26,000'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1
|}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

==== A surrogate for the Sun ====
The path of the Solar System's Galactic Ecliptic Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} 
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = full| title  = Bully Timestamp Anchor| quote  = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

=== Bullies in the Bully System ===
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in '''Figure 5a''':

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was &quot;sweetheart&quot;. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, &quot;lover&quot;. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align  = center | width  = full | title  = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | quote  = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== The Earth and Moon ===
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This value can vary by 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to gravitational tugs from neighboring planets; however, when these fluctuations are averaged out, the century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is utility in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. Surprisingly, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = 100%| title  = Bully Timestamp Duration
| quote  = {{ordered list
  | The Sun orbits one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
  | The Sun orbits one Galactic Year per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully Timestamps.
  | The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
  }}
}}

==== Earth's tropical year ====
The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession the tropical year is roughly 1,224 seconds shorter than the sidereal year. The difference between the sidereal and tropical year lengths is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp. So the time required for 25,825 tropical years is roughly equivalent to 25,824 sidereal years.

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed is not constant throughout the year. The Earth moves more slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Therefore, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, winter was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. After that, it took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to spring being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to summer. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over 21,000 years.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|600px|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from spring to summer is correlated with a large green dot and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large red dot appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from summer to autumn, and a large blue dot, back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from winter to spring. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,400 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly 25,000 years.

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | quote = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred one month after the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. The other Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE and 8329 CE, will also be roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
&lt;ol&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;
}}

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

==== The power of two ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance (Parsecs)&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;44&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;18.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 415,935

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;14.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 25,996

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{32}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;10.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 1,624.74

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;15.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 51,991

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-15.666&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;25.334&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
|}

The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is remarkably close to 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
Furthermore, these values (16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; and 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''.

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
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      <text bytes="58605" sha1="r4l7ke85olw06pisucxznsnxrs3x5os" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

== One Solar Radius ==
[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]
The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (&lt;math&gt;R_\odot&lt;/math&gt;) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period.

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere.

Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

=== Naked Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt;.]]


[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}}
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is a Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
Initially in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, which is a different orbital velocity.

Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in  parsecs assuming  1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 396,635
| 416,000

|-
| 1 / 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 24,789.7
| 26,000.0

|-
| 1 / 32
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 1,549.36
| 1,625.00

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 52,000

|-
| 1 / 52
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1,000

|-
| 1 / 52,000
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26,000'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1
|}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

==== A surrogate for the Sun ====
The path of the Solar System's Galactic Ecliptic Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} 
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = full| title  = Bully Timestamp Anchor| quote  = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

=== Bullies in the Bully System ===
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in '''Figure 5a''':

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was &quot;sweetheart&quot;. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, &quot;lover&quot;. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align  = center | width  = full | title  = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | quote  = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== The Earth and Moon ===
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This value can vary by 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to gravitational tugs from neighboring planets; however, when these fluctuations are averaged out, the century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is utility in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. Surprisingly, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = 100%| title  = Bully Timestamp Duration
| quote  = {{ordered list
  | The Sun orbits one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
  | The Sun orbits one Galactic Year per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully Timestamps.
  | The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
  }}
}}

==== Earth's tropical year ====
The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 1,224 seconds shorter than the sidereal year. The difference between sidereal and tropical year lengths is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp, so the time required for 25,825 tropical years is roughly equivalent to 25,824 sidereal years.

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Sidereal \, Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Years \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed is not constant throughout the year. The Earth moves more slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Therefore, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, winter was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. After that, it took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to spring being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to summer. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over 21,000 years.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|600px|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from spring to summer is correlated with a large green dot and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large red dot appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from summer to autumn, and a large blue dot, back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from winter to spring. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,400 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly 25,000 years.

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | quote = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred one month after the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. The other Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE and 8329 CE, will also be roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
&lt;ol&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;
}}

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

==== The power of two ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance (Parsecs)&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;44&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;18.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 415,935

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;14.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 25,996

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{32}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;10.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 1,624.74

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;15.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 51,991

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-15.666&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;25.334&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
|}

The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is remarkably close to 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
Furthermore, these values (16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; and 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''.

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>r4l7ke85olw06pisucxznsnxrs3x5os</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2823904</id>
      <parentid>2823903</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T17:39:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Earth's tropical year */</comment>
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      <text bytes="58604" sha1="qxn9awvszh81vh66vjnoa4a2jinljgz" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

== One Solar Radius ==
[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]
The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (&lt;math&gt;R_\odot&lt;/math&gt;) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period.

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere.

Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

=== Naked Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt;.]]


[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}}
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is a Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
Initially in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, which is a different orbital velocity.

Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in  parsecs assuming  1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 396,635
| 416,000

|-
| 1 / 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 24,789.7
| 26,000.0

|-
| 1 / 32
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 1,549.36
| 1,625.00

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 52,000

|-
| 1 / 52
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1,000

|-
| 1 / 52,000
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26,000'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1
|}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

==== A surrogate for the Sun ====
The path of the Solar System's Galactic Ecliptic Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} 
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = full| title  = Bully Timestamp Anchor| quote  = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

=== Bullies in the Bully System ===
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in '''Figure 5a''':

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was &quot;sweetheart&quot;. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, &quot;lover&quot;. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align  = center | width  = full | title  = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | quote  = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== The Earth and Moon ===
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This value can vary by 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to gravitational tugs from neighboring planets; however, when these fluctuations are averaged out, the century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is utility in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. Surprisingly, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = 100%| title  = Bully Timestamp Duration
| quote  = {{ordered list
  | The Sun orbits one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
  | The Sun orbits one Galactic Year per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully Timestamps.
  | The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
  }}
}}

==== Earth's tropical year ====
The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 1,224 seconds shorter than the sidereal year. The difference between sidereal and tropical year lengths is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp, so the time required for 25,825 tropical years is roughly equivalent to 25,824 sidereal years.

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \text{Sidereal Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Years \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed is not constant throughout the year. The Earth moves more slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Therefore, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, winter was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. After that, it took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to spring being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to summer. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over 21,000 years.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|600px|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from spring to summer is correlated with a large green dot and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large red dot appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from summer to autumn, and a large blue dot, back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from winter to spring. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,400 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly 25,000 years.

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | quote = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred one month after the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. The other Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE and 8329 CE, will also be roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
&lt;ol&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;
}}

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

==== The power of two ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance (Parsecs)&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;44&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;18.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 415,935

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;14.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 25,996

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{32}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;10.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 1,624.74

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;15.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 51,991

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-15.666&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;25.334&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
|}

The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is remarkably close to 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
Furthermore, these values (16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; and 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''.

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>qxn9awvszh81vh66vjnoa4a2jinljgz</sha1>
    </revision>
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        <username>Unitfreak</username>
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      <text bytes="58607" sha1="4ufr00s8e8w561rsbs57dua88lvecgj" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

== One Solar Radius ==
[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]
The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (&lt;math&gt;R_\odot&lt;/math&gt;) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period.

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere.

Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

=== Naked Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt;.]]


[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}}
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is a Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
Initially in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, which is a different orbital velocity.

Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in  parsecs assuming  1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 396,635
| 416,000

|-
| 1 / 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 24,789.7
| 26,000.0

|-
| 1 / 32
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 1,549.36
| 1,625.00

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 52,000

|-
| 1 / 52
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1,000

|-
| 1 / 52,000
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26,000'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1
|}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

==== A surrogate for the Sun ====
The path of the Solar System's Galactic Ecliptic Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} 
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = full| title  = Bully Timestamp Anchor| quote  = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

=== Bullies in the Bully System ===
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in '''Figure 5a''':

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was &quot;sweetheart&quot;. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, &quot;lover&quot;. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align  = center | width  = full | title  = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | quote  = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== The Earth and Moon ===
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This value can vary by 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to gravitational tugs from neighboring planets; however, when these fluctuations are averaged out, the century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is utility in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. Surprisingly, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = 100%| title  = Bully Timestamp Duration
| quote  = {{ordered list
  | The Sun orbits one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
  | The Sun orbits one Galactic Year per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully Timestamps.
  | The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
  }}
}}

==== Earth's tropical year ====
The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 1,224 seconds shorter than the sidereal year. The difference between sidereal and tropical year lengths is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp, so the time required for 25,825 tropical years is roughly equivalent to 25,824 sidereal years.

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, \text{Sidereal Year} = {31,558,150 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; {1 \, Tropical \, Year} = {31,556,926 \, Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, Great \, Year \approx 25,824 \, Sidereal \, Years \approx 25,825 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Years \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed is not constant throughout the year. The Earth moves more slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Therefore, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, winter was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. After that, it took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to spring being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to summer. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over 21,000 years.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|600px|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from spring to summer is correlated with a large green dot and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large red dot appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from summer to autumn, and a large blue dot, back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from winter to spring. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,400 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly 25,000 years.

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | quote = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred one month after the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. The other Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE and 8329 CE, will also be roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
&lt;ol&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;
}}

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

==== The power of two ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance (Parsecs)&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;44&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;18.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 415,935

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;14.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 25,996

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{32}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;10.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 1,624.74

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;15.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 51,991

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-15.666&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;25.334&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
|}

The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is remarkably close to 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
Furthermore, these values (16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; and 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''.

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>4ufr00s8e8w561rsbs57dua88lvecgj</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2823906</id>
      <parentid>2823905</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T17:41:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unitfreak</username>
        <id>695864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Earth's tropical year */</comment>
      <origin>2823906</origin>
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      <text bytes="58631" sha1="72h1lhwi0zjw28yjqsrboup218oxqiv" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

== One Solar Radius ==
[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]
The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (&lt;math&gt;R_\odot&lt;/math&gt;) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period.

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere.

Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

=== Naked Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt;.]]


[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}}
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is a Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
Initially in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, which is a different orbital velocity.

Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in  parsecs assuming  1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 396,635
| 416,000

|-
| 1 / 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 24,789.7
| 26,000.0

|-
| 1 / 32
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 1,549.36
| 1,625.00

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 52,000

|-
| 1 / 52
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1,000

|-
| 1 / 52,000
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26,000'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1
|}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

==== A surrogate for the Sun ====
The path of the Solar System's Galactic Ecliptic Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} 
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = full| title  = Bully Timestamp Anchor| quote  = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

=== Bullies in the Bully System ===
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in '''Figure 5a''':

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was &quot;sweetheart&quot;. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, &quot;lover&quot;. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align  = center | width  = full | title  = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | quote  = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== The Earth and Moon ===
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This value can vary by 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to gravitational tugs from neighboring planets; however, when these fluctuations are averaged out, the century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is utility in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. Surprisingly, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = 100%| title  = Bully Timestamp Duration
| quote  = {{ordered list
  | The Sun orbits one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
  | The Sun orbits one Galactic Year per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully Timestamps.
  | The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
  }}
}}

==== Earth's tropical year ====
The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 1,224 seconds shorter than the sidereal year. The difference between sidereal and tropical year lengths is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp, so the time required for 25,825 tropical years is roughly equivalent to 25,824 sidereal years.

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, \text{Sidereal Year} = 31,558,150 \, \text{Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, \text{Tropical Year} = 31,556,926 \, \text{Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, \text{Great Year} \approx 25,824 \, \text{Sidereal Years} \approx 25,825 \, \text{Tropical Years} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;{1 \, Galactic \, Year} \approx 8264 \, Great \, Years \approx 213,417,800 \, Tropical \, Years &lt;/math&gt;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed is not constant throughout the year. The Earth moves more slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Therefore, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, winter was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. After that, it took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to spring being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to summer. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over 21,000 years.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|600px|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from spring to summer is correlated with a large green dot and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large red dot appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from summer to autumn, and a large blue dot, back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from winter to spring. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,400 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly 25,000 years.

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | quote = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred one month after the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. The other Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE and 8329 CE, will also be roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
&lt;ol&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;
}}

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

==== The power of two ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance (Parsecs)&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;44&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;18.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 415,935

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;14.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 25,996

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{32}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;10.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 1,624.74

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;15.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 51,991

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-15.666&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;25.334&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
|}

The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is remarkably close to 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
Furthermore, these values (16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; and 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''.

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>72h1lhwi0zjw28yjqsrboup218oxqiv</sha1>
    </revision>
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        <username>Unitfreak</username>
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      <text bytes="58641" sha1="8zq5nzqg42w3tzu7w120l2f6snamrgt" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

== One Solar Radius ==
[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]
The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (&lt;math&gt;R_\odot&lt;/math&gt;) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period.

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere.

Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

=== Naked Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt;.]]


[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}}
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is a Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
Initially in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, which is a different orbital velocity.

Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in  parsecs assuming  1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 396,635
| 416,000

|-
| 1 / 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 24,789.7
| 26,000.0

|-
| 1 / 32
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 1,549.36
| 1,625.00

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 52,000

|-
| 1 / 52
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1,000

|-
| 1 / 52,000
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26,000'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1
|}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

==== A surrogate for the Sun ====
The path of the Solar System's Galactic Ecliptic Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} 
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = full| title  = Bully Timestamp Anchor| quote  = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

=== Bullies in the Bully System ===
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in '''Figure 5a''':

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was &quot;sweetheart&quot;. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, &quot;lover&quot;. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align  = center | width  = full | title  = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | quote  = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== The Earth and Moon ===
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This value can vary by 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to gravitational tugs from neighboring planets; however, when these fluctuations are averaged out, the century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is utility in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. Surprisingly, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = 100%| title  = Bully Timestamp Duration
| quote  = {{ordered list
  | The Sun orbits one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
  | The Sun orbits one Galactic Year per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully Timestamps.
  | The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
  }}
}}

==== Earth's tropical year ====
The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 1,224 seconds shorter than the sidereal year. The difference between sidereal and tropical year lengths is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp, so the time required for 25,825 tropical years is roughly equivalent to 25,824 sidereal years.

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, \text{Sidereal Year} = 31,558,150 \, \text{Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, \text{Tropical Year} = 31,556,926 \, \text{Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, \text{Great Year} \approx 25,824 \, \text{Sidereal Years} \approx 25,825 \, \text{Tropical Years} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;1 \, \text{Galactic Year} \approx 8264 \, \text{Great Years} \approx 213,417,800 \, \text{Tropical Years} &lt;/math&gt;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed is not constant throughout the year. The Earth moves more slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Therefore, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, winter was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. After that, it took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to spring being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to summer. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over 21,000 years.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|600px|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from spring to summer is correlated with a large green dot and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large red dot appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from summer to autumn, and a large blue dot, back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from winter to spring. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,400 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly 25,000 years.

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | quote = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred one month after the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. The other Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE and 8329 CE, will also be roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
&lt;ol&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;
}}

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

==== The power of two ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance (Parsecs)&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;44&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;18.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 415,935

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;14.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 25,996

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{32}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;10.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 1,624.74

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;15.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 51,991

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-15.666&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;25.334&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
|}

The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is remarkably close to 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
Furthermore, these values (16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; and 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''.

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
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      <text bytes="58671" sha1="ijluaf5xuuuda22y1zbf01gkie0gpue" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

== One Solar Radius ==
[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]
The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (&lt;math&gt;R_\odot&lt;/math&gt;) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period.

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere.

Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

=== Naked Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt;.]]


[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}}
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is a Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
Initially in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, which is a different orbital velocity.

Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in  parsecs assuming  1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 396,635
| 416,000

|-
| 1 / 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 24,789.7
| 26,000.0

|-
| 1 / 32
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 1,549.36
| 1,625.00

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 52,000

|-
| 1 / 52
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1,000

|-
| 1 / 52,000
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26,000'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1
|}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

==== A surrogate for the Sun ====
The path of the Solar System's Galactic Ecliptic Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} 
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = full| title  = Bully Timestamp Anchor| quote  = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

=== Bullies in the Bully System ===
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in '''Figure 5a''':

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was &quot;sweetheart&quot;. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, &quot;lover&quot;. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align  = center | width  = full | title  = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | quote  = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== The Earth and Moon ===
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This value can vary by 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to gravitational tugs from neighboring planets; however, when these fluctuations are averaged out, the century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is utility in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. Surprisingly, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = 100%| title  = Bully Timestamp Duration
| quote  = {{ordered list
  | The Sun orbits one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
  | The Sun orbits one Galactic Year per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully Timestamps.
  | The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
  }}
}}

==== Earth's tropical year ====
The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 1,224 seconds shorter than the sidereal year. The difference between sidereal and tropical year lengths is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp, so the time required for 25,825 tropical years is roughly equivalent to 25,824 sidereal years.

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, \text{Sidereal Year} = 31,558,150 \, \text{Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, \text{Tropical Year} = 31,556,926 \, \text{Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, \text{Great Year} \approx 25,824 \, \text{Sidereal Years} \approx 25,825 \, \text{Tropical Years} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;1 \, \text{Galactic Year} \approx 8264 \, \text{Great Years} \approx 213,417,800 \, \text{Tropical Years} &lt;/math&gt;

===== The Bully Mnemonic=====
The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed is not constant throughout the year. The Earth moves more slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Therefore, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, winter was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. After that, it took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to spring being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to summer. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over 21,000 years.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|600px|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from spring to summer is correlated with a large green dot and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large red dot appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from summer to autumn, and a large blue dot, back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from winter to spring. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,400 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly 25,000 years.

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | quote = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred one month after the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. The other Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE and 8329 CE, will also be roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
&lt;ol&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;
}}

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

==== The power of two ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance (Parsecs)&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;44&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;18.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 415,935

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;14.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 25,996

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{32}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;10.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 1,624.74

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;15.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 51,991

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-15.666&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;25.334&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
|}

The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is remarkably close to 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
Furthermore, these values (16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; and 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''.

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
      <sha1>ijluaf5xuuuda22y1zbf01gkie0gpue</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
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        <username>Unitfreak</username>
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      <text bytes="58675" sha1="7dzgd22snzax6j4mxmcf0oo1up6yevc" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

== One Solar Radius ==
[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]
The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (&lt;math&gt;R_\odot&lt;/math&gt;) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period.

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere.

Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

=== Naked Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt;.]]


[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}}
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is a Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
Initially in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, which is a different orbital velocity.

Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in  parsecs assuming  1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 396,635
| 416,000

|-
| 1 / 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 24,789.7
| 26,000.0

|-
| 1 / 32
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 1,549.36
| 1,625.00

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 52,000

|-
| 1 / 52
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1,000

|-
| 1 / 52,000
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26,000'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1
|}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

==== A surrogate for the Sun ====
The path of the Solar System's Galactic Ecliptic Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} 
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = full| title  = Bully Timestamp Anchor| quote  = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

=== Bullies in the Bully System ===
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in '''Figure 5a''':

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was &quot;sweetheart&quot;. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, &quot;lover&quot;. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align  = center | width  = full | title  = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | quote  = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== The Earth and Moon ===
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This value can vary by 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to gravitational tugs from neighboring planets; however, when these fluctuations are averaged out, the century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is utility in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. Surprisingly, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = 100%| title  = Bully Timestamp Duration
| quote  = {{ordered list
  | The Sun orbits one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
  | The Sun completes one Galactic orbit per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.
  | The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
  }}
}}

==== Earth's tropical year ====
The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 1,224 seconds shorter than the sidereal year. The difference between sidereal and tropical year lengths is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp, so the time required for 25,825 tropical years is roughly equivalent to 25,824 sidereal years.

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, \text{Sidereal Year} = 31,558,150 \, \text{Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, \text{Tropical Year} = 31,556,926 \, \text{Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, \text{Great Year} \approx 25,824 \, \text{Sidereal Years} \approx 25,825 \, \text{Tropical Years} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;1 \, \text{Galactic Year} \approx 8264 \, \text{Great Years} \approx 213,417,800 \, \text{Tropical Years} &lt;/math&gt;

===== The Bully Mnemonic=====
The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed is not constant throughout the year. The Earth moves more slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Therefore, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, winter was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. After that, it took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to spring being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to summer. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over 21,000 years.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|600px|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from spring to summer is correlated with a large green dot and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large red dot appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from summer to autumn, and a large blue dot, back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from winter to spring. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,400 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly 25,000 years.

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | quote = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred one month after the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. The other Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE and 8329 CE, will also be roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
&lt;ol&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;
}}

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

==== The power of two ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance (Parsecs)&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;44&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;18.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 415,935

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;14.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 25,996

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{32}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;10.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 1,624.74

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;15.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 51,991

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-15.666&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;25.334&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
|}

The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is remarkably close to 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
Furthermore, these values (16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; and 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''.

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
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    </revision>
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      <id>2823910</id>
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        <username>Unitfreak</username>
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      <comment>/* The Bully Mnemonic */</comment>
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      <text bytes="58645" sha1="bpia10ph8jtu7rqtcj6o06q6xzhi5lt" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

== One Solar Radius ==
[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]
The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (&lt;math&gt;R_\odot&lt;/math&gt;) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period.

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere.

Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

=== Naked Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt;.]]


[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}}
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is a Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
Initially in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, which is a different orbital velocity.

Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in  parsecs assuming  1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 396,635
| 416,000

|-
| 1 / 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 24,789.7
| 26,000.0

|-
| 1 / 32
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 1,549.36
| 1,625.00

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 52,000

|-
| 1 / 52
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1,000

|-
| 1 / 52,000
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26,000'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1
|}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

==== A surrogate for the Sun ====
The path of the Solar System's Galactic Ecliptic Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} 
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = full| title  = Bully Timestamp Anchor| quote  = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

=== Bullies in the Bully System ===
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in '''Figure 5a''':

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was &quot;sweetheart&quot;. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, &quot;lover&quot;. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align  = center | width  = full | title  = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | quote  = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== The Earth and Moon ===
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This value can vary by 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to gravitational tugs from neighboring planets; however, when these fluctuations are averaged out, the century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is utility in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. Surprisingly, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = 100%| title  = Bully Timestamp Duration
| quote  = {{ordered list
  | The Sun orbits one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
  | The Sun completes one Galactic orbit per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.
  | The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
  }}
}}

==== Earth's tropical year ====
The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 1,224 seconds shorter than the sidereal year. The difference between sidereal and tropical year lengths is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp, so the time required for 25,825 tropical years is roughly equivalent to 25,824 sidereal years.

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, \text{Sidereal Year} = 31,558,150 \, \text{Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, \text{Tropical Year} = 31,556,926 \, \text{Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, \text{Great Year} \approx 25,824 \, \text{Sidereal Years} \approx 25,825 \, \text{Tropical Years} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;1 \, \text{Galactic Year} \approx 8264 \, \text{Great Years} \approx 213,417,800 \, \text{Tropical Years} &lt;/math&gt;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed is not constant throughout the year. The Earth moves more slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Therefore, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, winter was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. After that, it took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to spring being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to summer. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over 21,000 years.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|600px|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from spring to summer is correlated with a large green dot and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large red dot appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from summer to autumn, and a large blue dot, back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from winter to spring. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,400 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly 25,000 years.

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | quote = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred one month after the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. The other Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE and 8329 CE, will also be roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
&lt;ol&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;
}}

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 on 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 on 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 on 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

==== The power of two ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance (Parsecs)&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;44&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;18.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 415,935

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;14.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 25,996

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{32}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;10.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 1,624.74

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;15.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 51,991

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-15.666&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;25.334&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
|}

The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is remarkably close to 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
Furthermore, these values (16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; and 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''.

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
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      <text bytes="58625" sha1="2s2ecz3aryi62ncklb5ndv57udxivc6" xml:space="preserve">&lt;small&gt;[[Bully_Metric|Bully Metric Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bully_Metric_Timestamps|Bully Metric Timestamps Main Page]]&lt;br /&gt;
[https://unitfreak.github.io/Bully-Row-Timestamps/Java_Bully.html Current Bully Timestamp (GitHub)]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;

The '''Bully Metric Timestamp''' system is an alternative timekeeping framework that utilizes the orbit of the Sun around the Milky Way Galaxy to mark the passage of time. A new successive Bully timestamp is realized each time the Sun advances by approximately one solar radius along its path through the Cosmos. Using '''12-digit''' [[w:hexadecimal|hexadecimal]] timestamps, the Bully system has enough unique identifiers to span the entire history of the universe—from the Big Bang into the far-distant future. The total capacity of the system is:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;16^{12} \times 3,055 \text{ sec} \approx 27.25 \text{ billion years}&lt;/math&gt;

== One Solar Radius ==
[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_1_Timestamp.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun advancing a distance equal to its own radius along its galactic trajectory over a period of 3055 seconds.|'''Figure 1:''' Motion of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps.]]
The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a very fast speed, roughly 227.7 kilometers per second (km/s), which equals approximately 0.076% of the speed of light. Even though the Sun is moving very quickly, it is also physically immense. The radius of the Sun (&lt;math&gt;R_\odot&lt;/math&gt;) is 695,700 kilometers. Dividing the solar radius by the galactic orbital velocity, we find that it takes approximately 3,055 seconds (about five-sixths of an hour) for the Sun to travel a distance equal to its own radius:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\Delta t = \frac{695,700 \text{ km}}{227.7 \text{ km/s}} \approx 3055 \text{ seconds}&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
'''Figure 1''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun between two successive Bully timestamps. Timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI (International Atomic Time) on June 21, 1998'''. The sequential timestamp, '''8209 ED00 0001''', occurred exactly 3,055 seconds later at '''12:50:55 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. As shown in Figure 1, the Sun orbited a distance of roughly one solar radius during this 3,055-second period.

=== The Heliosphere ===
The heliosphere, it turns out, is not actually a sphere. As shown in '''Figure 2''', the heliosphere is a vast, oblong, tailed, bubble-like region that extends from the Sun into the surrounding space. The heliosphere is somewhat analogous to Earth's atmosphere, except that Earth's atmosphere is a comparatively thin layer of gas that remains near the Earth's surface. By comparison, the heliosphere is a plasma that is constantly blasted out into space due to the extreme heat and energy of the Sun.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_65536_Timestamps.png|thumb|right|450px|alt=Diagram showing the Sun traveling through the oblong shape of the heliosphere over a span of 16 to the 4th power timestamps.|'''Figure 2:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.]]

The heliosphere is very large. It is so vast that if it were truly spherical, its diameter would be on an order of magnitude similar to '''16&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; (65,536) solar radii'''. The digit in the '''fifth position''' in a Bully timestamp represents the time required for the Sun to orbit for '''6.344 years''', which covers a distance of approximately '''65,536 solar radii''', or roughly the diameter of one spherical heliosphere.

Figure 2 illustrates the orbit of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) over a period of 6.344 years. As explained previously, timestamp '''8209 ED00 0000''' is defined to have occurred at exactly '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Timestamp '''8209 ED01 0000''' therefore occurred roughly 6.344 years later at '''18:34:40 TAI on October 24, 2004'''.

Incidentally, the Voyager 1 spacecraft crossed into the heliosheath, as shown in Figure 2, on December 16th 2004. Both Voyager spacecraft (Voyager 1 and Voyager 2) have since crossed entirely out of the heliosphere and entered the surrounding interstellar space.

=== Naked Eye Stars ===
'''Figure 3a''' illustrates the physical movement of the Sun (Sun not drawn to scale) between 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; successive Bully timestamps. It is estimated that timestamp '''8209 0000 0000''' would have occurred roughly 383,000 B.C., and timestamp '''820A 0000 0000''' is estimated to occur around 33,000 A.D., for a total time lapse of '''416,000 years'''. The stacked histogram in Figure 3a has a red dashed line marking 96.83 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy and 96.83 parsecs is the distance the sun travels in 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. As indicated in the histogram, a large percentage of naked-eye stars are nearer to the sun than 96.83 parsecs, meaning that the appearance of the night sky completely changes over this timeframe.

[[File:Bully_Metric_Galactic_Orbit_4294967296_Timestamps.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=Diagram showing a stacked histogram of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars binned according to brightness and distance from the sun. A large percentage of these stars are closer to the sun than 16^8 R_☉, which is the distance that the sun travels in 16^8 Bully timestamps.|'''Figure 3a:''' Motion of the Sun during the passage of 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps. The included stacked histogram shows that a large percentage of &quot;Naked Eye&quot; stars are within this travel distance of the sun, 96.83 parsecs or 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt;.]]


[[Bully_Metric_Naked-Eye_Stars|Learn More About the Meaning of Naked-Eye Stars]]

== The Galactic Calendar ==
[[W:Andrea Ghez|Andrea Ghez]] and [[W:Reinhard Genzel|Reinhard Genzel]] were jointly awarded one-half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of a supermassive compact object—now universally known as the black hole Sagittarius A*—at the center of the Milky Way. Using the world’s largest telescopes, both teams observed stars whipping around an invisible, incredibly heavy mass at extreme speeds. One star, called S2, completes an orbit in just 16 years. Their calculations revealed that an entity of roughly 4 million solar masses is packed into an area no larger than our solar system, offering definitive evidence of a supermassive black hole.

By meticulously mapping the complete 3D elliptical orbits of stars over decades, Reinhard Genzel's research team calculated the exact distance to the Galactic Center to an unprecedented degree of accuracy. They narrowed the measurement down to an extremely precise [https://www.mpe.mpg.de/6588951/The-black-hole 8,275 parsecs] (or 26,990 light-years), with a margin of error of less than 1%. If the Sun were assumed to follow a perfectly circular orbit around Sagittarius A*, with a constant radial distance of 8,275 parsecs, the total circumference of that ideal orbit would be determined by multiplying the radius by 2π:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}
{\text{Circumference}} &amp;= 2\pi \times 8,275{\text{ parsecs}} \\
&amp;\approx 51,993{\text{ parsecs}}
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

If we divide this '''roughly 52,000-parsec''' idealized orbit into &quot;Galactic Weeks&quot;, where each week represents 1,000 parsecs of orbital travel, then a full Galactic Year would consist of 52 weeks. This beautifully mirrors the structure of an Earth year, which is also composed of roughly 52 weeks.

=== Idealized Galactic Years ===
Within the context of Bully timekeeping, an idealized '''Bully Galactic Year''' is defined to have a duration of exactly '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps''' (approximately 213 million years), and the Sun is assumed to follow an orbital path of exactly 52,000 parsecs. The table in '''Figure 4a''' illustrates the division of an idealized Galactic Year into 52 equal portions. The table shows the Bully timestamp at which each 1,000 parsecs of travel distance would be achieved in this idealized orbit.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 4a:''' The 66th Bully Galactic Calendar

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|1st Quarter}} || {{nowrap|2nd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|3rd Quarter}} || {{nowrap|4th Quarter}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 0}} || {{color|blue|''0 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt;'''{{nowrap|8200 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8280 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8300 0000 0000}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8380 0000 0000}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 1}} || {{color|blue|''1000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''14,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8289 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''27,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8309 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{color|blue|''40,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8389 D89D 89D8}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 2}} || {{color|blue|''2,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''15,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8293 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''28,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8313 B13B 13B1}}''' || {{color|blue|''41,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8393 B13B 13B1}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 3}} || {{color|blue|''3,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|821D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''16,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|829D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''29,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|831D 89D8 9D89}}''' || {{color|blue|''42,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|839D 89D8 9D89}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 4}} || {{color|blue|''4,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8227 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''17,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82A7 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''30,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8327 6276 2762}}''' || {{color|blue|''43,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83A7 6276 2762}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 5}} || {{color|blue|''5,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8231 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''18,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82B1 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''31,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8331 3B13 B13B}}''' || {{color|blue|''44,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83B1 3B13 B13B}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 6}} || {{color|blue|''6,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|823B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''19,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82BB 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''32,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|833B 13B1 3B13}}''' || {{color|blue|''45,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83BB 13B1 3B13}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 7}} || {{color|blue|''7,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8244 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''20,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82C4 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''33,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8344 EC4E C4EC}}''' || {{color|blue|''46,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83C4 EC4E C4EC}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 8}} || {{color|blue|''8,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|824E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''21,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82CE C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''34,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|834E C4EC 4EC4}}''' || {{color|blue|''47,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83CE C4EC 4EC4}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 9}} || {{color|blue|''9,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8258 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''22,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82D8 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''35,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8358 9D89 D89D}}''' || {{color|blue|''48,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83D8 9D89 D89D}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 10}} || {{color|blue|''10,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8262 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''23,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82E2 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''36,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8362 7627 6276}}''' || {{color|blue|''49,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83E2 7627 6276}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 11}} || {{color|blue|''11,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|826C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''24,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82EC 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''37,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|836C 4EC4 EC4E}}''' || {{color|blue|''50,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83EC 4EC4 EC4E}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|Week 12}} || {{color|blue|''12,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8276 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''25,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82F6 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''38,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|8376 2762 7627}}''' || {{color|blue|''51,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83F6 2762 7627}}'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | End of Quarter || {{color|blue|''13,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|827F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''26,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|82FF FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''39,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|837F FFFF FFFF}}''' || {{color|blue|''52,000 parsecs''}} &lt;br/&gt; '''{{nowrap|83FF FFFF FFFF}}'''
|}

Timestamps in the range '''8200 0000 0000''' through '''83FF FFFF FFFF''' indicate that the system is recording time within the '''66th Bully Galactic Year''' of the Universe. However, the Sun (and our solar system) did not come into existence until the 45th Bully Galactic Year, meaning our solar system is only '''21 Bully Galactic Years old'''.

==== Is a Galactic Calendar Realistic? ====
[[File:Sun_in_orbit_around_Galactic_Centre.gif|thumb|right|300px|alt=Diagram showing multiple stars moving along their respective orbital paths around the Galactic Center over a span of 250 million years.|'''Figure 4b:''' Stars orbiting around the Galactic Center during a 250 million-year time period.]]

The duration of time required for the Sun (or any other star) to orbit once around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy is not a fixed constant, but rather depends on the path a particular star follows as it orbits (see Figure 4b). Stars closer to the center orbit much more quickly than those on the outer edges. The stars shown in '''Figure 4b''' all eventually localize near the Sun despite having vastly different orbital trajectories, visually illustrating the long-term subtlety of galactic orbits.

Because the Sun’s deep-time trajectory is slightly chaotic and unpredictable, an operational offset will always exist between the passage of Bully time and physical observations of the Sun's galactic displacement. Therefore, while the table in '''Figure 4a''' states that one week ('''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''') corresponds to 1,000 parsecs of displacement, this relationship must be understood as an estimate.

In practice, even if the system were calibrated so that timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' perfectly aligned with the exact moment the Sun traveled 1,000 parsecs, this precise alignment would immediately begin to decay. The subsequent milestone at timestamp '''{{nowrap|8213 B13B 13B1}}''' would almost certainly not occur at the exact instant the Sun reached the 2,000-parsec mark.

==== Is the Bully system internally consistent? ====
Initially in this resource, the Sun was assumed to travel roughly one solar radius per 3,055-second timestamp. However, the Bully Galactic Calendar assumes exactly 52,000 parsecs of orbital travel per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps, which is a different orbital velocity.

Since the long-term orbital dynamics of the Sun are subject to gravitational perturbations, standard stellar movement is not perfectly uniform or predictive. The Sun's true orbital velocity will always be a topic of ongoing discovery and refinement. The previous conjectured value of '''1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp was just a useful assumption''' and not a reflection of a long-term stable physical reality. Similarly, the idealized Bully Calendar velocity of 52,000 parsecs per 2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps is a useful assumption to help visualize and conceptualize the Sun's orbit.

The table in '''Figure 4c''' illustrates how scaling the assumed baseline velocity from 1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp up to 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp aligns the highest digits with rounded integer multiples of the parsec length.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4c: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in  parsecs assuming  1 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance in parsecs assuming 1.0488227 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 396,635
| 416,000

|-
| 1 / 2
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 24,789.7
| 26,000.0

|-
| 1 / 32
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| 1,549.36
| 1,625.00

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2 × 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 52,000

|-
| 1 / 52
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1,000

|-
| 1 / 52,000
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; / 26,000'''
| style=&quot;color: #888;&quot; | N/A
| 1
|}

== Anchoring Bully Timestamps ==
To establish a rigid temporal framework, the Bully system is anchored by selecting timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' to coincide precisely with '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998'''. Following this initial anchoring, the progression of all subsequent Bully timestamps is maintained uniformly via terrestrial atomic clocks, advancing by exactly one unit every '''3,055 TAI seconds'''. The following subsections will explain why timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected and anchored near the '''June solstice in 1998'''.

=== The Galactic Ecliptic Node near Sagittarius ===
'''Figure 5a''' depicts the 6.98-degree angular separation that exists between Sagittarius A* (the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way) and the descending node of our Solar System’s [[W:Invariable_plane|Laplace invariable plane]] where it intersects the Galactic equator.

[[File:Sagittarius_A*_and_adjacent_Galactic_Ecliptic_Node.png|thumb|center|600px|alt=An educational image illustrating the 6.98-degree separation between Sagittarius A* and the adjacent Galactic Ecliptic Node. The Node, moving in concert with the Sun, shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination.|'''Figure 5a:''' A diagram showing the 6.98-degree angular separation between Sagittarius A* and the descending node of the Solar System's Laplace invariable plane.]]

As the Sun orbits the Galactic Center, the Galactic Ecliptic Node of the Solar System's invariable plane—moving in concert with the Sun—shifts away from Sagittarius A* at a rate of 2.70 mas (milliarcseconds) per year in right ascension and 5.60 mas per year in declination. From the perspective of the Sun, the node appears to be stationary, and the supermassive black hole appears to be moving in the opposite direction. In reality, it is the Solar System and the node that are moving.

==== A surrogate for the Sun ====
The path of the Solar System's Galactic Ecliptic Node as it shifts away from Sagittarius A* can be used as a surrogate to track the motion of the Sun. The node is currently located 6.9803° away from Sagittarius A*. The Sun's orbital travel distance is calculated by multiplying 6.9803° by the orbital radius (8,275 parsecs) and the ratio of radians to degrees (2π / 360°):

&lt;math&gt;
\begin{aligned}
d &amp;= 8,275 \text{ pc} \times 6.9803^\circ \times \left(\frac{2\pi}{360^\circ}\right) \\
&amp;\approx 1,008.14 \text{ pc}
\end{aligned}
&lt;/math&gt;

Based on this calculation, the Galactic Ecliptic Node—and by extension, the Sun—has traveled 1,008.14 parsecs in its orbit around the Galactic Center. According to the reference table in '''Figure 4a''', this 1,008.14-parsec distance falls beyond the 1,000-parsec milestone associated with timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''', indicating that we have completed the zeroth week of the 66th Bully Galactic Year.

To pinpoint a more exact location, the table in '''Figure 5b''' provides a finer-grained increment. Our Sun's 1,008.14-parsec travel distance is larger than the '''1,007.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''', but it is smaller than the '''1,008.87 parsecs''' corresponding to timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}'''. (Note: Figure 4a assumes an idealized travel distance of 52,000 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year, whereas Figure 5b uses the calculated distance of 51,993 parsecs per Bully Galactic Year.)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; text-align:center; max-width:300px;&quot;
|+ '''Figure 5b:''' Week one, 66th Galactic Year

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Year 66 &lt;br /&gt; Galactic
|| {{nowrap|Bully timestamp}} || Solar Distance Traveled
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|One Week}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 D89D 89D8}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''999.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.007 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EA42 7B31}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1006.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.008 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 ECC7 C23E}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1007.87 parsecs''}}}} 
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.009 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 EF4D 0949}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1008.87 parsecs''}}}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|1.010 Weeks}} ||'''{{nowrap|8209 F1D2 5056}}''' || {{nowrap|{{color|blue|''1009.87 parsecs''}}}}
|}

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = full| title  = Bully Timestamp Anchor| quote  = Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' was selected to be the timestamp anchor of the entire Bully system because it closely aligns with the 1,008.14-parsec orbital travel distance of the Sun (see table in Figure 5b).}}

=== Bullies in the Bully System ===
A planetary system's Laplace invariable plane passes through its barycenter (center of mass) and is strictly perpendicular to its total angular momentum vector. In our Solar System, the four giant planets account for 98% of this total angular momentum: Jupiter contributes the bulk at 60.3%, followed by Saturn (24.5%), Neptune (7.9%), and Uranus (5.3%). The individual descending node of each giant planet's ecliptic where it intersects the Galactic Equator is shown in '''Figure 5a''':

* '''Invariable Plane Node (+)''': Marked with a large plus sign.
* '''Jupiter (♃)''': Positioned slightly to the right of the invariable plane's node.
* '''Uranus (⛢)''': Positioned to the right of Jupiter.
* '''Saturn (♄)''': Positioned on the inner left.
* '''Neptune (♆)''': Positioned on the far left.

As noted in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the word &quot;bully&quot; had a positive connotation through much of history:
{{Blockquote|text=The earliest meaning of English bully was &quot;sweetheart&quot;. The word was probably borrowed from Dutch boel, &quot;lover&quot;. Later bully was used for anyone who seemed a good fellow, then for a blustering daredevil. Today, a bully is usually one whose claims to strength and courage are based on the intimidation of those who are weaker. “Bully.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bully. Accessed 19 Aug. 2026.}}

Large astronomical objects—such as Sagittarius A*, the Sun, and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn—can be thought of as bullies, both in the historical meaning of &quot;excellent&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; and in the modern meaning of being intimidating and threatening. 

{{Quote box| align  = center | width  = full | title  = The &quot;Bully&quot; Name | quote  = The specific &quot;bullies&quot; in the &quot;Bully&quot; timestamp system are [[w:Sagittarius A*|Sagittarius A*]], the [[w:Sun|Sun]], and the Solar System's [[w:Giant planet|giant planets]].}}

=== The Earth and Moon ===
The motions of the Earth and Moon are not suitable for precise, long-term time measurement due to deep time gravitational interactions. For example, tidal friction gradually slows the Earth's rotation and causes the Moon to drift farther away, making legacy day and month units unstable over millions of years. While the Bully timestamp system is not directly anchored to the motions of the Earth and Moon, it was developed with these motions in mind and incorporates a few of their unique characteristics.

==== Earth's sidereal year ====
The exact length of Earth's sidereal year is currently calculated to be '''31,558,149.76 seconds'''. This value can vary by 20 to 25 minutes from one year to the next due to gravitational tugs from neighboring planets; however, when these fluctuations are averaged out, the century-over-century lengthening is a mere 9.6 milliseconds. Given the relative stability and significance of Earth's sidereal year, there is utility in using a divisor of this year as the fundamental unit of the Bully timestamp system. Surprisingly, 3,055 seconds is an exact divisor of 31,558,150 seconds. Hence, Earth's sidereal year, rounded to the nearest second, equals '''exactly 10,330 Bully timestamps'''.

{{Quote box| align  = center| width  = 100%| title  = Bully Timestamp Duration
| quote  = {{ordered list
  | The Sun orbits one solar radius per Bully timestamp.
  | The Sun completes one Galactic orbit per 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; Bully timestamps.
  | The Bully timestamp is a divisor of Earth's sidereal year.
  }}
}}

==== Earth's tropical year ====
The Earth's tropical year, which measures the complete cycle of the seasons from one vernal equinox to the next, lasts '''31,556,925.2 seconds'''. Due to axial precession, the tropical year is roughly 1,224 seconds shorter than the sidereal year. The difference between sidereal and tropical year lengths is roughly 2/5 of a Bully timestamp, so the time required for 25,825 tropical years is roughly equivalent to 25,824 sidereal years.

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, \text{Sidereal Year} = 31,558,150 \, \text{Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, \text{Tropical Year} = 31,556,926 \, \text{Seconds} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt; 1 \, \text{Great Year} \approx 25,824 \, \text{Sidereal Years} \approx 25,825 \, \text{Tropical Years} &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math display=&quot;block&quot;&gt;1 \, \text{Galactic Year} \approx 8264 \, \text{Great Years} \approx 213,417,800 \, \text{Tropical Years} &lt;/math&gt;

The '''Bully Mnemonic''' is a technique for remembering the exact number of seconds that occur in Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_year sidereal year] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year tropical year], a good approximation of the Earth's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Year Great Year], and a rough approximation of the Solar System's [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_year galactic year]. Click on the following link to learn more about the Bully Mnemonic and the role it plays in the mathematical foundation of Bully timestamps.

* [[Bully Mnemonic |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic]]
* [[Bully Mnemonic Extension |Learn More About The Bully Mnemonic Extension]]

==== Earth's Seasons and Milky Way Visibility ====
In 1998 in the Northern Hemisphere, winter lasted 89 days, spring lasted 92 days and 18 hours, summer lasted 93 days and 15 hours, and autumn lasted 89 days and 21 hours. Summer was nearly five days longer than winter that year. As shown in '''Figure 5c''', this duration discrepancy will continue to increase for the next 1,500 years until summer is a full 94 days long and winter is less than 89 days.

The Earth's orbital speed is not constant throughout the year. The Earth moves more slowly during [[W:aphelion|aphelion]] and quickly during [[W:perihelion|perihelion]]. Therefore, whichever season is aligned with aphelion ends up being the longest because the Earth is moving slowly and takes longer to get through that season.

As shown in Figure 5c, winter was the longest season in the Northern Hemisphere (aligned with aphelion) back before 5,000 BCE. After that, it took approximately 5,250 years to cycle to spring being the longest season, and another 5,250 years to summer. While it is just beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that all four seasons will complete a full cycle once in a little over 21,000 years.

[[File:Earth_Seasons_and_Milky_Way_Visibility_Shifts_Over_Time.svg|thumb|center|600px|alt=Graph showing how the lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.|'''Figure 5c''': The lengths of Earth's seasons, and the season with best Milky Way visibility, shifts over time.]]

Currently, the Milky Way is easy to view during Northern Hemisphere summer months (which are winter months in the Southern Hemisphere). Going back in time prior to 1998, there was an era when the Milky Way would have been more visible during spring months in the north. Going even further back, the Milky Way would have been best viewed in northern winter (or southern summer). These seasonal shifts in Milky Way visibility are correlated with large dots in Figure 5c. 

The transition from spring to summer is correlated with a large green dot and a green banner indicating that astronomer Jean Meeus identified May 1998 CE as the precise moment when the Galactic Equator crossed the solstice points. A large red dot appears in 8329 CE to indicate the approximate crossing from summer to autumn, and a large blue dot, back in 4495 BCE, indicates the approximate crossing from winter to spring. The red and blue dots represent epochs when the coordinate latitude of the Sun, as viewed from Earth, is nearly zero in the ecliptic, celestial, and galactic coordinates at the same time. These large dots representing Galactic Equator crossings occur about once every 6,400 years. While it is beyond the range of the graph, it is clear that the Milky Way passes through all four seasons during a time period of roughly 25,000 years.

{{Quote box | align = center | width = 100% | title = Bully Time Anchor | quote = The time anchor of the entire Bully system was selected to be '''12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998''', which is near the 1998 June solstice. This date was selected as the anchor because it occurred one month after the May 1998 CE date that Jean Meeus identified as a Galactic crossing. The other Galactic crossings shown in Figure 5c, at 4495 BCE and 8329 CE, will also be roughly correlated with rounded Bully timestamps.
&lt;ol&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 E900 0000}}''' aligns with 4500 BCE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}}''' aligns with 1998 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
  &lt;li&gt;Bully timestamp '''{{nowrap|8209 F100 0000}}''' aligns with 8494 CE.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;
}}

==== The Metonic cycle ====
The '''Metonic cycle''' is a period of approximately 19 solar years, after which the Moon's phases recur on the same days of the year. For example, a New Moon occurred on July 23 in 1998, and nineteen years later, in 2017, a New Moon again occurred on July 23. The last four hex digits of the Bully timestamp cycle approximately three times per Metonic cycle as illustrated in the following list:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
July 23 New Moon Metonic Cycles
* July 23, 1998 — 8209 ED0'''0 038B'''
* July 23, 2017 — 8209 ED0'''3 0238'''
* July 23, 2036 — 8209 ED0'''6 00EA'''
&lt;/div&gt;


[[Bully_Metric_Metonic_cycle|Learn More About the Metonic Cycle in Bully Timestamps]]

==== The power of two ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 20px auto 40px auto; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: sans-serif;&quot;

|+ style=&quot;font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 8px;&quot; | Figure 4f: Distance Conversions to Parsecs

! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Time Duration&lt;/span&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: center; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;&gt;Orbital Distance (Parsecs)&lt;/span&gt;

|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Galactic Years&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Bully Timestamps&lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background-color: #f2f2f2;{{Text color default}}; text-align: left; padding: 10px;&quot; | &lt;small&gt; Distance assuming 1.048682 ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; per Bully timestamp &lt;/small&gt;

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 8
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;44&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;18.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 415,935

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;14.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 25,996

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt;''' = &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{32}&lt;/math&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;10.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' ≈ 1,624.74

|- style=&quot;background-color: #e6f2ff;{{Text color default}}; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | Off Nominal Values

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;15.666&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 51,991

|-
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;-15.666&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| style=&quot;text-align: left; padding: 8px;&quot; | '''2&lt;sup&gt;25.334&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| '''2&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''' = 1
|}

The '''first''', '''fifth''', and '''ninth''' digits in a Bully timestamp respectively represent 3,055 seconds, roughly 6.344 years, and approximately 416,000 years of orbit around the Milky Way galaxy. It is worth noting that the length 16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is remarkably close to 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds. In fact, these distances are so similar (differing by less than 0.35%) that one can estimate the ratio of the sun's orbital speed to the speed of light by dividing:
&amp;thinsp;
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{10^{10}}{16^8 \times 3055} \approx 0.076\%&lt;/math&gt;
&amp;thinsp;
Furthermore, these values (16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; and 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; light-seconds) are of the same order of magnitude as 100 parsecs, where a parsec (roughly 3.26 light-years) is a common length unit used in astronomy. To be precise, '''16&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; ''R''&lt;sub&gt;☉&lt;/sub&gt; is approximately 96.83 parsecs'''.

== Bully Timestamp Realization ==
Each Bully timestamp is '''realized''' exactly 3055 seconds TAI after the previous one.  However, since atomic clocks did not exist prior to the 1950's, any assignment of Bully timestamps prior to 1958 should be viewed as an '''estimate''' of how time might have transpired in the past, rather than an actual realization of Bully time. Similarly, any assignment of future timestamps should be viewed as an estimate of what may occur, rather than a realization. Bully timestamps should only be considered &quot;realized&quot; when time is measured with an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;. There have been over 700,000 realized Bully timestamps during the era of modern atomic time keeping (1958 AD ... present).

[[Bully_Metric_Realized_Timestamps|Learn More About Realized Bully Timestamps]]

=== Time Estimation Divisions ===
[[File:History-of-the-Universe With Bully Timestamps.jpg|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 1: History of the Universe with a few example Bully timestamps shown in red.]]
For the purpose of time estimation, the Bully system's time range is divided into three distinct sets:

==== First Set ====
* ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate time during the universe's formative period ('''Figure 1'''), spanning roughly 3 billion years beginning with the Big Bang. The following list highlights key events from selected timestamps during this formative era:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* First timestamp: ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Cosmic_inflation|Cosmic Inflation]]
** [[w:Baryogenesis|Baryogenesis]]
** [[w:Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis|Nucleosynthesis]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0000 EA00 0000}}''
** [[w:Decoupling_(cosmology)|Decoupling]]
** [[w:Recombination_(cosmology)|Recombination]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0100 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Star_formation|First Star Formation]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|0297 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:MoM-z14|Oldest Observed Galaxy]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==== Second Set ====
* ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'': Used to estimate cosmic look-back time ('''Figure 2'''), spanning from approximately 10.4 billion years ago to exactly 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998. Key milestones from the presolar through geological eras include:
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|3B00 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Murchison_meteorite|Oldest Presolar Grains]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5720 9000 0000}}''
** [[w:Hadean|Hadean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|5C2A 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Archean|Archean Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|6A8C 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Proterozoic|Proterozoic Eon Begins]]
* Approximately: ''{{mono|7D56 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Phanerozoic|Phanerozoic Eon Begins]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Geologic time scale - spiral - ICS colours (light) - path text.svg|frame|center|text-bottom|alt=Geologic time scale proportionally represented as a log-spiral. The image also shows some notable events in Earth's history and the general evolution of life.|thumb|Figure 2: The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as a [[w:Logarithmic_spiral|log-spiral]] with some major events in Earth's history. A [[w:megaannum|megaannum]]
 (Ma) represents one million (10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) years.]]

==== Third Set ====
* ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'': Used to estimate (and realize) future events. This set begins at precisely 12:00:00 TAI on June 21, 1998, and progresses forward for approximately 13.4 billion years.
&lt;div style=&quot;background-color: #f0f4f7;{{Text color default}}; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;&quot;&gt;
* Approximately: ''{{mono|B000 0000 0000}}''
** [[w:Sun#Life_phases|Death of Sun (main-sequence)]]
&lt;/div&gt;

=== Time Estimation Using Cosmic Redshift ===
In [[w:physics|physics]], a '''redshift''' is an increase in [[w:wavelength|wavelength]] (or a decrease in [[w:frequency|frequency]]) of [[w:electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic radiation]]. Cosmological redshifts are driven directly by the [[w:expansion of the universe|expansion of the universe]]. The redshift value is denoted by {{math|''z''}}, where the ratio of observed to emitted wavelength is {{math|1 + ''z''}}.

If the original wavelength of a radiation source is known, its cosmological redshift can reveal the light travel time. However, mapping redshift precisely to elapsed time requires an exact cosmological model. Ongoing measurement tension surrounding the [[w:Hubble constant|Hubble constant]] introduces uncertainty into calculations of the exact [[w:Age of the universe|age of the universe]] and distant stars.

This cosmological uncertainty directly affects the accuracy of assigning Bully timestamps. The table in Figure 3 contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. One column applies the local distance ladder framework from the '''SH0ES Team''' (corresponding to a younger universe estimate of 12.7 Gyr). The other utilizes cosmic microwave background data from the '''Planck Collaboration''' (yielding an older universe estimate of approximately 13.8 Gyr). Larger z values correspond with the more distant past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 3: Bully Timestamps for Selected Redshift Values Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;{{Text color default}};&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Redshift z &lt;br /&gt; (z = ∞ to 2)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};”&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = ∞ || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0000 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 18.0 || {{nowrap|01CC 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|01F4 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 15.0 || {{nowrap|0253 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0287 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 12.0 || {{nowrap|032D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|0374 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 9.0 || {{nowrap|04B5 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|051E 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 6.0 || {{nowrap|0809 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|08BB 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 3.0 || {{nowrap|1285 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1420 0000 0000}}
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;;{{Text color default}};&quot; | z = 2.0 || {{nowrap|1C4D 0000 0000}} || {{nowrap|1EC2 0000 0000}}
|}

The forward-progressing timestamps ''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'' are illustrated in Figure 4 (bottom of figure). By convention, these timestamps are assumed to begin at the Big Bang and progress forward for approximately three billion years.

[[File:Redshift-by-universe-age-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 4: Age of the Universe plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

Timestamps ''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' through ''{{mono|8200 0000 0000}}'' (top of Figure 4) measure &quot;lookback&quot; time anchored at timestamp ''8209 ED00 0000''. Because the total age of the universe is unfixed, the precise mathematical relationship between universal age and lookback time remains indefinite. Two different possible universe ages are shown with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

The data illustrated in Figure 5 is the same as is shown in Figure 4, but Figure 5 plots against lookback time on the x-axis, so in this plot the universe age is unfixed with the Planck Collaboration shown in red and the SH0ES Team shown in blue.

[[File:Redshift-by-lookback-time-H0-comparison.png|frame|center|alt=A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.|Figure 5: A cosmic lookback plot showing Bully timestamps mapped to cosmic redshift.]]

The table in Figure 6 is similar to the table in Figure 3, in that it contrasts two estimation tracks based on competing cosmological datasets. However, whereas the data in Figure 3 was for large z values, Figure 6 shows small z values. Smaller z values correspond with the recent past. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; width:100%; max-width:800px; font-size: small; font-family: monospace, monospace;&quot;
|+ Figure 6: Redshift Values for Selected Bully Timestamps Given Different Universe Age Estimates

|- style=&quot;background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}}; font-size: medium; font-weight: bold;&quot;
! style=&quot;padding: 10px; font-size: large;&quot; | Bully Timestamp &lt;br /&gt; (z = 1 to 0)
|| SHOES Team &lt;br /&gt; (12.7 Gyr) || Planck Collaboration &lt;br /&gt; (13.8 Gyr)
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|4000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.925134 || z = 0.796535
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|6000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.342787 || z = 0.308619
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8000 0000 0000}} || z = 0.016418 || z = 0.015093
|- style=&quot;font-size:small:small;background-color:#ffffff;{{Text color default}};&quot;
| style=&quot;font-weight: bold; background-color: #eaecf0;{{Text color default}};&quot; | {{nowrap|8209 ED00 0000}} || z ≈ 0.000000 || z ≈ 0.000000
|}

===  Time Estimation Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations ===
What does it mean when cosmologists state that the universe is approximately 13.8 billion years old? According to Einstein's theories of special and general relativity, time passes differently for each observer depending on their path through spacetime and the gravitational forces in their vicinity. How, then, can the universe have a single age? Shouldn't its age depend entirely on the observer's frame of reference?

The &quot;age of the universe&quot; cited by cosmologists is actually its maximum possible age. Among all paths an observer could take through spacetime, one specific trajectory maximizes elapsed time. This privileged frame of reference belongs to an observer who remains at rest relative to the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) and resides in a region of space with negligible matter. We will refer to this as the &quot;CMB rest frame.&quot;

Importantly, Bully timestamps are divided into three distinct sets, with only the first set (''{{mono|0000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|1FFF FFFF FFFF}}'') utilizing the CMB rest frame. Timestamps in the third set (''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|FFFF FFFF FFFF}}'') are realized using atomic clocks at sea level on Earth. Due to relativistic time dilation, these terrestrial clocks run slower than identically constructed clocks placed at rest in empty space. All &quot;realized&quot; Bully timestamps from 1958 to the present conform to Earth's sea-level frame of reference.

Furthermore, the &quot;estimated&quot; Bully timestamps in the second set (''{{mono|2000 0000 0000}}'' — ''{{mono|8209 ED00 0000}}'') are typically derived from the radioactive decay of samples found on or within the Earth; thus, these samples decay at a rate comparable to Earth's sea-level frame. The oldest timestamps in this second set come from presolar grains, which formed in different star systems prior to the emergence of our solar system. Because some of these samples may have traveled through space in frames of reference drastically different from Earth's current sea-level frame, the accuracy of these cosmic estimates is inherently limited.

[[Bully_Metric_CMB_Stabilized_Timestamps| Learn More About Relativistic and Cosmological Considerations]]

== Contextualized vs. Decontextualized Time ==

Local clocks and calendars reflect '''contextualized time''', which uses region-specific offsets from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) to align with physical reality. This time is &quot;contextual&quot; because it provides an intuitive sense of conditions at some specific geographic location; for instance, a traveler arriving in London at 4:00 a.m. can instinctively expect darkness and quiet streets. To maintain this alignment with Earth's natural cycles, UTC requires periodic &quot;leaps&quot; (seconds and years). In '''Figure 10''', the light blue line represents Earth's irregular rotation ('''UT1'''), while the dark blue line shows '''UTC''', which is manually adjusted with leap seconds to track UT1.

In contrast, standards such as International Atomic Time ('''TAI'''), Terrestrial Time ('''TT'''), and '''GPS time''' are '''decontextualized'''. They are independent of Earth's rotation, meaning they do not correspond to &quot;true time&quot; at any specific geographical location. Represented by the black lines in '''Figure 10''', these standards track a continuous, uniform interval measured by atomic clocks. This uninterrupted linearity is vital for scientific and technical systems, where the discontinuities introduced by leap seconds could lead to critical errors or system failures.

[[File:Bully Timestamps in relation to modern time keeping.png|frame|center|text-bottom|Figure 10: Modern Time Keeping]]

The various decontextualized standards currently in use are effectively &quot;frozen&quot; in the astronomical conditions present at the time of their deployment. Because long-term changes in Earth's motion are unpredictable, each system launched with a different initial offset. For example, when GPS was launched in 1980, the '''Delta T''' adjustment (TT-UTC) exceeded 51 seconds. In contrast, the 1972 LORAN-C upgrade began with an adjustment closer to 42 seconds. This historical discrepancy results in a permanent nine-second offset between GPS and LORAN-C. Similarly, LORAN-C remains offset from TAI (deployed in 1958) by exactly ten seconds.

The Bully timestamp system, shown on the far-right axis of '''Figure 10''', follows the same uniform, decontextualized logic as TAI and TT but avoids this &quot;legacy offset&quot; confusion. Unlike existing standards, Bully timestamps are not linked to others by a constant, arbitrary time offset. This independence ensures they are uniquely recognizable and impossible to misinterpret.

[[Bully_Metric_Timestamp_units|Learn More About Contextualized vs Decontextualized time]]

== Why do we need Bully timestamps? ==

All the timestamps in '''Figure 11''' refer to one single, simultaneous moment in time. The left frame illustrates the fragmentation of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) through time zones. For instance, on June 21, 1998, a UTC time of 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra, Ghana, was simultaneously 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. These time zone offsets are not based on science, but on '''political mandates''' that have resulted in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_UTC_offsets 38 distinct UTC offsets], including confusing half- and quarter-hour increments. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-right: 0; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;&quot;
|+ Figure 11: UTC Time Zones vs. Bully Timestamps.
|-
! Selected UTC Time Zones !! [https://gssc.esa.int/navipedia/index.php/Transformations_between_Time_Systems Decontextualized timestamps]
|-
| rowspan = 3 |
[[File:Timezone-boundary-builder_release_2023d.png|thumb|upright=1.0|
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 pm (JST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  7:59:29 pm (CST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  2:59:29 pm (EEST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 12:59:29 pm (IST)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at 11:59:29 am (GMT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  8:59:29 am (BRT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  4:59:29 am (PDT)&lt;/br&gt;
June 21, 1998 at  1:59:29 am (HST)&lt;/br&gt;
]]
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:32.184 (TT)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 12:00:00 (TAI)&lt;br/&gt;
06/21/1998 11:59:42 (GPS)
]]
|-
! Bully Timestamp
|-
||
[[File:WorldMap-Blank-Noborders.svg|thumb|8209 ED00 0000 (+ 0.000 sec)]]
|}

==== Legacy Decontextualized Timestamps ====

The decontextualized timestamps (TAI, TT, GPS) in the upper-right frame of '''Figure 11''' attempt to solve the UTC geographic fragmentation problem, yet they remain &quot;cluttered&quot; by Gregorian formatting. Applying a Gregorian date—which is built to track the Sun—to an atomic standard is a '''category error'''. Seeing three different timestamps share the same date while differing by several &quot;leap&quot; seconds is intellectually disorienting because the date has been stripped of its astronomical meaning. In these technical contexts, the Gregorian format is an artificial mask applied for convenience, hiding the true linear nature of time.

For scientific and technical applications, TAI and TT are often expressed via '''Modified Julian Date (MJD)'''—a continuous count of SI days since a fixed epoch. While MJD avoids Gregorian irregularities, it remains &quot;tethered&quot; to the 86,400-second day, a unit that is astronomically meaningless when decontextualized. Similarly, '''GPS time''' relies on a week-based count (since January 6, 1980), forcing a technical system to conform to an arbitrary seven-day cycle. Both systems are cumbersome &quot;hybrids&quot; that attempt to measure linear time using units designed for Earth’s rotation.

==== Decontextualized Bully Timestamps ====

The '''Bully Timestamp''', shown in the lower-right frame of '''Figure 11''', breaks the Gregorian formatting tether. It is a single, unique identifier that applies simultaneously to all locations on Earth because it is never adjusted for geography or orbital drift. For example, Bully timestamp {{mono|8209 ED00 0000}} was realized at the exact moment the UTC based clock read 11:59:29 a.m. in Accra and 8:59:29 p.m. in Tokyo. By discarding the baggage of weeks, days, and hours, the Bully timestamp emerges as the least ambiguous format for representing universal, decontextualized time.

Click on the below links for a comparison of current time in six time standards (local, UTC, GPS, Loran, and TAI), all displayed using traditional Gregorian format:

[http://www.leapsecond.com/m/gps.htm LeapSecond.com]

[https://www.ipses.com/eng/in-depth-analysis/standard-of-time-definition ipses.com]

[http://www.csgnetwork.com/multitimedisp.html csgnetwork.com]

== The Foundations of Bully Metric ==

The Bully Timestamp System was derived from the orbital periods of major Solar System bodies. Specifically, the duration of Earth's '''sidereal year''' (~31,558,150 seconds) is roughly equal to &lt;math&gt;10,330 \times 3,055&lt;/math&gt; SI seconds. This foundational constant—3,055 seconds—serves as the building block for the Bully timestamp system.

The name &quot;Bully&quot; is a dual-reference to the massive astronomical objects that define our local spacetime. In an archaic sense, &quot;bully&quot; means '''&quot;beautiful&quot; or &quot;excellent,&quot;''' describing the celestial harmony of the cosmos. In the modern sense, it refers to the '''dominance and gravitational influence''' of &quot;bullies&quot; like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A* Sagittarius A*], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun Sun], and giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. These massive bodies dictate the motion of everything around them, serving as the physical anchors for the Bully Metric system.

* [[Bully_Metric_Foundations|Learn More About The Foundations of Bully Metric]]
* [[Bully_Metric_Astronomical_Coordinates|Learn More About The Bully Metric Coordinate System]]</text>
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    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-determination theory and social media use</title>
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      <text bytes="31837" sha1="kz2wr9lz11pzcmv3efcz1uffr7bv1ll" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Self-determination theory and social media use:&lt;br&gt;How do basic psychological needs explain patterns of social media engagement?}}__TOC__

==Overview==
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[[File:Social media icons (rubin-Social-media-icons-2x).tiff|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1.''' Social media networks. ''(Author note: Alternatively use image of person using social medi''|right]]

'''Consider this scenario'''

You’re taking a quick study break and plan to make a cup of tea. While the kettle boils, you hear a ding and check an Instagram notification, replying to a friend and feeling briefly connected (see Figure 1). You spot a reel on psychology and self-determination theory and choose to watch, telling yourself it’s still related to your studies. But then the algorithm pulls you in. Psychology reels lead to study hacks, then lifestyle tips, then memes, then sheep jumping in fields. You come across a scrolling check-in video and quickly swipe down to keep scrolling. You stop noticing what you're choosing. Thirty minutes pass. Your tea is cold. You started in control, with purpose and feeling connected. Now it’s unclear what you were looking for and you feel less motivated to study. You didn’t mean to spend so long. Where did the time go?

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This chapter explores [[w:Self-determination_theory|self-determination theory]] (SDT) and how basic psychological needs (BPNs) according to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Basic psychological need theory|basic psychological need theory]] (BPNT) can explain patterns of social media engagement. Social media is becoming increasingly intertwined with (deeply &lt;u&gt;embedded in&lt;/u&gt;) everyday life, influencing how people communicate, relate &lt;u&gt;(to one another),&lt;/u&gt; and see the world and themselves/present themselves &lt;u&gt;--&gt; and at a fundamental level how people think, feel, and act/behave&lt;/u&gt; (&lt;u&gt;ref&lt;/u&gt;). 

* Pervasiveness of social media. Social media is deeply embedded in everyday life, influencing how people connect, communicate, and present themselves.
* The problem. While social media offers benefits like connection and self-expression, it is also linked to negative outcomes such as anxiety, low self-esteem, and poor well-being, particularly with excessive or unbalanced use.
* The need for psychological science. Understanding why people engage with social media and how it affects their mental health requires a psychological science perspective with relevant theories and evidence explaining the link between social media, motivation and well-being.
* Introduction to Self-Determination Theory (SDT). SDT is a well-established motivation theory that helps explain human behaviour by focusing on the satisfaction of three core psychological needs.
* Basic Psychological Need Theory (BPNT). A mini-theory of SDT, BPNT identifies three universal psychological needs: Autonomy (the need to feel in control), competence (the need to feel capable and effective), and relatedness (the need to feel socially connected and a sense of belonging) (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). These BPNs are drivers of human behaviour and motivation.
* How social media interacts with these needs. Social media can support these needs. It can also frustrate them (e.g. comparison or social pressure)
* The role of design. Social media platforms are intentionally designed to engage users by targeting these psychological needs
* Why this matters. Applying SDT offers a deeper understanding of social media engagement and highlights ways to promote healthier, more intentional use that supports well-being.
* [[psychological needs]]
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'''Focus questions'''

* What is the relationship between social media, motivation and well-being?
* What psychological processes underpin social media design and patterns of engagement?
* What is self-determination theory?
* What are basic psychological needs according to self-determination theory?
* How do basic psychological needs explain patterns of social media engagement?
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== Social media, motivation and well-being ==
'''Focus question''': What is the relationship between social media, motivation and well-being?

Global prevalence of social media and integration into daily lives. The evolving landscape of digital technology including social media, also called social network sites (SNS), means virtual realms are increasingly integrated into everyday life and create new pathways for engagement and interaction. Excessive social media use poses significant concerns and consequences at individual and societal levels.

Distinguish between social media use and [[w:Problematic_social_media_use|problematic social media use]] which is associated with internet addiction disorder, a form of behavioural addiction (ref).

* Social media use is directly linked to screentime use as well as smartphone use. Statistics show social media is primarily accessed via smartphones (references). To find out more check out this chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Mobile phone use motivation|mobile phone use motivation]].
* ''Author note: Expand on or link to issues of social media engagement and patterns of engagement. Focus on how social media impacts wellbeing and the psychological impacts of social media use.''
* There is a growing body of research examining the relationship between social media and well-being with motivation a key element linking drivers of social media engagement. Need for research using theoretical frameworks.
* Social relationships are at the heart of social media. These platforms were designed to help people communicate, stay in touch with friends and family, and share information. While their original purpose may have been to support social connection, social media has since evolved into a powerful tool with an attention-based based business model (Montag et al., 2021).
* Studies have shown social media can have both a positive and negative impact on well-being (Parent, 2023; West et al., 2024). Understanding what motivates people to use social media is critical to understanding how social media impacts well-being and what can be done to promote healthy social media use.
* [[Motivation]] is the energy for action (Ed Deci...)... quality of behavior not quantity of behavior

* The average person spends 145 minutes per day on social media (ref).
* Short-form videos are the most engaging content form on social media often being under 1 minute in length, capture attention due to bite-sized format (ref)
* Majority social media users access social media via mobile phones, increasing social medias accessibility and prevalence in everyday life.
* Demographic youth and young adult's social media usage skewed toward younger demographics with 
* &quot;Correlation between social media and depression for adolescents&quot; Time spent e.g. &quot;Adolescents who spend more than 3 hours a day have an increased risk of mental health struggles.&quot;
* Intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation --&gt; link to BPNs and intrinsic motivation&lt;br /&gt;
== The psychology behind social media design and patterns of engagement ==
[[File:Social media integration and central role in everyday life - media networks and connection.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure #.''' Intergration and central role of social media in everyday life. Social media is increasingly becoming interwoven with everyday life, social connection and belongin]]'''Focus question:''' What psychological processes underpin social media design and patterns of engagement?

* Understanding the psychology behind social media design is important as it informs patterns of social media engagement and the psychological processes social media is designed to act on.
* ''Author note: Research more into psychological processes and possibly principles behind social media design and that are targeted when people use social media. While potentially not necessary, this section provides the opportunity to expand on the problem, how social media is closely, possibly intrinsically, linked to psychology and psychological science, briefly look at how other theories or aspects of motivation relate to social media, and lead into why self-determination theory and BPNT is a suitable (or the best/ideal) lens through which explain patterns of social media engagement.''

=== Social media design ===
* Social media is intentionally designed to capture one's/people's attention and hold it for as long as possible and includes addictive features (Montag et al., 2019).
* Also consider physiological and neurological processes that social media is designed to engage e.g. dopamine cycle
* Reward-seeking, social validation etc.
* Discuss theoretical and psychological underpinnings behind social media design and how it connects with psychological science, self-determination theory, BPNT, motivation and therefore why psychology can be used to understand engagement patterns. --&gt; ''potentially move above self-determination theory section''

=== Patterns of social media engagement ===

* Social media engagement is multi-dimensional and concerns affective, cognitive, and behaviour dimensions (Trunfio and Rossi, 2021).
* The Consumer Online Brand Related Activities Model (COBRA) is a conceptual tool used to classify and interpret social media engagement with brands and differentiates between three levels: consumption, contribution and creation (Schivinski et al., 2016). These levels of social media engagement encompass various actions including viewing, liking, sharing, commenting, and content creation (Trufino &amp; Rossi, 2021).
* Expand on problematic social media use compared to healthy patterns of social media engagement.
* ''Author note: Potentially split this section between sections: Social media, motivation and well-being AND basic psychological needs and social media engagement.''

== Self-determination theory ==
'''Focus question:''' What is self-determination theory?[[File:Self-Determination-Theory-Visual 1.png|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Self-determination theory.|400x400px]][[Self-determination theory]] (SDT) is a key theory of [[w:Motivation|motivation]], playing a central role in [[w:Psychology|psychology]] and empirical studies on motivation (Ryan et al., 2021). SDT highlights human capacities and innate resources for behavioural self-regulation and personality development (Ryan et al., 2021).
* A key component of self-determination theory is the sub-theory basic psychological need theory (see Figure 2).
* SDT was first developed by Ryan and Deci and has since been widely used in research and evidence-based application across diverse fields such as health care, education, work, sport, technology use, psychotherapy, parenting, developmental and organisation psychology (Ryan et al., 2021).
* SDT is a well-established and robust theory, recognised for its universality/as a universal theory across cultures and domains (Ryan et al., 2021). Multi-dimensional wellbeing framework.
* SDT divides motivation into two categories: [[w:Intrinsic_motivation|intrinsic motivation]] and [[w:Extrinsic_motivation|extrinsic motivation]] (Ryan et al., 2021).
* Autonomous (intrinsic and extrinsic motivation) and controlled motivation.

* Possibly include figure of &quot;Self-determination theory's taxonomy of motivation&quot; (see Figure 3).
* Motivation is the and is related to activation and intention (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2000).
* SDT is comprised of six mini-theories: cognitive evaluation theory (CET), organismic integration theory (OIT), causality orientations theory (COT), basic psychological needs theory (BPNT), goal contents theory (GCT), and relationships motivation theory (RMT) (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2017).
[[File:Amp-55-1-68-fig1a.gif|center|thumb|758x758px|'''Figure 3.''' Self-determination theory's taxonomy of motivation. ]]

== Basic psychological need theory ==
'''Focus question:''' What are basic psychological needs according to self-determination theory?

Basic psychological need theory (BPNT) is a mini theory/sub-theory within the SDT framework (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). BPNT posits humans have three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2000) (see Figure 4). Psychological needs are critical resources underlying the inherent desires to engage with the environmental to advance personal growth, social development, self-organisation, and psychological well-being (Reeve, 2018; Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). According to BPNT BPNs are universal and must be satisfied for &lt;u&gt;(are crucial to)&lt;/u&gt; optimal well-being and performance, and if unsatisfied leads to negative consequences such as ill-being (Ryan et al., 2021). BPNT emphasises the importance of creating optimal circumstances to support peoples' basic psychological needs, with social and sociocultural contexts being a key/the main avenue for nurturing or thwarting needs (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). BPNs drive human behaviour being intrinsically linked to motivation. 


According to BPNT, a need must meet nine conceptual and empirical criteria. The basic criteria dictate a need must be psychological, essential, inherent, distinct, and universal. The associated criteria state a need must also be pervasive, content-specific, directional, and explanatory (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020).[[File:Basic needs.png|thumb|'''Figure 4.''' Theory of basic psychological needs.  &quot;'''Figure 1'''. The three basic psychological needs proposed by self-determination theory are considered essential ingredients for intrinsic motivation and psychological well-being.&quot;]]
* Ryan and Deci (2000) define basic needs as energising states which when satisfied contribute toward health and well-being, however if unsatisfied lead to ill-being.
* BPNT initially
* &quot;Drivers of human action essential for psychological growth and activity&quot;
* Basic needs drive behaviour in order to satisfy/fulfill said needs.
* &quot;Basic psychological needs important motivational tools...&quot;
* BPNT relevant in social and non-social contexts.
* Universal psychological nutrients (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2017).
* &quot;Intrinsic motivation is fostered by conditions which support autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Lecture 4)&quot;
=== Autonomy ===
Autonomy refers to the psychological need to experience willingness, volition, and self-organisation (Ryan et al., 2021; Vansteenkiste et al., 2020).

&quot;...refers to the capacity to make informed and independent decisions.&quot;
* Autonomy is satisfied when actions, thoughts and feelings are self-endorsed and authentic creating the experience of integrity (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020).
* Autonomy is frustrated when conflict or pressure is felt that opposes one volition (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020).
* Autonomy support: their perspective, self-initiation, choice, explore, and rationale. 

=== Competence ===

* Competence is the psychological need to experience effectiveness and mastery (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020).
* &quot;...ability to do task effectively and efficiently.. improves task performance --&gt; task mastery. 
* Competence is satisfied when one is able to utilise and develop skills and expertise (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). &quot;...engaging in activities on can make use of their skills and expertise.&quot;
* Competence is frustrated by experiences of failure, ineffectiveness, and helplessness (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020).
=== Relatedness ===

* Relatedness refers to is the psychological need to experience bonding, care, and warmth from others (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020).
* &quot;..need for connection, satisfied through bonding and care.&quot;
* Relatedness is closely tied to relationships and social connection and is satisfied by feeling connected to others (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020).
*Relatedness is frustrated by social exclusion, social alienation, and loneliness (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020).
*

== Basic psychological need satisfaction and frustration ==
* Expression of basic psychological needs varies across cultures due to the internalisation and integration of cultural values and behaviours facilitating need satisfaction (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2000).
* Need satisfaction is foundational for wellness and healthy functioning (Ryan et al., 2021).
* Need frustration is detrimental to well-being and diminishes integrity (Ryan et al., 2021).

=== Need satisfaction and need support ===
* SDT and BPNT are primarily concerned with fostering human growth and wellness through need satisfaction and need support (Vansteenkiste &amp; Ryan, 2013).
* The satisfaction of basic needs is facilitated by need supportive environments and promotes wellness, the development of inner resources, and resilience (Vansteenkiste &amp; Ryan, 2013).
* Satisfaction's role in motivation is to energise and sustain intrinsic motivation and internalisation (Ryan et al., 2021).

=== Need frustration and need thwarting ===
* Need frustration and need thwarting are associated with negative outcomes such as ill-being, self-control breakdowns, constricted functioning, externalising problems and increased defensive and immoral functioning (Vansteenkiste &amp; Ryan, 2013).
* &quot;...emotional response to opposition.&quot; 
* Need frustration and need thwarting are worse than the absence of need satisfaction and need support (Vansteenkiste &amp; Ryan, 2013).
* Needs frustration diminishes the energisation and sustenance of intrinsic motivation and internalisation, and elicits defiance (Ryan et al., 2021).
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{Basic psychological need theory says that humans have three basic needs that are essential for motivation and well-being. 
Which of the following is not one of these three needs?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Confidence
- Autonomy

{Imagine someone shares an idea for a group project and others in the group ignore them or talk over them. 
Is this likely to support or thwart their need for relatedness?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Support
+ Thwart
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== Basic psychological needs and social media engagement ==
'''Focus question:''' How do basic psychological needs explain patterns of social media engagement?

BPNT can help explain patterns of social media engagement... (ref).

Social media creates unique social contexts which 

Different factors of social media engagement can contribute to basic psychological need satisfaction and frustration including intra-personal, inter-personal, situational and environmental factors (West et al., 2024)

The first scoping review examining the relationship between social media use and well-being in adolescents through a SDT lens found social media use can be both beneficial and detrimental to satisfying basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness (West et al., 2024). Figure # represents how engagement with social media can satisfy BPNs supporting well-being, performance, and growth, however unfulfilled needs are not conducive for individuals to thrive.
*Table 1 shows examples of
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[[File:Social media use impact girls mental health plants thrive or wilt raw.png|left|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure #''': Impact of social media use on mental health and basic psychological needs. Plants represent thriving and fulfillment of needs vs frustration of needs ([[ccorg:licenses/by-sa/4.0|Mercy Canning, CC BY-SA 4.0]], via Wikimedia Commons).]]

=== Autonomy and social media engagement ===

* Social media supports autonomy by creating a ''(enabling one to experience a)'' sense of control, self-governance and personal agency (West et al., 2024).
* Social media has the potential to influence autonomy through identity development (West et al., 2024).
* Social media can challenge and threaten autonomy as choices and actions may be constrained or limited and individuals may be susceptible to other people's actions such as controlling behaviours (West et al., 2024).
* Expand on need satisfaction and support for autonomy
*Expand on need frustration and thwarting for autonomy
Passive social media use is associated with lower autonomy and ill-being (ref)

=== Competence and social media engagement ===

* Sense of self can be positively or negatively impacted by social media (West et al., 2024). Areas related to sense of self that may be influenced by social media include self-esteem, confidence, self-concept, social competence... 
* Other areas impacted by social media include learning, digital competence (West et al., 2024). 
* The impact of social media on competence is consistent with other basic psychological needs in that social media may support or thwart competence (West et al., 2024)
* A study by West, Rice and Vell-Brodick (2023) found social media contributes to adolescent's experience of unique challenges regarding competence and identified two broad themes: cultivating competence and constraining competence.
* Expand on need satisfaction and support for competence
*Expand on need frustration and thwarting for competence
[[File:Social media positive &amp; negative effects on mental health &amp; well-being.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure ##.''' Description.]]

=== Relatedness and social media engagement ===

* Social media plays a key role in satisfying and frustrating the basic psychological need of relatedness (West et al., 2024). 
* Social media may be used to experience a sense of belonging and acceptance (West et al., 2024). 
* Social media enables parasocial relationships. Social media can support well-being when used for self-disclosure.

*Expand on need satisfaction and support for relatedness
*Expand on need frustration and thwarting for relatedness
*(see Table 1) organise and summarise info 
'''Table 1.''' 

Basic Psychological Needs Role in Motivation and Influence on Social Media Patterns of Engagement 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Basic psychological need element
!Role in motivation
!Applied to social media engagement
|-
|[[w:Autonomy|'''Autonomy''']]
|
|
|-
|'''[[w:Competence|Competence]]'''
|
|
|-
|'''Relatedness'''
|Social connection

*

*
|
|}
''Author note: Either incorporate need satisfaction and frustration under related basic need level 1 sub-headings as two separate paragraphs (with or without level 2 sub-heading) OR create new major heading addressing need satisfaction and frustration. However, basic psychological needs explaining social media use naturally addresses satisfaction and frustration while explain how each basic need is related to social media. Consider structuring paragraphs under level 1 sub-heading by topic rather than needs satisfaction and frustration e.g. different types of competence social media influences such as sense of self and digital competence.''

''Author note:'' Potentially add case studies or examples of patterns of social media use explained by basic psychological needs for key age groups across the lifespan. Alternatively, case studies or examples in different environments/contexts.

* Case study on youth/adolescents
* Case study on university students
* Case study on adults or elderly adults


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''Author note: Potentially add additional major heading and section focused on action orientated tips for healthy social media use that satisfies and supports basic needs and wellness.''


'''How to engage with social media to promote health and well-being through satisfaction of basic psychological needs'''

* Limiting social media use
* Use social media as an avenue for connection with friends and family while also prioritising connection with others in real-life face-to-face ways.
* Setting clear goals and motives for social media use
* Using social media as a creative outlet
* If you get struck 


'''Potential solutions?''' &quot;Limiting social media time, increasing media literacy and redesigning platforms might be keys to healthier digital interactions to counter this troubling trend. (Forbes).&quot; 

==Conclusion==
* Social media use is a prevalent part of daily life for many people. Linked to increase in technology.
* SDT, specifically BPNT, helps explain social media patterns of engagement.

* Social media is deeply embedded in everyday life, offering opportunities to connect, express, and engage, but it also brings significant risks to mental health and well-being. 
* Psychological science, particularly SDT and BPNT, helps explain the complex relationship between social media, motivation, and well-being. According to BPNT, all humans have three basic psychological needs which are essential for psychological wellness and optimal performance: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. 
* Social media can support these needs by allowing users to make choices, build skills, and feel connected. However, it can also frustrate or thwart these needs, such as when users experience pressure, comparison, exclusion, or lack of control.
* The psychological processes behind social media design act on these basic needs and influence patterns of engagement that may feel rewarding but can become problematic over time. 
* Understanding underlying mechanisms of social media can help individuals and society make more informed, intentional decisions about how to engage with social media.
* Rather than framing social media as entirely good or bad, SDT provides a lens through which to understand its effects. 
* Supporting autonomy, competence, and relatedness is key to promoting healthy, self-determined social media use and enhancing overall well-being in a digital world.
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}'''Take-home messages'''
* Message{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Autonomy and intrinsic motivation in self-determination theory|Autonomy and intrinsic motivation in self-determination theory]] (Book chapter, 2025) 
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Basic psychological need theory|Basic psychological need theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) - TBC if keep*
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Frustration of basic psychological needs|Frustration of basic psychological needs]] (Book chapter, 2021) - TBC if keep*
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2013)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Mobile phone use motivation|Mobile phone use motivation]] (Book chapter, 2025)
* [[w:Self-determination_theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Grubbs, J. B., Tóth-Király, I., Nagy, L., Koós, M., Kraus, S. W., Demetrovics, Z., Potenza, M. N., Ballester-Arnal, R., Batthyány, D., Bergeron, S., Billieux, J., Briken, P., Burkauskas, J., Cárdenas-López, G., Carvalho, J., Castro-Calvo, J., Chen, L., Strong, C., Ciocca, G., … Bőthe, B. (2025). Basic psychological needs satisfaction: An international examination of invariance across 22 languages and 32 countries. ''Motivation and Emotion'', ''49''(5), 552–574. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-025-10151-z

Montag, C., Lachmann, B., Herrlich, M., &amp; Zweig, K. (2019). Addictive features of social media/messenger platforms and freemium games against the background of psychological and economic theories. ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'', ''16''(14), 2612. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16142612

Parent, N. (2023). Basic need satisfaction through social media engagement: A developmental framework for understanding adolescent social media use. ''Human Development'', ''67''(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1159/000529449 

Ryan, R. M., &amp; Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. ''The American Psychologist'', ''55''(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68

Ryan, R. M., &amp; Deci, E. L. (2018). ''Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness''. The Guildford Press.

Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L., Vansteenkiste, M., &amp; Soenens, B. (2021). Building a science of motivated persons: Self-determination theory’s empirical approach to human experience and the regulation of behavior. ''Motivation Science'', ''7''(2), 97–110. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000194

Schivinski, B., Christodoulides, G., &amp; Dabrowski, D. (2016). Measuring consumers’ engagement with brand-related social-media content. ''Journal of Advertising Research'', ''56''(1), 64–80. https://doi.org/10.2501/JAR-2016-004

Trunfio, M., &amp; Rossi, S. (2021). Conceptualising and measuring social media engagement: A systematic literature review. ''Italian Journal of Marketing'', ''2021''(3), 267–292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43039-021-00035-8

Vansteenkiste, M., &amp; Ryan, R. M. (2013). On psychological growth and vulnerability: Basic psychological need satisfaction and need frustration as a unifying principle. ''Journal of Psychotherapy Integration'', ''23''(3), 263–280. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032359

Vansteenkiste, M., Ryan, R. M., &amp; Soenens, B. (2020). Basic psychological need theory: Advancements, critical themes, and future directions. ''Motivation and Emotion'', ''44''(1), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-019-09818-1

West, M., Rice, S., &amp; Vella-Brodrick, D. (2023). Adolescent social media use: Cultivating and constraining competence. ''International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being'', ''18''(1), 2277623. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482631.2023.2277623 

West, M., Rice, S., &amp; Vella-Brodrick, D. (2024). Adolescent social media use through a self-determination theory lens: A systematic scoping review. ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'', ''21''(7), 862. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21070862

}}
==External links==
* [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/topics/application-basic-psychological-needs/ Basic psychological needs] (Center for Self-Determination Theory)
* [https://wearesocial.com/uk/blog/2025/10/digital-2026-global-overview-report/ Digital 2026 global overview report] (We Are Social)
* [https://www.ted.com/talks/margaret_gould_stewart_how_giant_websites_design_for_you_and_a_billion_others_too?referrer=playlist-how_did_the_internet_take_over_our_lives&amp;autoplay=true How giant websites design for you (and a billion others, too), Margaret Gould Stewart] (TED Talk, 2014) - TBC keep*
* [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (Center for Self-Determination Theory)
* [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/mental-health/Social-media Social media and mental health] (Beyond Blue)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4TMPXK9tw5U The battle for your time: Exposing the costs of social media, Dino Ambrosi] (TEDx Laguna Blanca School, 2023)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I&amp;t=2s Promoting motivation, health, and excellence, Ed Deci] (TEDx Flour City, 2012) - TBC keep*
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m6fm1gt5YAM Edward Deci - Self-determination theory] (The Brainwaves Video Anthology, 2017) - TBC keep*
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==Overview==
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[[File:Social media icons (rubin-Social-media-icons-2x).tiff|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1.''' Social media networks. ''(Author note: Alternatively use image of person using social medi''|right]]

'''Consider this scenario'''

You’re taking a quick study break and plan to make a cup of tea. While the kettle boils, you hear a ding and it is an Instagram notification showing that your friend has sent you a message. You then reply to that friend feeling briefly connected (see Figure 1). You spot a reel on psychology and self-determination theory and choose to watch, telling yourself it’s still related to your studies. But then the algorithm pulls you in. Psychology reels lead to study hacks, then lifestyle tips, then memes, then sheep jumping in fields. You come across a scrolling check-in video and quickly swipe down to keep scrolling. You stop noticing what you're choosing. Thirty minutes pass. Your tea is cold. You started in control, with purpose and feeling connected. Now it’s unclear what you were looking for and you feel less motivated to study. You didn’t mean to spend so long. Where did the time go?

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This chapter explores [[w:Self-determination_theory|self-determination theory]] (SDT) and how basic psychological needs (BPNs) according to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Basic psychological need theory|basic psychological need theory]] (BPNT) can explain patterns of social media engagement. Social media is becoming increasingly intertwined with (deeply &lt;u&gt;embedded in&lt;/u&gt;) everyday life, influencing how people communicate, relate &lt;u&gt;(to one another),&lt;/u&gt; and see the world and themselves/present themselves &lt;u&gt;--&gt; and at a fundamental level how people think, feel, and act/behave&lt;/u&gt; (&lt;u&gt;ref&lt;/u&gt;). 

* Pervasiveness of social media. Social media is deeply embedded in everyday life, influencing how people connect, communicate, and present themselves.
* The problem. While social media offers benefits like connection and self-expression, it is also linked to negative outcomes such as anxiety, low self-esteem, and poor well-being, particularly with excessive or unbalanced use.
* The need for psychological science. Understanding why people engage with social media and how it affects their mental health requires a psychological science perspective with relevant theories and evidence explaining the link between social media, motivation and well-being.
* Introduction to Self-Determination Theory (SDT). SDT is a well-established motivation theory that helps explain human behaviour by focusing on the satisfaction of three core psychological needs.
* Basic Psychological Need Theory (BPNT). A mini-theory of SDT, BPNT identifies three universal psychological needs: Autonomy (the need to feel in control), competence (the need to feel capable and effective), and relatedness (the need to feel socially connected and a sense of belonging) (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). These BPNs are drivers of human behaviour and motivation.
* How social media interacts with these needs. Social media can support these needs. It can also frustrate them (e.g. comparison or social pressure)
* The role of design. Social media platforms are intentionally designed to engage users by targeting these psychological needs
* Why this matters. Applying SDT offers a deeper understanding of social media engagement and highlights ways to promote healthier, more intentional use that supports well-being.
* [[psychological needs]]
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'''Focus questions'''

* What is the relationship between social media, motivation and well-being?
* What psychological processes underpin social media design and patterns of engagement?
* What is self-determination theory?
* What are basic psychological needs according to self-determination theory?
* How do basic psychological needs explain patterns of social media engagement?
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== Social media, motivation and well-being ==
'''Focus question''': What is the relationship between social media, motivation and well-being?

Global prevalence of social media and integration into daily lives. The evolving landscape of digital technology including social media, also called social network sites (SNS), means virtual realms are increasingly integrated into everyday life and create new pathways for engagement and interaction. Excessive social media use poses significant concerns and consequences at individual and societal levels.

Distinguish between social media use and [[w:Problematic_social_media_use|problematic social media use]] which is associated with internet addiction disorder, a form of behavioural addiction (ref).

* Social media use is directly linked to screentime use as well as smartphone use. Statistics show social media is primarily accessed via smartphones (references). To find out more check out this chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Mobile phone use motivation|mobile phone use motivation]].
* ''Author note: Expand on or link to issues of social media engagement and patterns of engagement. Focus on how social media impacts wellbeing and the psychological impacts of social media use.''
* There is a growing body of research examining the relationship between social media and well-being with motivation a key element linking drivers of social media engagement. Need for research using theoretical frameworks.
* Social relationships are at the heart of social media. These platforms were designed to help people communicate, stay in touch with friends and family, and share information. While their original purpose may have been to support social connection, social media has since evolved into a powerful tool with an attention-based based business model (Montag et al., 2021).
* Studies have shown social media can have both a positive and negative impact on well-being (Parent, 2023; West et al., 2024). Understanding what motivates people to use social media is critical to understanding how social media impacts well-being and what can be done to promote healthy social media use.
* [[Motivation]] is the energy for action (Ed Deci...)... quality of behavior not quantity of behavior

* The average person spends 145 minutes per day on social media (ref).
* Short-form videos are the most engaging content form on social media often being under 1 minute in length, capture attention due to bite-sized format (ref)
* Majority social media users access social media via mobile phones, increasing social medias accessibility and prevalence in everyday life.
* Demographic youth and young adult's social media usage skewed toward younger demographics with 
* &quot;Correlation between social media and depression for adolescents&quot; Time spent e.g. &quot;Adolescents who spend more than 3 hours a day have an increased risk of mental health struggles.&quot;
* Intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation --&gt; link to BPNs and intrinsic motivation&lt;br /&gt;
== The psychology behind social media design and patterns of engagement ==
[[File:Social media integration and central role in everyday life - media networks and connection.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure #.''' Intergration and central role of social media in everyday life. Social media is increasingly becoming interwoven with everyday life, social connection and belongin]]'''Focus question:''' What psychological processes underpin social media design and patterns of engagement?

* Understanding the psychology behind social media design is important as it informs patterns of social media engagement and the psychological processes social media is designed to act on.
* ''Author note: Research more into psychological processes and possibly principles behind social media design and that are targeted when people use social media. While potentially not necessary, this section provides the opportunity to expand on the problem, how social media is closely, possibly intrinsically, linked to psychology and psychological science, briefly look at how other theories or aspects of motivation relate to social media, and lead into why self-determination theory and BPNT is a suitable (or the best/ideal) lens through which explain patterns of social media engagement.''

=== Social media design ===
* Social media is intentionally designed to capture one's/people's attention and hold it for as long as possible and includes addictive features (Montag et al., 2019).
* Also consider physiological and neurological processes that social media is designed to engage e.g. dopamine cycle
* Reward-seeking, social validation etc.
* Discuss theoretical and psychological underpinnings behind social media design and how it connects with psychological science, self-determination theory, BPNT, motivation and therefore why psychology can be used to understand engagement patterns. --&gt; ''potentially move above self-determination theory section''

=== Patterns of social media engagement ===

* Social media engagement is multi-dimensional and concerns affective, cognitive, and behaviour dimensions (Trunfio and Rossi, 2021).
* The Consumer Online Brand Related Activities Model (COBRA) is a conceptual tool used to classify and interpret social media engagement with brands and differentiates between three levels: consumption, contribution and creation (Schivinski et al., 2016). These levels of social media engagement encompass various actions including viewing, liking, sharing, commenting, and content creation (Trufino &amp; Rossi, 2021).
* Expand on problematic social media use compared to healthy patterns of social media engagement.
* ''Author note: Potentially split this section between sections: Social media, motivation and well-being AND basic psychological needs and social media engagement.''

== Self-determination theory ==
'''Focus question:''' What is self-determination theory?[[File:Self-Determination-Theory-Visual 1.png|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Self-determination theory.|400x400px]][[Self-determination theory]] (SDT) is a key theory of [[w:Motivation|motivation]], playing a central role in [[w:Psychology|psychology]] and empirical studies on motivation (Ryan et al., 2021). SDT highlights human capacities and innate resources for behavioural self-regulation and personality development (Ryan et al., 2021).
* A key component of self-determination theory is the sub-theory basic psychological need theory (see Figure 2).
* SDT was first developed by Ryan and Deci and has since been widely used in research and evidence-based application across diverse fields such as health care, education, work, sport, technology use, psychotherapy, parenting, developmental and organisation psychology (Ryan et al., 2021).
* SDT is a well-established and robust theory, recognised for its universality/as a universal theory across cultures and domains (Ryan et al., 2021). Multi-dimensional wellbeing framework.
* SDT divides motivation into two categories: [[w:Intrinsic_motivation|intrinsic motivation]] and [[w:Extrinsic_motivation|extrinsic motivation]] (Ryan et al., 2021).
* Autonomous (intrinsic and extrinsic motivation) and controlled motivation.

* Possibly include figure of &quot;Self-determination theory's taxonomy of motivation&quot; (see Figure 3).
* Motivation is the and is related to activation and intention (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2000).
* SDT is comprised of six mini-theories: cognitive evaluation theory (CET), organismic integration theory (OIT), causality orientations theory (COT), basic psychological needs theory (BPNT), goal contents theory (GCT), and relationships motivation theory (RMT) (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2017).
[[File:Amp-55-1-68-fig1a.gif|center|thumb|758x758px|'''Figure 3.''' Self-determination theory's taxonomy of motivation. ]]

== Basic psychological need theory ==
'''Focus question:''' What are basic psychological needs according to self-determination theory?

Basic psychological need theory (BPNT) is a mini theory/sub-theory within the SDT framework (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). BPNT posits humans have three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2000) (see Figure 4). Psychological needs are critical resources underlying the inherent desires to engage with the environmental to advance personal growth, social development, self-organisation, and psychological well-being (Reeve, 2018; Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). According to BPNT BPNs are universal and must be satisfied for &lt;u&gt;(are crucial to)&lt;/u&gt; optimal well-being and performance, and if unsatisfied leads to negative consequences such as ill-being (Ryan et al., 2021). BPNT emphasises the importance of creating optimal circumstances to support peoples' basic psychological needs, with social and sociocultural contexts being a key/the main avenue for nurturing or thwarting needs (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). BPNs drive human behaviour being intrinsically linked to motivation. 


According to BPNT, a need must meet nine conceptual and empirical criteria. The basic criteria dictate a need must be psychological, essential, inherent, distinct, and universal. The associated criteria state a need must also be pervasive, content-specific, directional, and explanatory (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020).[[File:Basic needs.png|thumb|'''Figure 4.''' Theory of basic psychological needs.  &quot;'''Figure 1'''. The three basic psychological needs proposed by self-determination theory are considered essential ingredients for intrinsic motivation and psychological well-being.&quot;]]
* Ryan and Deci (2000) define basic needs as energising states which when satisfied contribute toward health and well-being, however if unsatisfied lead to ill-being.
* BPNT initially
* &quot;Drivers of human action essential for psychological growth and activity&quot;
* Basic needs drive behaviour in order to satisfy/fulfill said needs.
* &quot;Basic psychological needs important motivational tools...&quot;
* BPNT relevant in social and non-social contexts.
* Universal psychological nutrients (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2017).
* &quot;Intrinsic motivation is fostered by conditions which support autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Lecture 4)&quot;
=== Autonomy ===
Autonomy refers to the psychological need to experience willingness, volition, and self-organisation (Ryan et al., 2021; Vansteenkiste et al., 2020).

&quot;...refers to the capacity to make informed and independent decisions.&quot;
* Autonomy is satisfied when actions, thoughts and feelings are self-endorsed and authentic creating the experience of integrity (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020).
* Autonomy is frustrated when conflict or pressure is felt that opposes one volition (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020).
* Autonomy support: their perspective, self-initiation, choice, explore, and rationale. 

=== Competence ===

* Competence is the psychological need to experience effectiveness and mastery (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020).
* &quot;...ability to do task effectively and efficiently.. improves task performance --&gt; task mastery. 
* Competence is satisfied when one is able to utilise and develop skills and expertise (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). &quot;...engaging in activities on can make use of their skills and expertise.&quot;
* Competence is frustrated by experiences of failure, ineffectiveness, and helplessness (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020).
=== Relatedness ===

* Relatedness refers to is the psychological need to experience bonding, care, and warmth from others (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020).
* &quot;..need for connection, satisfied through bonding and care.&quot;
* Relatedness is closely tied to relationships and social connection and is satisfied by feeling connected to others (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020).
*Relatedness is frustrated by social exclusion, social alienation, and loneliness (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020).
*

== Basic psychological need satisfaction and frustration ==
* Expression of basic psychological needs varies across cultures due to the internalisation and integration of cultural values and behaviours facilitating need satisfaction (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2000).
* Need satisfaction is foundational for wellness and healthy functioning (Ryan et al., 2021).
* Need frustration is detrimental to well-being and diminishes integrity (Ryan et al., 2021).

=== Need satisfaction and need support ===
* SDT and BPNT are primarily concerned with fostering human growth and wellness through need satisfaction and need support (Vansteenkiste &amp; Ryan, 2013).
* The satisfaction of basic needs is facilitated by need supportive environments and promotes wellness, the development of inner resources, and resilience (Vansteenkiste &amp; Ryan, 2013).
* Satisfaction's role in motivation is to energise and sustain intrinsic motivation and internalisation (Ryan et al., 2021).

=== Need frustration and need thwarting ===
* Need frustration and need thwarting are associated with negative outcomes such as ill-being, self-control breakdowns, constricted functioning, externalising problems and increased defensive and immoral functioning (Vansteenkiste &amp; Ryan, 2013).
* &quot;...emotional response to opposition.&quot; 
* Need frustration and need thwarting are worse than the absence of need satisfaction and need support (Vansteenkiste &amp; Ryan, 2013).
* Needs frustration diminishes the energisation and sustenance of intrinsic motivation and internalisation, and elicits defiance (Ryan et al., 2021).
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{Basic psychological need theory says that humans have three basic needs that are essential for motivation and well-being. 
Which of the following is not one of these three needs?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Confidence
- Autonomy

{Imagine someone shares an idea for a group project and others in the group ignore them or talk over them. 
Is this likely to support or thwart their need for relatedness?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Support
+ Thwart
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== Basic psychological needs and social media engagement ==
'''Focus question:''' How do basic psychological needs explain patterns of social media engagement?

BPNT can help explain patterns of social media engagement... (ref).

Social media creates unique social contexts which 

Different factors of social media engagement can contribute to basic psychological need satisfaction and frustration including intra-personal, inter-personal, situational and environmental factors (West et al., 2024)

The first scoping review examining the relationship between social media use and well-being in adolescents through a SDT lens found social media use can be both beneficial and detrimental to satisfying basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness (West et al., 2024). Figure # represents how engagement with social media can satisfy BPNs supporting well-being, performance, and growth, however unfulfilled needs are not conducive for individuals to thrive.
*Table 1 shows examples of
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* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
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[[File:Social media use impact girls mental health plants thrive or wilt raw.png|left|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure #''': Impact of social media use on mental health and basic psychological needs. Plants represent thriving and fulfillment of needs vs frustration of needs ([[ccorg:licenses/by-sa/4.0|Mercy Canning, CC BY-SA 4.0]], via Wikimedia Commons).]]

=== Autonomy and social media engagement ===

* Social media supports autonomy by creating a ''(enabling one to experience a)'' sense of control, self-governance and personal agency (West et al., 2024).
* Social media has the potential to influence autonomy through identity development (West et al., 2024).
* Social media can challenge and threaten autonomy as choices and actions may be constrained or limited and individuals may be susceptible to other people's actions such as controlling behaviours (West et al., 2024).
* Expand on need satisfaction and support for autonomy
*Expand on need frustration and thwarting for autonomy
Passive social media use is associated with lower autonomy and ill-being (ref)

=== Competence and social media engagement ===

* Sense of self can be positively or negatively impacted by social media (West et al., 2024). Areas related to sense of self that may be influenced by social media include self-esteem, confidence, self-concept, social competence... 
* Other areas impacted by social media include learning, digital competence (West et al., 2024). 
* The impact of social media on competence is consistent with other basic psychological needs in that social media may support or thwart competence (West et al., 2024)
* A study by West, Rice and Vell-Brodick (2023) found social media contributes to adolescent's experience of unique challenges regarding competence and identified two broad themes: cultivating competence and constraining competence.
* Expand on need satisfaction and support for competence
*Expand on need frustration and thwarting for competence
[[File:Social media positive &amp; negative effects on mental health &amp; well-being.png|thumb|350x350px|'''Figure ##.''' Description.]]

=== Relatedness and social media engagement ===

* Social media plays a key role in satisfying and frustrating the basic psychological need of relatedness (West et al., 2024). 
* Social media may be used to experience a sense of belonging and acceptance (West et al., 2024). 
* Social media enables parasocial relationships. Social media can support well-being when used for self-disclosure.

*Expand on need satisfaction and support for relatedness
*Expand on need frustration and thwarting for relatedness
*(see Table 1) organise and summarise info 
'''Table 1.''' 

Basic Psychological Needs Role in Motivation and Influence on Social Media Patterns of Engagement 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Basic psychological need element
!Role in motivation
!Applied to social media engagement
|-
|[[w:Autonomy|'''Autonomy''']]
|
|
|-
|'''[[w:Competence|Competence]]'''
|
|
|-
|'''Relatedness'''
|Social connection

*

*
|
|}
''Author note: Either incorporate need satisfaction and frustration under related basic need level 1 sub-headings as two separate paragraphs (with or without level 2 sub-heading) OR create new major heading addressing need satisfaction and frustration. However, basic psychological needs explaining social media use naturally addresses satisfaction and frustration while explain how each basic need is related to social media. Consider structuring paragraphs under level 1 sub-heading by topic rather than needs satisfaction and frustration e.g. different types of competence social media influences such as sense of self and digital competence.''

''Author note:'' Potentially add case studies or examples of patterns of social media use explained by basic psychological needs for key age groups across the lifespan. Alternatively, case studies or examples in different environments/contexts.

* Case study on youth/adolescents
* Case study on university students
* Case study on adults or elderly adults


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''Author note: Potentially add additional major heading and section focused on action orientated tips for healthy social media use that satisfies and supports basic needs and wellness.''


'''How to engage with social media to promote health and well-being through satisfaction of basic psychological needs'''

* Limiting social media use
* Use social media as an avenue for connection with friends and family while also prioritising connection with others in real-life face-to-face ways.
* Setting clear goals and motives for social media use
* Using social media as a creative outlet
* If you get struck 


'''Potential solutions?''' &quot;Limiting social media time, increasing media literacy and redesigning platforms might be keys to healthier digital interactions to counter this troubling trend. (Forbes).&quot; 

==Conclusion==
* Social media use is a prevalent part of daily life for many people. Linked to increase in technology.
* SDT, specifically BPNT, helps explain social media patterns of engagement.

* Social media is deeply embedded in everyday life, offering opportunities to connect, express, and engage, but it also brings significant risks to mental health and well-being. 
* Psychological science, particularly SDT and BPNT, helps explain the complex relationship between social media, motivation, and well-being. According to BPNT, all humans have three basic psychological needs which are essential for psychological wellness and optimal performance: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. 
* Social media can support these needs by allowing users to make choices, build skills, and feel connected. However, it can also frustrate or thwart these needs, such as when users experience pressure, comparison, exclusion, or lack of control.
* The psychological processes behind social media design act on these basic needs and influence patterns of engagement that may feel rewarding but can become problematic over time. 
* Understanding underlying mechanisms of social media can help individuals and society make more informed, intentional decisions about how to engage with social media.
* Rather than framing social media as entirely good or bad, SDT provides a lens through which to understand its effects. 
* Supporting autonomy, competence, and relatedness is key to promoting healthy, self-determined social media use and enhancing overall well-being in a digital world.
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}'''Take-home messages'''
* Message{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Autonomy and intrinsic motivation in self-determination theory|Autonomy and intrinsic motivation in self-determination theory]] (Book chapter, 2025) 
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Basic psychological need theory|Basic psychological need theory]] (Book chapter, 2020) - TBC if keep*
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Frustration of basic psychological needs|Frustration of basic psychological needs]] (Book chapter, 2021) - TBC if keep*
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2013)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Mobile phone use motivation|Mobile phone use motivation]] (Book chapter, 2025)
* [[w:Self-determination_theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Grubbs, J. B., Tóth-Király, I., Nagy, L., Koós, M., Kraus, S. W., Demetrovics, Z., Potenza, M. N., Ballester-Arnal, R., Batthyány, D., Bergeron, S., Billieux, J., Briken, P., Burkauskas, J., Cárdenas-López, G., Carvalho, J., Castro-Calvo, J., Chen, L., Strong, C., Ciocca, G., … Bőthe, B. (2025). Basic psychological needs satisfaction: An international examination of invariance across 22 languages and 32 countries. ''Motivation and Emotion'', ''49''(5), 552–574. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-025-10151-z

Montag, C., Lachmann, B., Herrlich, M., &amp; Zweig, K. (2019). Addictive features of social media/messenger platforms and freemium games against the background of psychological and economic theories. ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'', ''16''(14), 2612. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16142612

Parent, N. (2023). Basic need satisfaction through social media engagement: A developmental framework for understanding adolescent social media use. ''Human Development'', ''67''(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1159/000529449 

Ryan, R. M., &amp; Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. ''The American Psychologist'', ''55''(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68

Ryan, R. M., &amp; Deci, E. L. (2018). ''Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness''. The Guildford Press.

Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L., Vansteenkiste, M., &amp; Soenens, B. (2021). Building a science of motivated persons: Self-determination theory’s empirical approach to human experience and the regulation of behavior. ''Motivation Science'', ''7''(2), 97–110. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000194

Schivinski, B., Christodoulides, G., &amp; Dabrowski, D. (2016). Measuring consumers’ engagement with brand-related social-media content. ''Journal of Advertising Research'', ''56''(1), 64–80. https://doi.org/10.2501/JAR-2016-004

Trunfio, M., &amp; Rossi, S. (2021). Conceptualising and measuring social media engagement: A systematic literature review. ''Italian Journal of Marketing'', ''2021''(3), 267–292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43039-021-00035-8

Vansteenkiste, M., &amp; Ryan, R. M. (2013). On psychological growth and vulnerability: Basic psychological need satisfaction and need frustration as a unifying principle. ''Journal of Psychotherapy Integration'', ''23''(3), 263–280. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032359

Vansteenkiste, M., Ryan, R. M., &amp; Soenens, B. (2020). Basic psychological need theory: Advancements, critical themes, and future directions. ''Motivation and Emotion'', ''44''(1), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-019-09818-1

West, M., Rice, S., &amp; Vella-Brodrick, D. (2023). Adolescent social media use: Cultivating and constraining competence. ''International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being'', ''18''(1), 2277623. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482631.2023.2277623 

West, M., Rice, S., &amp; Vella-Brodrick, D. (2024). Adolescent social media use through a self-determination theory lens: A systematic scoping review. ''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'', ''21''(7), 862. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21070862

}}
==External links==
* [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/topics/application-basic-psychological-needs/ Basic psychological needs] (Center for Self-Determination Theory)
* [https://wearesocial.com/uk/blog/2025/10/digital-2026-global-overview-report/ Digital 2026 global overview report] (We Are Social)
* [https://www.ted.com/talks/margaret_gould_stewart_how_giant_websites_design_for_you_and_a_billion_others_too?referrer=playlist-how_did_the_internet_take_over_our_lives&amp;autoplay=true How giant websites design for you (and a billion others, too), Margaret Gould Stewart] (TED Talk, 2014) - TBC keep*
* [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/ Self-determination theory] (Center for Self-Determination Theory)
* [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/mental-health/Social-media Social media and mental health] (Beyond Blue)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4TMPXK9tw5U The battle for your time: Exposing the costs of social media, Dino Ambrosi] (TEDx Laguna Blanca School, 2023)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VGrcets0E6I&amp;t=2s Promoting motivation, health, and excellence, Ed Deci] (TEDx Flour City, 2012) - TBC keep*
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m6fm1gt5YAM Edward Deci - Self-determination theory] (The Brainwaves Video Anthology, 2017) - TBC keep*
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      <text bytes="32064" sha1="ciw1ajr139xk7aa4y10f1s6ita11udy" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Spirituality and resilience:&lt;br&gt;What is the relationship between spirituality and psychological resilience?}}
__TOC__

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
[[File:Canva - Woman Feeling Emotional Stress.jpg|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Resilience in admist of psychological distress]]

'''Blessed by the emotional resilience course'''

Based on a testimony shared from the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints{{f}}.

''&quot;I was struggling at work and in my marriage, and I wasn’t sure where to turn''&quot;

Ciara was struggling with the combination of stress, boundaries, and feelings of inadequacy from her job. On top of difficult conflicts with her marriage. Her lack of self-confidence created hopelessness and the absence of tools to help navigate the constant stress made her problems seem like they were consuming her whole. 

Ciara and her husband seeked help from their bishop at their church, hoping to get some guidence. They were invited to participate in a new emotional resilience course from the church resources. She was skeptical that it would change anything. Her thoughts in her ability to manage difficult feelings of negativity and anxitey doubted that she could get better. But through diligence, a scripture verse changed her.

''&quot;I am come that they might have life, and that they might have it more abundantly.” - John 10:10''

In that moment, she desired to truly live a life that was more abundant. Making her deicision, she willingly became open-minded to experiences of the Spirit and apply the learning she gained from God.

'''Coming closer to faith'''

While practical application created positive changes in her life, it was how the resources centered on her faith in Jesus Christ that made the difference for her.

''&quot;The course’s format was divinely inspired. From its language to the focus of the lessons, it helped me become more confident in myself and in what the Savior can help me do.&quot;''

The principles of the gospel of Jesus Christ provided courage through situations that festered anxiety. Turning to her faith in God and Christ in moments of self-doubt reminded her worth. Her faith and accomplishment utilmately stregthen her emotional resilience.

''&quot;...if I continued to have false perceptions about who I was or the challenges I was facing, I was only preventing myself from deepening my faith and experiencing growth.&quot;''

'''Learning to understand'''

Tools and knowledge from the course slowly shifted her mindset and change negative habits. She kept track of the progress in her notebook that reflects the her growth over the course. 

She found reassurance that struggles weren't inherrently bad. Over time she became more comfortable in dealing with diffcult emotions during challenges, and her recognition of the Spirit provided comfort and peace. 

The techniques increased self-awareness and acceptance that life would always be full of hardships, however struggling wasn't a sign something is wrong but indiacated a learning opportunity of growth in adversity. 

''&quot;They are all part of the journey, and the ones I was going through at work and in my marriage were going to help me grow on my path back to Heavenly Father.&quot;''

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Through the example of Ciara's story of practically applying faith, [[wikipedia:Spiritualism_(movement)|spiritualism]] boosted her strength which led to the positive changes in her life. Her spiritual experiences gave her inner power to exercise her autonomy, act in faith, and cultivate positive feelings. These experiences supported her to develop resilience and cope with loses. They also gave her courage to foster peace and connection in her life.

In order for resilience to be effective, it requires the desire to change. Interventions can develop resources that promote desirable, valued outcomes. Interventions adjust conditions of a given situation to increase the likelihood of the desired outcome. The structure of interventions (see Table 1.) can assist in bringing about change. However, changes with complexity require persistence, feedback, and refinement to be successful (Reeve, 2018).

===== '''Table 1. Plan of Interventions''' =====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Steps
!Description
!Alterations
|-
|
# Explain
|Diagnose why the situation was happening,
the motivation of the behaviour.
|x
|-
|2. Predict
|Educated guess of what happen if X, Y, or Z changed 
|x
|-
|3. Intervene 
|Apply motivation and emotion principles
|
* environments
* relationships
* motivations
* emotions
|-
|4. Observe/measure/adjust
|Measure key processes and outcomes, track regular progress, adjust based on evidence, document what was done, changed and the reason for.
|x
|}
''Note''. Based on Reeve (2018).

==== '''How can psychological science help understand{{sp}} resilience and spirituality?''' ====
Understanding emotional resilience as an adaptive skill that can be used as an intervention and having a recovering nature from hardship, its main components can be explain through psychological{{sp}} science. Highlighting that meaning-making, hope, and positive reframing are key to the foundations of resilience, and spirituality can help nurture. By understadning the integration of  spiritual practices and resilience stress can be managed effectively, support in finding purpose, and maintain well-being in uncertainty.

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[[File:Red question icon with gradient background.svg||24px|left]]

;Focus questions

* How does spirituality and resilience work together?
* What goes into resilience?
* How does spirituality benefit in emotional resilience?
* What are some practical applications of spirituality to build resilience?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Spirituality and resilience dynamic ==
[[File:Flamenco, Cáncer y dualidad.jpg|thumb|Figure 2. Concepts of spirituality]]

The purpose of change is to alter a situation to have desired outcomes occur. Spirituality and resilience play pivitol roles in acheiveing the goal. Change within complex challenges require three components to be maintained; persistence, feedback and refinement (Reeve, 2018).

Persistency drives from the emotional response of resilience to adversity that create contributing experiences to sense of purpose and meaning in life events. Through awareness of growth by observations during adversity feelings of happiness are cultivated which promotes sprituality as a source of enlightenment.[[File:The_Broaden-and-Build_Theory_of_Positive_Emotions_('Upward_Spirl'_cycle)_Cohn.,_Fredrickson_2010.jpg|thumb|Figure 3. The Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions (Source: Cohn &amp; Fredrickson, 2010)]]

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory]] actions promotes positive feelings that the awareness of transformation overcomes stress with posititve meaning, contributing to expandtion the capacity of growth (Fredrickson, 2001). Acting on the positive notions, opportunity of vulnerability occurs to cultivate favourable conditions and resources needed to develop coping skills (Fredrickson, 2001). Tools consitently used in challenging circumstances creates the self-sustaining cycle (see Figure 3). Dimishing autonomic arousal and broadens attention as 'upward spirl' increases the reoccurance of posititve experiences (Fredrickson, 2001). 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Red question icon with gradient background.svg||24px|left]]

;Example - Goal setting
'''How can spirituality promote emtional resilience in goal setting?'''

Goal setting can significantly enhance resilience through achievable and clear objectives that acts as a map to provide a sense of direction to guide behaviours and decisions. As resilience responds to obsticales, the feedback provided assist to determine if certain spiritual experiences benefit to sense of purpose. And optimise actions that is in control to reduce feelings of helplessness in adversity. Involving specific goals that break down overwhleming challenges to a manageable capacity, fostering sense of accomplishment contributing to self-efficacy and source of direction. E.g. a spiritual principle can be followed by a set of guidelines given to develop resilience that is promised to contribute to deepening sense of spirituality. Suggested achieveable goals and support provided in the spiritual community encourages individuals to strive in relying on divine wisdom.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

While resilience benefits from positive factors contributing to it's development, the further progression needs adversity. Adversity unique role creates the desired outcome of personal growth from the conditions of stress and challenging situations that promotes the emergence of opportunity in vulnerability, which functions to expand the capacity of resilience through actions of coping and allow spiritual experiences of hope enhance the resilient effects during adversity.

Traditionally '[[wikipedia:Risk|risk]]' is associated with negative outcomes, however it can become a valued resilience-enhancing experience. The risk and protective model &quot;steering effect&quot; with interacting in moderate level of risk, the outcome of the experiences can bolster resilience by preparing for future challenges (Rutter, M., 1987). Once vulnerability is succesfully experienced in the risk with [[wikipedia:Protective_factor|protective factors]], the buffer to risk factors promotes positive development and well-being (Rutter, M., 1987).  [[File:Identity Status Theory Diagram.jpg|thumb|Figure 4. Foreclosure and Diffusion (early stages) Acheviement and Moratorium (later stages)]]

The interest of spirituality development often begins with a reason and understanding spiritual concepts comes from maturing and comparing from experiences. [[wikipedia:Erikson's_stages_of_psychosocial_development|Erikson's psychosocial development theory (1950)]] development of maturity of the self from [[wikipedia:Midlife_crisis|life crises]] and level of commitment identifies four statuses (see Figure 4.). The later stages highlights key periods where exploration of spirituality occurs (Kasprow, M. C., 1999). Involving active questioning, exploration and experiments of spiritual principles that excersies autonomy in personal commitments. As more spiritual experiences occurs, a profound source of purpose and behaviour stregthens resilience through connection of daily practices cultivating faith (Haugan G, et al., 2021).

==Resilience in psychology and spirituality==
[[File:ABA 1.png|thumb|FIgure 5. Resilience built in psychology while facing adversity]]

[[wikipedia:Psychological_resilience|Resilience]] in psychology is an essential factor in developing the ability to adapt to the adversities of life. Resilience often occurs as a complex phenomenon where internal and external factors influence the ability to cope, adapt, recover, and endure difficult circumstances, including an individual's [[wikipedia:Attribution_(psychology)|attribution]]. Several [[wikipedia:Theoretical_psychology|psychological theories]] explore the possible factors and processes that contribute to the development of resilience, involving [[wikipedia:Behavioral_neuroscience|biological]] , [[wikipedia:Psychosocial|social]], [[wikipedia:Cultural_psychology|cultural]] and [[wikipedia:Environmental_psychology|environmental]] factors in the overall development and outcomes (Steven M. Southwick et al., 2014).

Through in-depth perspective of different dimensions and roles involved, it could explain the development of certain characteristics of resilience people can possess (e.g. why some people are more resilient than others). And how exploring certain conditions can lead to the different outcomes in the development of traits, such as the concepts of nature vs nurture, external factors role in the development and the expansion of the capability in [[wikipedia:Coping|coping]] with life stressors.

== Nature of resilience and spirituality ==
[[File:Attachment Theory Two Dimension Model.png|thumb|Figure 6. Secure and insecure attachments formation]]

Resilience is an importnant resource for survival throughout the human lifespan. The lifespan goes through various experience, requiring adpaptation to overcome stress and challenges. The strength and ability of adaptation can determine the outcome of psychological wellbeing, similar to the concept of [[wikipedia:Darwinism|Darwinism]].

[[wikipedia:Attachment_theory|Attachment theory]] explains how the natural development of interaction create innate basis of resource for support, and certain charctersitcs overcome adversity more effectively than others (seen Figure 6). The influencing factors invovled in developing an outcome in it's timing can lead to greater advantage in character development that reflect consitency, repsonsiveness and healthy mental representation such as posittve self-concept, higher self-efficacy (Harwood, E., 2024).  

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[[File:Noto Emoji v2.034 1f4d6.svg||48px|left]]

'''A Case Study of Attachment and Resilience Variance in a Midwestern Family (Kelly Inda, 2014)'''

Attachment theory adds to the weight of resilience theory by clearly outlining the significance of relationships as the key to most aspects of resilience.
Kelly Inda's (2014) qualitative case study explored indicators of resilience that support attachment between a child and their parents. The research focused on indicators of resilience in a healthy attachments to thrive, with one family studied over three interview sessions (Kelly Inda, 2014). Themes included communication during times of crisis and how families use religious practices to aid in times of crisis and resilience patterns the family developed. High need for communication during times of crisis (Inda, K., 2014). More communication was used, the better resilience was built ready for future crisis to occur. And consistency of spiritual practices assisted in the navigation of the crisis (Inda, K., 2014). Concluding that these two factors indicate how crucial families attachments develop resilience during difficult times and through it forms bonds that support resilience overall.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The same prinicples of developmental stages of human lifespan can be applied to the development of spirituality. Fowler's Faith development model (1981) explains several stages experienced as faith develops, from primal to reaching enlgihtment (Friedmann, H., 2010). Having spiritual influences intergrated during the primal timing can provide the opportunity for stronger foundation to foster faith, resulting in advantage to progress later in life (Friedmann, H., 2010). The timing shapes the momentum of progression into a self-organised being, which could lead to reaching a higher [[wikipedia:Self-concept|sense of self]] through embodying universal principles of selfless compassion. (Friedmann, H., 2010).

Despite natural development determine specific outcomes of chatacter, the outcome of resilience can be changed. The main components of resilience is flexability through adaptaion. Luthar (2000) and Ungar (2016) dynamic theory argues that regardless consenquences of influencing factors, resilience is an on-going process of persistent change of adaptation in adversity. This explains how the effects of interactive factors, such as adversity, change over time (Luthar, S.S., 2000., Ungar, M., 2016). The use of context allow considerations of complex factors that emerge in certain situations, however during the process of resilience overcome adversity allows opportunities from vulnerabilties to strengthen resilience overall (Gerring, J. P., &amp; Wade, S., 2012). 

== Nurturing role ==
[[File:Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Diagram.png|thumb|Figure 7. Masclow's Hierarchy of Needs, with lower needs at the bottom and higher needs at the top.]]Nurturing is having an influence of the environment that is consitently present in life, as seen in biological roles of mothers possessing nuturing traits, the outcome of upbringing on personalities and behaviours, and responses and social interactions infleunces in life experiences. Spirituality can enhance the nurturing role in developing resileince as explained by positive psychology that utilise self-improvement to achieve s[[wikipedia:Self-actualization|elf-actualisation]], as mentioned in Carl Roger's theory, [[wikipedia:Abraham_Maslow|Masclow's]] heirchacy of fulllfilling needs (see Figure 7) and Reed's (2018) psychological needs of autonomy, compentance and reladtedness. Priotising autonomy values the impact choices have when drawn from emotional resilience through supportive environments that promote authencity, personal growth, sense of purpose and progression to connecting beyond the self (Sargeant, S., Yoxall, J., 2023).     [[File:Reed-self-transcendence-1991.webp|thumb|Figure 8. Interactions of the relationships and factors in self-transcendence theory]]Reed's (1992) Intergrate Spirituality Model (ISM) provides a framework of the workings of nursing self-transcendence theory combining lifespan developmental psychology and unitary human beings (Fukuyama, M. A., and Sevig, T. D., 1999). The main relationships (see Figure 8) showcase transcending challenges, indicating that self-transcendence is essential in promoting health and well-being during difficult circumstances (Fukuyama, M. A., and Sevig, T. D., 1999). With happiness being the ideal outcome that can occur from cultivated contributing actions, experiences of emotional states in happiness can increase relying on resources associated to the behaviour that cause the outcome. Such happiness can promote the inner power of resilience to cope and manage adversity that nuture dignity, authenticity and inner strengths (Bushkin H, et al.,2021).    {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Noto Emoji v2.034 1f4d6.svg||48px|left]]

;What is happiness?
'''Learn more about a type of happiness in [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Eudaimonic_well-being Eudaimonic_well-being]'''{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Choices lead to consenquences ==
[[wikipedia:Logotherapy|Logotherapy]] focuses that finding purpose in life leads to fullfilling optimal functionality and growth of wellbeing (Frankl, V., 1930). The concepts of freedom of will, will to meaning and meaning of life connects to reaching the highest contentment of life based on the alignement of uniques beliefs (Batthyany, 2019). When autonomy is excerised based on outcomes of adversity or ideal preference, it can lead to different occurance of progression in growth from maturity, attitude, and tolerance.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
[[File:Noto Emoji v2.034 1f4d6.svg||48px|left]]

;Research model 1.
'''How can spirituality promote emtional resilience in psychological cognition?'''

Rosmarin (2011) model of integrating spirituality and cognitive theory shows the outcome of divine beliefs affects to psychological symptoms through measuring intolerance of uncertainty (IU). Beliefs of needing to worry to avoid future adverse outcomes can create the cycle of worry, such as generalised anxiety disorder. The low level of IU involving negative beliefs led to the interpretation of more open situations negatively (Fialko, L., 2012). The model suggests that trusting in God or a higher being can serve as a buffer in reducing the evaluation of threats with a general psychological resource during adversaries (Rosmarin, D. H., 2011). However, a backfire effect can occur the case of soley relying on divinty as the main source of defense causes mistrust. Which could lead to increasing IU and worry, worsening threat perceptions during ambiguity (Rosmarin, D. H., 2011).{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Through the practices of resilience, suffering's interpretation as part of human experience promotes automony in attitude towards finding meaning (Batthyany, 2019). By reframing distress with posittive outlook of meaning, a deeper sense of life satisfaction is experience (Lichtenthal WG, et al., 2020). 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Noto Emoji v2.034 1f4d6.svg||48px|left]]

;What does growth from adversity look like? 
'''See examples in [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Growth_through_adversity 'Growth through adversity'] book chapter'''

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Resilience and spirituality dualism ==
Resilience is an element that each individual needs to have as part of human experiences throughout the lifespan. The lifespan has all sorts of challenges, stress, losses, and difficulties that require adapability to grow. The development of growth in psychology includes different perspectives, the most infamous being the nature vs nurture debate. However, the reality shows that both concepts occurs through complex dynamic interactions that ultimately shapes the outcome of growth.

==== Coping through resilience and spirituality ====
Frankl's (1930) logotherapy emphasised empowerment of [[wikipedia:Agency_(philosophy)|agency]], with choices of responding in adverse situations fostering resilience, along with acceptance of suffering and focus on purpose that promotes endurance and [[wikipedia:Emotional_self-regulation|emotional regulation]] (Frankl, V., 1930). Utilising logotherapy concepts algined to one's  beliefs and faithful practices can fortify resilience during hardships and confront existential issues with positivity (Frankl, V., 1930) while  promoting connection, [[wikipedia:Hope|hope] and acceptance.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Noto Emoji v2.034 1f4d6.svg||48px|left]]

;Case study 1.

'''Spirituality in mental health, youth and LGBT+'''

Problems with internalised conflict, shame, discrimination, supporting spiritual resources, and external influences were the main findings of a comprehensive literature search on spirituality, mental health, and LGBT+ youth by Mcann, E. (2020).  Despite its challenges, the attitude of compassion and acceptance, as well as connections with strong essences, nature, and living things, often correspond to positive qualities that connect to a higher being (Mcann, E., 2020). Spiritual beliefs, through faith and coping mechanisms, built resilience and serve as protective barriers against harmful stimuli (Mcann, E., 2020).{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==== Enduring adversity with meaning and faith ====
Resilience's adaptive and enduring nature enables individuals to foster inner strength during adversity. The roles of protective factors and flexible responses allows positive outcomes across contexts (Luthar, S. S., 2000; Ungar, M., 2016). Fatih is rooted in perserverance when circumstances seem uncertain, Fowler’s (1981) faith development theory links strong developed resilience of hope from the early stages of faith. Rutter (1987) moderation of adversity and protective factors strengthens coping, and spirituality that promote uplifting attitudes of divine connection, and integration with cultural socioecological network.

==== Pursuing growth and transformation ====
Going through adverse life events can enable individuals to learn to pursue growth and be positively transformed by them. Spirituality can be a resource that supports adaptation and resilience to achieve an improved quality of life. As individuals pursue the meaning of life (Frankl, V., 1930) through positive emotions of contribution to communities (Fredrickson, 2001) and utilise their ecological culture [[wikipedia:Ecological_systems_theory|(Bronfenbrenner, 1979)]] it can result in a transition of transcendence and affirming values.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Noto Emoji v2.034 1f4d6.svg||48px|left]]

;Case study 2.
'''Spirituality connects resilience in Latinos with cancer'''

Hernández M., Muñíz R., and Gany F. (2015) literature review found that in Latino culture, spirituality is an integral cultural value. It plays a crucial role in the cultural values interactions in health-related problems, as seen in caring for Latino cancer patients who adjust and cope (Hernández M., Muñíz R., and Gany F., 2015). Understanding the application of resilience during active treatment can impact the effectiveness og managment and coping with consequences during survivorship (Hernández M., Muñíz R., and Gany F., 2015).
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Conclusion ==
Emotional resilience adaptive nature in intervention is demostrated through psycholgical science. Meaning-making through spirituality is key to building the foundations of resilience. Spirituality servies as practical application of nurture and resilience's attributes can result in effective management of stress. Intergration results in support of finding a greater sense of purpose, and maintain ultimate well-being in uncertainty. The natural development of resilience and spirituality is importnant throughout the human lifespan. The strength and ability of adaptation can determine the outcome of psychological wellbeing, however the outcome of resilience can be changed. Spirituality provides enhancement of developing resileince through self-improvement to achieve self-actualisation. When autonomy is excerised, it can lead to progression in growth of maturity, attitude, and tolerance. The reality of the dualism occurs through complex dynamic interactions that ultimately shapes the outcome of growth. As seen in coping through spirituality, enduring adversity with faith and pursuing growth and transformation. 

== See also ==

[[simple:Resilience]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Spirituality and mental health|Spirituality and mental health: How does spirituality contribute to mental health and emotional well-being?]] (Book chpater, 2025)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Death and meaning in life|Death and meaning in life: How does confronting mortality influence the sense of meaning in life?]] (Book chapter, 2023)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development: How can a growth mindset be developed?]] (Book chapter, 2018)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Growth mindset and mental health|Growth mindset and mental health: What is the relationship between growth mindset and mental health?]] (Book chapter, 2023)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Barker, C. Blessed by the Emotional Resilience Course. 2021. LDS. https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/liahona/2021/09/digital-only/blessed-by-the-emotional-resilience-course?lang=eng

Bushkin H, et al. (2021). Searching for meaning in chaos: Viktor Frankl’s story.
Carl Folke, Resilience: The emergence of a perspective for social–ecological systems analyses, Global Environmental Change, Volume 16, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 253-267. doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.04.002.

Batthyany, A. (2019). What is logotherapy/existential analysis? Logotherapy and existential analysis. Viktor Frankl Institut. https://www.viktorfrankl.org/logotherapy.html

Cohn, M. A., Fredrickson, B. L., Brown, S. L., Mikels, J. A., &amp; Conway, A. M. (2009). Happiness unpacked: positive emotions increase life satisfaction by building resilience. Emotion (Washington, D.C.), 9(3), 361–368. doi.org/10.1037/a0015952

Egozi Farkash, H., Lahad, M., &amp; Aharonson-Daniel, L. (2023). Do Attachment Orientations Relate to Coping with Crises? Lessons from a Cross-Sectional Study during the COVID-19 Pandemic. International journal of environmental research and public health, 20(12), 6177. doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20126177

Fredrickson B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. The American psychologist, 56(3), 218–226. doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.56.3.218

Friedmann, Harris &amp; Krippner, Stanley &amp; Riebel, Linda &amp; Johnson, Chad. (2010). Models of Spiritual Development. International Journal of Transpersonal Studies. 29. 53-70.

Fukuyama, M. A., &amp; Sevig, T. D. (1999). An integrative model and spiritual interventions. In An integrative model and spiritual interventions (pp. 155-168). SAGE Publications, Inc., https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452231945.n9

Gerring, J. P., &amp; Wade, S. (2012). The essential role of psychosocial risk and protective factors in pediatric traumatic brain injury research. Journal of neurotrauma, 29(4), 621–628. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2011.2234

Gibbs, L. A. L., Anderson, M. I., Simpson, G. K., &amp; Jones, K. F. (2020). Spirituality and resilience among family caregivers of survivors of stroke: A scoping review. NeuroRehabilitation, 46(1), 41–52. https://doi.org/10.3233/NRE-192946

Harwood, E. (2024). Resilience as a Secure Attachment Pattern. In Cultivating Systemic Resilience in Therapy (pp. 114-130). Routledge.

Haugan G, et al. (2021). Meaning-in-life: A vital salutogenic resource for health.
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-63135-2_8
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8542392/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8763215/

Inda, K. (2014). A Case Study of Attachment and Resilience Variance in a Midwestern Family. https://thekeep.eiu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1092&amp;context=honors_theses

Kasprow, M. C., &amp; Scotton, B. W. (1999). A review of transpersonal theory and its application to the practice of psychotherapy. The Journal of psychotherapy practice and research, 8(1), 12–23.

Laura Fialko, Derek Bolton, Sean Perrin, Applicability of a cognitive model of worry to children and adolescents, Behaviour Research and Therapy, Volume 50, Issue 5, 2012, 341-349, doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2012.02.003.

Lichtenthal WG, et al. (2020). Meaning-centered psychotherapy and cancer: Finding meaning in the face of suffering.

Luthar SS, Cicchetti D. The construct of resilience: implications for interventions and social policies. Dev Psychopathol. 2000 Autumn;12(4):857-85. doi: 10.1017/s0954579400004156. PMID: 11202047; PMCID: PMC1903337.

Malone, J. C., Liu, S. R., Vaillant, G. E., Rentz, D. M., &amp; Waldinger, R. J. (2016). Midlife Eriksonian psychosocial development: Setting the stage for late-life cognitive and emotional health. Developmental psychology, 52(3), 496–508. doi.org/10.1037/a0039875

Marcia, J. E. (2010). Life transitions and stress in the context of psychosocial development. In T. W. Miller (Ed.), Handbook of stressful transitions across the lifespan (pp. 19–34). Springer Science + Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0748-6_2

McCann, E., Donohue, G. &amp; Timmins, F. (2020). An Exploration of the Relationship Between Spirituality, Religion and Mental Health Among Youth Who Identify as LGBT+: A Systematic Literature Review. J Relig Health 59 (1), 828–844. doi.org/10.1007/s10943-020-00989-7

Michael Ungar, Designing resilience research: Using multiple methods to investigate risk exposure, promotive and protective processes, and contextually relevant outcomes for children and youth, Child Abuse &amp; Neglect, Volume 96, 2019, 104098. doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104098.

Raghavan, S., &amp; Sandanapitchai, P. (2024). The relationship between cultural variables and resilience to psychological trauma: A systematic review of the literature.

Southwick, S. M., Bonanno, G. A., Masten, A. S., Panter-Brick, C., &amp; Yehuda, R. (2014). Resilience definitions, theory, and challenges: interdisciplinary perspectives. European journal of psychotraumatology, 5, 10.3402/ejpt.v5.25338. doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v5.25338

}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1C-xiQ36Bek&amp;ab_channel=AmericanPsychologicalAssociation Building resilience in the face of adversity, with George Bonanno, PhD | Speaking of Psychology] (youtube.com)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VNfdlAZlgHQ&amp;t=88s&amp;ab_channel=TEDxTalks Building Resiliency Through Spirituality | Madison Jaye | TEDxNJIT] (youtube.com)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jbFBm7Hd0dk&amp;t=1s The Father of Resilience Theory – Buzz Holling] (youtube.com)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C-ZIUtJr8nE&amp;t=591s Attachment and resilience -- the power of one: Dr. Erica Liu Wollin at TEDxHongKong 2013] (youtube.com)

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__TOC__

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
[[File:Canva - Woman Feeling Emotional Stress.jpg|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Resilience in admist of psychological distress]]

'''Blessed by the emotional resilience course'''

Based on a testimony shared from the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints{{f}}.

''&quot;I was struggling at work and in my marriage, and I wasn’t sure where to turn''&quot;

Ciara was struggling with the combination of stress, boundaries, and feelings of inadequacy from her job. On top of difficult conflicts with her marriage. Her lack of self-confidence created hopelessness and the absence of tools to help navigate the constant stress made her problems seem like they were consuming her whole. 

Ciara and her husband seeked help from their bishop at their church, hoping to get some guidence. They were invited to participate in a new emotional resilience course from the church resources. She was skeptical that it would change anything. Her thoughts in her ability to manage difficult feelings of negativity and anxitey doubted that she could get better. But through diligence, a scripture verse changed her.

''&quot;I am come that they might have life, and that they might have it more abundantly.” - John 10:10''

In that moment, she desired to truly live a life that was more abundant. Making her deicision, she willingly became open-minded to experiences of the Spirit and apply the learning she gained from God.

'''Coming closer to faith'''

While practical application created positive changes in her life, it was how the resources centered on her faith in Jesus Christ that made the difference for her.

''&quot;The course’s format was divinely inspired. From its language to the focus of the lessons, it helped me become more confident in myself and in what the Savior can help me do.&quot;''

The principles of the gospel of Jesus Christ provided courage through situations that festered anxiety. Turning to her faith in God and Christ in moments of self-doubt reminded her worth. Her faith and accomplishment utilmately stregthen her emotional resilience.

''&quot;...if I continued to have false perceptions about who I was or the challenges I was facing, I was only preventing myself from deepening my faith and experiencing growth.&quot;''

'''Learning to understand'''

Tools and knowledge from the course slowly shifted her mindset and change negative habits. She kept track of the progress in her notebook that reflects the her growth over the course. 

She found reassurance that struggles weren't inherrently bad. Over time she became more comfortable in dealing with diffcult emotions during challenges, and her recognition of the Spirit provided comfort and peace. 

The techniques increased self-awareness and acceptance that life would always be full of hardships, however struggling wasn't a sign something is wrong but indiacated a learning opportunity of growth in adversity. 

''&quot;They are all part of the journey, and the ones I was going through at work and in my marriage were going to help me grow on my path back to Heavenly Father.&quot;''

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Through the example of Ciara's story of practically applying faith, [[wikipedia:Spiritualism_(movement)|spiritualism]] boosted her strength which led to the positive changes in her life. Her spiritual experiences gave her inner power to exercise her autonomy, act in faith, and cultivate positive feelings. These experiences supported her to develop resilience and cope with loses. They also gave her courage to foster peace and connection in her life.

In order for resilience to be effective, it requires the desire to change. Interventions can develop resources that promote desirable, valued outcomes. Interventions adjust conditions of a given situation to increase the likelihood of the desired outcome. The structure of interventions (see Table 1.) can assist in bringing about change. However, changes with complexity require persistence, feedback, and refinement to be successful (Reeve, 2018).

===== '''Table 1. Plan of Interventions''' =====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Steps
!Description
!Alterations
|-
|
# Explain
|Diagnose why the situation was happening,
the motivation of the behaviour.
|x
|-
|2. Predict
|Educated guess of what happen if X, Y, or Z changed 
|x
|-
|3. Intervene 
|Apply motivation and emotion principles
|
* environments
* relationships
* motivations
* emotions
|-
|4. Observe/measure/adjust
|Measure key processes and outcomes, track regular progress, adjust based on evidence, document what was done, changed and the reason for.
|x
|}
''Note''. Based on Reeve (2018).

==== '''How can psychological science help understand resilience and spirituality?''' ====
Understanding emotional resilience as an adaptive skill that can be used as an intervention and having a recovering nature from hardship, its main components can be explain through psychological science. Highlighting that meaning-making, hope, and positive reframing are key to the foundations of resilience, and spirituality can help nurture. By understadning the integration of  spiritual practices and resilience stress can be managed effectively, support in finding purpose, and maintain well-being in uncertainty.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
[[File:Red question icon with gradient background.svg||24px|left]]

;Focus questions

* How does spirituality and resilience work together?
* What goes into resilience?
* How does spirituality benefit in emotional resilience?
* What are some practical applications of spirituality to build resilience?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Spirituality and resilience dynamic ==
[[File:Flamenco, Cáncer y dualidad.jpg|thumb|Figure 2. Concepts of spirituality]]

The purpose of change is to alter a situation to have desired outcomes occur. Spirituality and resilience play pivitol roles in acheiveing the goal. Change within complex challenges require three components to be maintained; persistence, feedback and refinement (Reeve, 2018).

Persistency drives from the emotional response of resilience to adversity that create contributing experiences to sense of purpose and meaning in life events. Through awareness of growth by observations during adversity feelings of happiness are cultivated which promotes sprituality as a source of enlightenment.[[File:The_Broaden-and-Build_Theory_of_Positive_Emotions_('Upward_Spirl'_cycle)_Cohn.,_Fredrickson_2010.jpg|thumb|Figure 3. The Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions (Source: Cohn &amp; Fredrickson, 2010)]]

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory]] actions promotes positive feelings that the awareness of transformation overcomes stress with posititve meaning, contributing to expandtion the capacity of growth (Fredrickson, 2001). Acting on the positive notions, opportunity of vulnerability occurs to cultivate favourable conditions and resources needed to develop coping skills (Fredrickson, 2001). Tools consitently used in challenging circumstances creates the self-sustaining cycle (see Figure 3). Dimishing autonomic arousal and broadens attention as 'upward spirl' increases the reoccurance of posititve experiences (Fredrickson, 2001). 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Red question icon with gradient background.svg||24px|left]]

;Example - Goal setting
'''How can spirituality promote emtional resilience in goal setting?'''

Goal setting can significantly enhance resilience through achievable and clear objectives that acts as a map to provide a sense of direction to guide behaviours and decisions. As resilience responds to obsticales, the feedback provided assist to determine if certain spiritual experiences benefit to sense of purpose. And optimise actions that is in control to reduce feelings of helplessness in adversity. Involving specific goals that break down overwhleming challenges to a manageable capacity, fostering sense of accomplishment contributing to self-efficacy and source of direction. E.g. a spiritual principle can be followed by a set of guidelines given to develop resilience that is promised to contribute to deepening sense of spirituality. Suggested achieveable goals and support provided in the spiritual community encourages individuals to strive in relying on divine wisdom.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

While resilience benefits from positive factors contributing to it's development, the further progression needs adversity. Adversity unique role creates the desired outcome of personal growth from the conditions of stress and challenging situations that promotes the emergence of opportunity in vulnerability, which functions to expand the capacity of resilience through actions of coping and allow spiritual experiences of hope enhance the resilient effects during adversity.

Traditionally '[[wikipedia:Risk|risk]]' is associated with negative outcomes, however it can become a valued resilience-enhancing experience. The risk and protective model &quot;steering effect&quot; with interacting in moderate level of risk, the outcome of the experiences can bolster resilience by preparing for future challenges (Rutter, M., 1987). Once vulnerability is succesfully experienced in the risk with [[wikipedia:Protective_factor|protective factors]], the buffer to risk factors promotes positive development and well-being (Rutter, M., 1987).  [[File:Identity Status Theory Diagram.jpg|thumb|Figure 4. Foreclosure and Diffusion (early stages) Acheviement and Moratorium (later stages)]]

The interest of spirituality development often begins with a reason and understanding spiritual concepts comes from maturing and comparing from experiences. [[wikipedia:Erikson's_stages_of_psychosocial_development|Erikson's psychosocial development theory (1950)]] development of maturity of the self from [[wikipedia:Midlife_crisis|life crises]] and level of commitment identifies four statuses (see Figure 4.). The later stages highlights key periods where exploration of spirituality occurs (Kasprow, M. C., 1999). Involving active questioning, exploration and experiments of spiritual principles that excersies autonomy in personal commitments. As more spiritual experiences occurs, a profound source of purpose and behaviour stregthens resilience through connection of daily practices cultivating faith (Haugan G, et al., 2021).

==Resilience in psychology and spirituality==
[[File:ABA 1.png|thumb|FIgure 5. Resilience built in psychology while facing adversity]]

[[wikipedia:Psychological_resilience|Resilience]] in psychology is an essential factor in developing the ability to adapt to the adversities of life. Resilience often occurs as a complex phenomenon where internal and external factors influence the ability to cope, adapt, recover, and endure difficult circumstances, including an individual's [[wikipedia:Attribution_(psychology)|attribution]]. Several [[wikipedia:Theoretical_psychology|psychological theories]] explore the possible factors and processes that contribute to the development of resilience, involving [[wikipedia:Behavioral_neuroscience|biological]] , [[wikipedia:Psychosocial|social]], [[wikipedia:Cultural_psychology|cultural]] and [[wikipedia:Environmental_psychology|environmental]] factors in the overall development and outcomes (Steven M. Southwick et al., 2014).

Through in-depth perspective of different dimensions and roles involved, it could explain the development of certain characteristics of resilience people can possess (e.g. why some people are more resilient than others). And how exploring certain conditions can lead to the different outcomes in the development of traits, such as the concepts of nature vs nurture, external factors role in the development and the expansion of the capability in [[wikipedia:Coping|coping]] with life stressors.

== Nature of resilience and spirituality ==
[[File:Attachment Theory Two Dimension Model.png|thumb|Figure 6. Secure and insecure attachments formation]]

Resilience is an importnant resource for survival throughout the human lifespan. The lifespan goes through various experience, requiring adpaptation to overcome stress and challenges. The strength and ability of adaptation can determine the outcome of psychological wellbeing, similar to the concept of [[wikipedia:Darwinism|Darwinism]].

[[wikipedia:Attachment_theory|Attachment theory]] explains how the natural development of interaction create innate basis of resource for support, and certain charctersitcs overcome adversity more effectively than others (seen Figure 6). The influencing factors invovled in developing an outcome in it's timing can lead to greater advantage in character development that reflect consitency, repsonsiveness and healthy mental representation such as posittve self-concept, higher self-efficacy (Harwood, E., 2024).  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Noto Emoji v2.034 1f4d6.svg||48px|left]]

'''A Case Study of Attachment and Resilience Variance in a Midwestern Family (Kelly Inda, 2014)'''

Attachment theory adds to the weight of resilience theory by clearly outlining the significance of relationships as the key to most aspects of resilience.
Kelly Inda's (2014) qualitative case study explored indicators of resilience that support attachment between a child and their parents. The research focused on indicators of resilience in a healthy attachments to thrive, with one family studied over three interview sessions (Kelly Inda, 2014). Themes included communication during times of crisis and how families use religious practices to aid in times of crisis and resilience patterns the family developed. High need for communication during times of crisis (Inda, K., 2014). More communication was used, the better resilience was built ready for future crisis to occur. And consistency of spiritual practices assisted in the navigation of the crisis (Inda, K., 2014). Concluding that these two factors indicate how crucial families attachments develop resilience during difficult times and through it forms bonds that support resilience overall.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The same prinicples of developmental stages of human lifespan can be applied to the development of spirituality. Fowler's Faith development model (1981) explains several stages experienced as faith develops, from primal to reaching enlgihtment (Friedmann, H., 2010). Having spiritual influences intergrated during the primal timing can provide the opportunity for stronger foundation to foster faith, resulting in advantage to progress later in life (Friedmann, H., 2010). The timing shapes the momentum of progression into a self-organised being, which could lead to reaching a higher [[wikipedia:Self-concept|sense of self]] through embodying universal principles of selfless compassion. (Friedmann, H., 2010).

Despite natural development determine specific outcomes of chatacter, the outcome of resilience can be changed. The main components of resilience is flexability through adaptaion. Luthar (2000) and Ungar (2016) dynamic theory argues that regardless consenquences of influencing factors, resilience is an on-going process of persistent change of adaptation in adversity. This explains how the effects of interactive factors, such as adversity, change over time (Luthar, S.S., 2000., Ungar, M., 2016). The use of context allow considerations of complex factors that emerge in certain situations, however during the process of resilience overcome adversity allows opportunities from vulnerabilties to strengthen resilience overall (Gerring, J. P., &amp; Wade, S., 2012). 

== Nurturing role ==
[[File:Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Diagram.png|thumb|Figure 7. Masclow's Hierarchy of Needs, with lower needs at the bottom and higher needs at the top.]]Nurturing is having an influence of the environment that is consitently present in life, as seen in biological roles of mothers possessing nuturing traits, the outcome of upbringing on personalities and behaviours, and responses and social interactions infleunces in life experiences. Spirituality can enhance the nurturing role in developing resileince as explained by positive psychology that utilise self-improvement to achieve s[[wikipedia:Self-actualization|elf-actualisation]], as mentioned in Carl Roger's theory, [[wikipedia:Abraham_Maslow|Masclow's]] heirchacy of fulllfilling needs (see Figure 7) and Reed's (2018) psychological needs of autonomy, compentance and reladtedness. Priotising autonomy values the impact choices have when drawn from emotional resilience through supportive environments that promote authencity, personal growth, sense of purpose and progression to connecting beyond the self (Sargeant, S., Yoxall, J., 2023).     [[File:Reed-self-transcendence-1991.webp|thumb|Figure 8. Interactions of the relationships and factors in self-transcendence theory]]Reed's (1992) Intergrate Spirituality Model (ISM) provides a framework of the workings of nursing self-transcendence theory combining lifespan developmental psychology and unitary human beings (Fukuyama, M. A., and Sevig, T. D., 1999). The main relationships (see Figure 8) showcase transcending challenges, indicating that self-transcendence is essential in promoting health and well-being during difficult circumstances (Fukuyama, M. A., and Sevig, T. D., 1999). With happiness being the ideal outcome that can occur from cultivated contributing actions, experiences of emotional states in happiness can increase relying on resources associated to the behaviour that cause the outcome. Such happiness can promote the inner power of resilience to cope and manage adversity that nuture dignity, authenticity and inner strengths (Bushkin H, et al.,2021).    {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Noto Emoji v2.034 1f4d6.svg||48px|left]]

;What is happiness?
'''Learn more about a type of happiness in [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Eudaimonic_well-being Eudaimonic_well-being]'''{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Choices lead to consenquences ==
[[wikipedia:Logotherapy|Logotherapy]] focuses that finding purpose in life leads to fullfilling optimal functionality and growth of wellbeing (Frankl, V., 1930). The concepts of freedom of will, will to meaning and meaning of life connects to reaching the highest contentment of life based on the alignement of uniques beliefs (Batthyany, 2019). When autonomy is excerised based on outcomes of adversity or ideal preference, it can lead to different occurance of progression in growth from maturity, attitude, and tolerance.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}
[[File:Noto Emoji v2.034 1f4d6.svg||48px|left]]

;Research model 1.
'''How can spirituality promote emtional resilience in psychological cognition?'''

Rosmarin (2011) model of integrating spirituality and cognitive theory shows the outcome of divine beliefs affects to psychological symptoms through measuring intolerance of uncertainty (IU). Beliefs of needing to worry to avoid future adverse outcomes can create the cycle of worry, such as generalised anxiety disorder. The low level of IU involving negative beliefs led to the interpretation of more open situations negatively (Fialko, L., 2012). The model suggests that trusting in God or a higher being can serve as a buffer in reducing the evaluation of threats with a general psychological resource during adversaries (Rosmarin, D. H., 2011). However, a backfire effect can occur the case of soley relying on divinty as the main source of defense causes mistrust. Which could lead to increasing IU and worry, worsening threat perceptions during ambiguity (Rosmarin, D. H., 2011).{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Through the practices of resilience, suffering's interpretation as part of human experience promotes automony in attitude towards finding meaning (Batthyany, 2019). By reframing distress with posittive outlook of meaning, a deeper sense of life satisfaction is experience (Lichtenthal WG, et al., 2020). 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Noto Emoji v2.034 1f4d6.svg||48px|left]]

;What does growth from adversity look like? 
'''See examples in [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Growth_through_adversity 'Growth through adversity'] book chapter'''

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Resilience and spirituality dualism ==
Resilience is an element that each individual needs to have as part of human experiences throughout the lifespan. The lifespan has all sorts of challenges, stress, losses, and difficulties that require adapability to grow. The development of growth in psychology includes different perspectives, the most infamous being the nature vs nurture debate. However, the reality shows that both concepts occurs through complex dynamic interactions that ultimately shapes the outcome of growth.

==== Coping through resilience and spirituality ====
Frankl's (1930) logotherapy emphasised empowerment of [[wikipedia:Agency_(philosophy)|agency]], with choices of responding in adverse situations fostering resilience, along with acceptance of suffering and focus on purpose that promotes endurance and [[wikipedia:Emotional_self-regulation|emotional regulation]] (Frankl, V., 1930). Utilising logotherapy concepts algined to one's  beliefs and faithful practices can fortify resilience during hardships and confront existential issues with positivity (Frankl, V., 1930) while  promoting connection, [[wikipedia:Hope|hope] and acceptance.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Noto Emoji v2.034 1f4d6.svg||48px|left]]

;Case study 1.

'''Spirituality in mental health, youth and LGBT+'''

Problems with internalised conflict, shame, discrimination, supporting spiritual resources, and external influences were the main findings of a comprehensive literature search on spirituality, mental health, and LGBT+ youth by Mcann, E. (2020).  Despite its challenges, the attitude of compassion and acceptance, as well as connections with strong essences, nature, and living things, often correspond to positive qualities that connect to a higher being (Mcann, E., 2020). Spiritual beliefs, through faith and coping mechanisms, built resilience and serve as protective barriers against harmful stimuli (Mcann, E., 2020).{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==== Enduring adversity with meaning and faith ====
Resilience's adaptive and enduring nature enables individuals to foster inner strength during adversity. The roles of protective factors and flexible responses allows positive outcomes across contexts (Luthar, S. S., 2000; Ungar, M., 2016). Fatih is rooted in perserverance when circumstances seem uncertain, Fowler’s (1981) faith development theory links strong developed resilience of hope from the early stages of faith. Rutter (1987) moderation of adversity and protective factors strengthens coping, and spirituality that promote uplifting attitudes of divine connection, and integration with cultural socioecological network.

==== Pursuing growth and transformation ====
Going through adverse life events can enable individuals to learn to pursue growth and be positively transformed by them. Spirituality can be a resource that supports adaptation and resilience to achieve an improved quality of life. As individuals pursue the meaning of life (Frankl, V., 1930) through positive emotions of contribution to communities (Fredrickson, 2001) and utilise their ecological culture [[wikipedia:Ecological_systems_theory|(Bronfenbrenner, 1979)]] it can result in a transition of transcendence and affirming values.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Noto Emoji v2.034 1f4d6.svg||48px|left]]

;Case study 2.
'''Spirituality connects resilience in Latinos with cancer'''

Hernández M., Muñíz R., and Gany F. (2015) literature review found that in Latino culture, spirituality is an integral cultural value. It plays a crucial role in the cultural values interactions in health-related problems, as seen in caring for Latino cancer patients who adjust and cope (Hernández M., Muñíz R., and Gany F., 2015). Understanding the application of resilience during active treatment can impact the effectiveness og managment and coping with consequences during survivorship (Hernández M., Muñíz R., and Gany F., 2015).
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== Conclusion ==
Emotional resilience adaptive nature in intervention is demostrated through psycholgical science. Meaning-making through spirituality is key to building the foundations of resilience. Spirituality servies as practical application of nurture and resilience's attributes can result in effective management of stress. Intergration results in support of finding a greater sense of purpose, and maintain ultimate well-being in uncertainty. The natural development of resilience and spirituality is importnant throughout the human lifespan. The strength and ability of adaptation can determine the outcome of psychological wellbeing, however the outcome of resilience can be changed. Spirituality provides enhancement of developing resileince through self-improvement to achieve self-actualisation. When autonomy is excerised, it can lead to progression in growth of maturity, attitude, and tolerance. The reality of the dualism occurs through complex dynamic interactions that ultimately shapes the outcome of growth. As seen in coping through spirituality, enduring adversity with faith and pursuing growth and transformation. 

== See also ==

[[simple:Resilience]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Spirituality and mental health|Spirituality and mental health: How does spirituality contribute to mental health and emotional well-being?]] (Book chpater, 2025)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Death and meaning in life|Death and meaning in life: How does confronting mortality influence the sense of meaning in life?]] (Book chapter, 2023)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Growth mindset development|Growth mindset development: How can a growth mindset be developed?]] (Book chapter, 2018)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Growth mindset and mental health|Growth mindset and mental health: What is the relationship between growth mindset and mental health?]] (Book chapter, 2023)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Barker, C. Blessed by the Emotional Resilience Course. 2021. LDS. https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/liahona/2021/09/digital-only/blessed-by-the-emotional-resilience-course?lang=eng

Bushkin H, et al. (2021). Searching for meaning in chaos: Viktor Frankl’s story.
Carl Folke, Resilience: The emergence of a perspective for social–ecological systems analyses, Global Environmental Change, Volume 16, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 253-267. doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.04.002.

Batthyany, A. (2019). What is logotherapy/existential analysis? Logotherapy and existential analysis. Viktor Frankl Institut. https://www.viktorfrankl.org/logotherapy.html

Cohn, M. A., Fredrickson, B. L., Brown, S. L., Mikels, J. A., &amp; Conway, A. M. (2009). Happiness unpacked: positive emotions increase life satisfaction by building resilience. Emotion (Washington, D.C.), 9(3), 361–368. doi.org/10.1037/a0015952

Egozi Farkash, H., Lahad, M., &amp; Aharonson-Daniel, L. (2023). Do Attachment Orientations Relate to Coping with Crises? Lessons from a Cross-Sectional Study during the COVID-19 Pandemic. International journal of environmental research and public health, 20(12), 6177. doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20126177

Fredrickson B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. The American psychologist, 56(3), 218–226. doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.56.3.218

Friedmann, Harris &amp; Krippner, Stanley &amp; Riebel, Linda &amp; Johnson, Chad. (2010). Models of Spiritual Development. International Journal of Transpersonal Studies. 29. 53-70.

Fukuyama, M. A., &amp; Sevig, T. D. (1999). An integrative model and spiritual interventions. In An integrative model and spiritual interventions (pp. 155-168). SAGE Publications, Inc., https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452231945.n9

Gerring, J. P., &amp; Wade, S. (2012). The essential role of psychosocial risk and protective factors in pediatric traumatic brain injury research. Journal of neurotrauma, 29(4), 621–628. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2011.2234

Gibbs, L. A. L., Anderson, M. I., Simpson, G. K., &amp; Jones, K. F. (2020). Spirituality and resilience among family caregivers of survivors of stroke: A scoping review. NeuroRehabilitation, 46(1), 41–52. https://doi.org/10.3233/NRE-192946

Harwood, E. (2024). Resilience as a Secure Attachment Pattern. In Cultivating Systemic Resilience in Therapy (pp. 114-130). Routledge.

Haugan G, et al. (2021). Meaning-in-life: A vital salutogenic resource for health.
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-63135-2_8
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8542392/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8763215/

Inda, K. (2014). A Case Study of Attachment and Resilience Variance in a Midwestern Family. https://thekeep.eiu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1092&amp;context=honors_theses

Kasprow, M. C., &amp; Scotton, B. W. (1999). A review of transpersonal theory and its application to the practice of psychotherapy. The Journal of psychotherapy practice and research, 8(1), 12–23.

Laura Fialko, Derek Bolton, Sean Perrin, Applicability of a cognitive model of worry to children and adolescents, Behaviour Research and Therapy, Volume 50, Issue 5, 2012, 341-349, doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2012.02.003.

Lichtenthal WG, et al. (2020). Meaning-centered psychotherapy and cancer: Finding meaning in the face of suffering.

Luthar SS, Cicchetti D. The construct of resilience: implications for interventions and social policies. Dev Psychopathol. 2000 Autumn;12(4):857-85. doi: 10.1017/s0954579400004156. PMID: 11202047; PMCID: PMC1903337.

Malone, J. C., Liu, S. R., Vaillant, G. E., Rentz, D. M., &amp; Waldinger, R. J. (2016). Midlife Eriksonian psychosocial development: Setting the stage for late-life cognitive and emotional health. Developmental psychology, 52(3), 496–508. doi.org/10.1037/a0039875

Marcia, J. E. (2010). Life transitions and stress in the context of psychosocial development. In T. W. Miller (Ed.), Handbook of stressful transitions across the lifespan (pp. 19–34). Springer Science + Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0748-6_2

McCann, E., Donohue, G. &amp; Timmins, F. (2020). An Exploration of the Relationship Between Spirituality, Religion and Mental Health Among Youth Who Identify as LGBT+: A Systematic Literature Review. J Relig Health 59 (1), 828–844. doi.org/10.1007/s10943-020-00989-7

Michael Ungar, Designing resilience research: Using multiple methods to investigate risk exposure, promotive and protective processes, and contextually relevant outcomes for children and youth, Child Abuse &amp; Neglect, Volume 96, 2019, 104098. doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104098.

Raghavan, S., &amp; Sandanapitchai, P. (2024). The relationship between cultural variables and resilience to psychological trauma: A systematic review of the literature.

Southwick, S. M., Bonanno, G. A., Masten, A. S., Panter-Brick, C., &amp; Yehuda, R. (2014). Resilience definitions, theory, and challenges: interdisciplinary perspectives. European journal of psychotraumatology, 5, 10.3402/ejpt.v5.25338. doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v5.25338

}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1C-xiQ36Bek&amp;ab_channel=AmericanPsychologicalAssociation Building resilience in the face of adversity, with George Bonanno, PhD | Speaking of Psychology] (youtube.com)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VNfdlAZlgHQ&amp;t=88s&amp;ab_channel=TEDxTalks Building Resiliency Through Spirituality | Madison Jaye | TEDxNJIT] (youtube.com)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jbFBm7Hd0dk&amp;t=1s The Father of Resilience Theory – Buzz Holling] (youtube.com)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C-ZIUtJr8nE&amp;t=591s Attachment and resilience -- the power of one: Dr. Erica Liu Wollin at TEDxHongKong 2013] (youtube.com)

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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}[[File:Tracy Caldwell Dyson in Cupola ISS.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1'''. Astronaut Tracy Caldwell Dyson in Cupola ISS{{ic|Jargony. Provide embedded links to more info.}}]]

; Scenario

Imagine you are an astronaut on a six-month mission aboard the International Space Station. At first, you might feel inspired, motivated, and proud. Yet as weeks stretch into months, you start facing monotony, disrupted sleep, and the ache of separation from family.

Your sleep grows restless. With 16 sunrises and sunsets each day, your body struggles to find a rhythm. You often wake disoriented; your mind is foggy during high-stakes tasks. Small irritations with crewmates, such as differences in communication styles, work pace, or cultural habits, can begin to feel overwhelming in the confined quarters. Moments of laughter and humour help ease the tension, but homesickness lingers, especially when milestones back on Earth are missed.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Space exploration challenges human resilience at both physical and psychological levels. Astronauts must manage not only technical tasks but also their own mental wellbeing in extreme conditions. This chapter explores how space missions affect the emotional wellbeing of astronauts.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''
* What psychological stressors do astronauts face from isolation, confinement, and sensory changes in orbit?
* How does disrupted sleep and circadian misalignment impact mood, focus, and emotional stability?
* What emotional difficulties, such as stress, anxiety, loneliness, or interpersonal conflict, arise during missions?
* What can be learned from astronaut mental health research to support wellbeing in other high-pressure or isolated environments?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Background on astronauts and their purpose ==
[[wikipedia:Astronaut|Astronauts]] are highly trained professionals selected to live and work in space under extreme environmental and psychological conditions. Their purpose extends beyond piloting spacecraft: astronauts serve as researchers, engineers, and subjects of scientific experiments that help advance human understanding of survival in space. Long-term missions, such as those aboard the International Space Station (ISS), provide unique opportunities to test human endurance in microgravity and exposure to cosmic radiation, both of which profoundly alter physiological and psychological functions (Tomsia et al., 2024).

[[File:ISS-32 American EVA b3 Aki Hoshide.jpg|right|250px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency astronaut Akihiko Hoshide, Expedition 32 flight engineer, uses a digital still camera to make a photo of his helmet visor during the mission's third session of extravehicular activity (EVA).]]

The role of astronauts is inherently multidisciplinary. They must maintain spacecraft systems, conduct biomedical and engineering experiments, and ensure group cohesion within confined living quarters. These responsibilities are mission-critical because human adaptability to hostile environments determines whether future exploration, such as crewed missions to Mars, can be sustained. Astronauts are often referred to as [[wikipedia:Human_subject_research|“human testbeds,”]] as their health, performance, and resilience directly inform countermeasures against space hazards, including microgravity-induced musculoskeletal loss, cardiovascular deconditioning, immune dysregulation, and cognitive decline (Tomsia et al., 2024). Equally important is the symbolic and societal purpose of astronauts. They embody exploration and international cooperation, serving as representatives of multiple nations aboard joint missions. Because astronauts are recruited globally, interpersonal and cultural diversity enriches teamwork but also requires careful psychological screening to reduce risks of conflict and ensure mission success (Gupta et al., 2023; Tomsia et al., 2024). Selection processes increasingly emphasise not only physical health and technical skills but also psychological resilience, adaptability, and stress management capacity (Palinkas, 2001; Tomsia et al., 2024).

Astronauts’ purpose therefore goes beyond exploration because they provide insights into human biology, psychology, and teamwork, these insights benefit both spaceflight and Earth-based contexts. Lessons from astronaut experiences have informed advances in medicine, telehealth, and resilience training, showing their broader role in bridging scientific discovery with practical applications for human wellbeing on Earth. An example of this spin off effect is articficial intelligence  softwarefor astronauts now being used to monitor high risk patients at home&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://spinoff.nasa.gov/astronaut-remote-health-monitoring|title=Artificial Intelligence for Astronauts Monitors Patients at Home {{!}} NASA Spinoff|website=spinoff.nasa.gov|access-date=2026-08-22}}&lt;/ref&gt;.Research into rapid bone density loss and muscle atrophy in microgravity has also driven new rehabilitation protocols and pharmaceutical approaches for terrestrial osteoporosis&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.space.gov.au/space-environment-advancing-medical-science|title=Space Environment Advancing medical science|last=Australian Space Agency|date=Australian Space Agency|website=Australian Space Agency|access-date=22 August 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Space as a psychological environment ==
[[File:STS-116 spacewalk 1.jpg|right|250px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Astronauts during the STS-11 spacewalk]]

Astronauts live in one of the most extreme psychological environments ever encountered&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/reference/risk-of-behavioral-changes-and-psychiatric-disorders/|title=Risk of behavioral changes and psychiatric disorders - NASA|language=en-US|access-date=2026-08-22}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The space environment itself acts as a stressor, affecting mood, cognition, and emotional regulation (Arone et al., 2021). These stressors can be grouped into three major categories: isolation and confinement, sensory changes and disorientation, and living and working in small groups{{f}}.

=== Isolation and confinement in orbit ===
[[wikipedia:International Space Station|Life on the International Space Station (ISS)]] involves months of confinement in a small, artificial environment where privacy is scarce and routines are tightly controlled. While astronauts are able to maintain contact with their families through scheduled communications, this lacks the spontaneity of everyday interactions on Earth. Over time, this separation often produces loneliness, homesickness, and monotony (Arone et al., 2021). Research{{f}} on long-duration missions and analogue environments supports the idea that confinement produces predictable psychological patterns. Studies of the 520-day to Mars confinement experiment {{explain}} demonstrated declines in mood stability, increased irritability, and behavioural changes that reflect the psychological strain of prolonged isolation (Basner et al., 2014). Behavioral strain and interpersonal conflicts during the mission were concentrated, with two crew members accounting for 85% of issues, including severe stress and depressive symptoms. Furthermore, conflict with mission control was five times more frequent than disputes among the crew, suggesting isolated groups tend to project frustrations onto external support teams&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Basner|first=Mathias|last2=Dinges|first2=David F.|last3=Mollicone|first3=Daniel J.|last4=Savelev|first4=Igor|last5=Ecker|first5=Adrian J.|last6=Antonio|first6=Adrian Di|last7=Jones|first7=Christopher W.|last8=Hyder|first8=Eric C.|last9=Kan|first9=Kevin|date=2014-03-27|title=Psychological and Behavioral Changes during Confinement in a 520-Day Simulated Interplanetary Mission to Mars|url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0093298|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=9|issue=3|pages=e93298|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0093298|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3968121|pmid=24675720}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

=== Sensory changes and disorientation ===
Microgravity significantly alters sensory input{{f}}. Astronauts frequently experience dizziness, spatial disorientation, and space motion sickness during the initial adaptation phase{{f}}. Recent research has shown that pain perception and sensory experiences may shift {{explain}} during spaceflight, creating additional challenges for coping and emotional regulation (Sauer et al., 2023).

Another factor is the absence of natural sensory cues. On Earth, people are constantly exposed to environmental variation, such as weather, wind, and natural sounds. In orbit, however, astronauts experience a static environment with little sensory variety. This sensory monotony can contribute to restlessness, low mood, and difficulty sustaining attention (Saniotis, Henneberg, &amp; Mohammadi, 2025).

=== Living and working in small groups ===
[[File:Ronald McNair, Guion Bluford, and Fred Gregory (S79-36529, restoration).jpg|thumb|360x360px|'''Figure 4'''. Ronald McNair, Guion Bluford, and Fred Gregory]]

Astronauts spend nearly all of their time in small, multicultural crews, which means they come from diverse backgrounds and experiences. While strong teamwork can buffer stress, interpersonal conflict is a persistent risk. Even minor irritations, such as differences in communication style or work pace, can escalate when individuals cannot withdraw or access personal space (Sandal, 2001). Cohesion and mutual support are essential for mission success. Pagnini et al. (2023) emphasise the importance of conflict management and interpersonal competence, particularly in long-duration missions where immediate support from Earth is limited. Future deep-space missions will magnify these psychosocial challenges, making group dynamics a central determinant of mental health outcomes.

== Sleep and circadian disruption ==
Sleep is one of the most commonly reported difficulties during spaceflight{{f}}. Adequate sleep is critical for cognitive performance, emotional stability, and overall health, yet astronauts consistently report poor sleep quantity and quality (Wu et al., 2018). Astronauts face sleep and [[wikipedia:Circadian_rhythm|circadian rhythm]] disturbances that are deeply intertwined with the psychological effects of isolation and confinement. Oluwafemi et al. (2021) emphasise that prolonged separation from family, monotony of the spacecraft environment, and the absence of natural time cues can exacerbate disruptions in circadian rhythm. These disturbances not only reduce sleep quantity and quality but also impair mood regulation, attention, and decision-making capacity{{f}}. Over time, insufficient or [[wikipedia:Sleep_disorder|fragmented sleep]] can amplify psychological strain, producing symptoms of anxiety, irritability, and cognitive decline{{f}}.

Moreover, circadian misalignment in space does not occur in isolation. It interacts with other hazards such as radiation exposure and microgravity, both of which contribute to neurocognitive changes and impair the body’s natural restorative processes (Oluwafemi et al., 2021){{how}}. These overlapping stressors highlight why addressing sleep health is mission-critical: interventions that stabilise circadian rhythms, such as structured light-dark cycles, scheduled activity, and pharmacological aids, serve as protective factors not only for physical recovery but also for emotional resilience{{f}}.

=== Why astronauts struggle to rest ===
The [[wikipedia:International Space Station|ISS]] orbits Earth every 90 minutes, exposing astronauts to 16 sunrises and sunsets each day{{f}}. This rapid alternation between light and dark disrupts natural circadian rhythms. Astronauts often sleep fewer than six hours per night during missions, below recommended levels for optimal functioning (Barger et al., 2014). Other contributing factors include noise from onboard machinery, irregular schedules, and the discomfort of sleeping in microgravity (Wu et al., but 2018). Circadian rhythms regulate hormone production, metabolism, and mood. Disrupted circadian alignment is linked to irritability, impaired concentration, and increased vulnerability to anxiety and depression (Barger et al., 2014). Artificial lighting systems on the ISS attempt to simulate a 24-hour cycle, but they cannot fully replicate natural light exposure, leaving astronauts vulnerable to persistent misalignment.

=== Consequences of long-term sleep loss ===
Chronic sleep debt undermines attention, memory, and decision-making (Wu et al., 2018). Sleep loss also interacts with other stressors, compounding risks of mood decline. Neurobiological evidence suggests that long-term stress combined with sleep disruption alters neuroplasticity and increases susceptibility to depression and cognitive impairment (Yin et al., 2023).

'''Table 1.''' Sleep and circadian challenges during spaceflight{{f}}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! Challenges!! Cause !!Consequences
|-
| '''Fragmented sleep''' || Noise from spacecraft machinery, irregular schedules, discomfort in microgravity ||Fatigue, reduced alertness, increased use of sleep medications
|-
| '''Irregular circadian rythm'''|| 16 sunrises and sunsets per day, lack of natural light cues ||Misalignment of body clock, irritability, impaired mood, reduced concentration
|-
|'''Psychological strain from isolation'''
|Separation from family, loss of monotony, and confinement
|Amplified sleep problems, anxiety, irritability, cognitive decline
|-
|'''Chronic sleep deprivation'''
|Combined environmental and psychosocial stressors
|Long-term impairments in neuroplasticity, memory, and decision-making leading to increased depression risk
|}

== Mental health challenges in space ==
Astronauts operate under constant, high-stakes conditions. Every procedure carries the risk of mission failure or danger to life. While acute stress can improve focus, chronic stress reduces efficiency and threatens emotional wellbeing (Desai et al., 2022). Stress varies across mission phases. Pre-flight anticipation, in-flight emergencies, and post-flight reintegration each bring unique psychological demands (Arone et al., 2021). Sustained exposure to such stressors can produce heightened anxiety and emotional strain. Despite constant interaction with crew-mates, astronauts often report feelings of loneliness. The inability to share unstructured, intimate moments with family and friends creates a sense of distance that structured video calls cannot fully replicate. [[wikipedia:Homesickness|Homesickness]] is a common emotional difficulty, intensified by longing for familiar natural environments and everyday experiences (Saniotis et al., 2025).

=== Interpersonal conflict and group dynamics ===
Cultural and personality differences, combined with the stresses of confinement, increase the likelihood of interpersonal conflict{{f}}. Research highlights the need for conflict resolution training, practical communication skills, and resilience-building to maintain cohesion and emotional well-being during missions (Pagnini et al., 2023). Without these measures, future long-duration missions risk exposing crews to significant psychosocial strain (Sandal, 2001).

== Lessons from space during covid-19 lockdown life ==
The [[wikipedia:COVID-19|COVID-19]] pandemic created conditions of confinement, disrupted routines, and heavy reliance on digital communication that closely resembled aspects of spaceflight. Research on astronaut mental health reveals that isolation, disrupted circadian rhythms, and emotional dysregulation are common during space missions{{f}}. Prevention-focused coping strategies, such as establishing routines and exercising regularly, have been highlighted as effective (Arone et al., 2021; Choukér &amp; Stahn, 2020). These same approaches were widely recommended to the general public during lockdowns to support psychological wellbeing. In addition, healthcare workers during the pandemic faced prolonged stress, irregular schedules, and life-or-death responsibilities, conditions that mirrored astronaut experiences of fatigue, emotional strain, and interpersonal stress under high-stakes environments. The parallels between these contexts show how space psychology provides not only insights for astronauts, but also practical guidance for managing wellbeing during crises on Earth.

As missions extend into deep space, psychosocial strain will intensify. Research highlights gaps {{expand}} in current knowledge and the need for new approaches to psychological resilience in extreme environments (Pagnini et al., 2023). These insights also inform how humans adapt to high-pressure, isolated, or uncertain conditions on Earth.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Key takeaways'''
* Spaceflight imposes unique psychological stressors such as isolation, confinement, and circadian disruption.
* Psychological theories help explain how astronauts adapt and cope.
* Strategies used in space, like structured routines and humour, are also valuable on Earth in contexts like COVID-19 lockdowns.
* Understanding astronaut mental health can provide resilience training for other high-stress professions (e.g., healthcare{{explain}}).
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
 
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Which astronaut coping strategy was also recommended during COVID-19 lockdowns?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Ignoring stress
+ Exercising regularly
- Avoiding communication
- Extending work hours

{Astronauts on the ISS often experience sleep problems due to:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Comfortable sleeping quarters
+ Microgravity and disrupted light cycles
- Access to too much natural sunlight
- Unlimited personal privacy
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
Spaceflight challenges the human mind as much as the body. Astronauts live and work in conditions of isolation, confinement, disrupted sleep, and constant pressure to perform. These stressors shape mood, cognition, and group dynamics, making psychological health essential for mission success. This chapter showed that the primary mental health challenges include loneliness, homesickness, disrupted circadian rhythms, and stress across different phases of a mission. Sleep problems reduce focus and emotional stability, while chronic deprivation increases risks of depression and cognitive decline. Group living can provide support, but also creates tension when conflicts arise in such close quarters. Lessons from space have direct applications to life on Earth. During COVID-19 lockdowns, people faced similar confinement and disruption, and astronaut strategies, like sticking to routines, exercising, and using humour, proved effective for maintaining resilience. Healthcare workers also mirrored astronaut stress, balancing long hours, fatigue, and high-stakes decisions.

==See also==
* [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2014/Sleep_deprivation_and_emotion|Sleep deprivation and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2014)
* [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2011/Stress_and_emotional_health|Stress and emotional health]] (Book chapter, 2011)
* [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2014/Fear_and_coping|Fear and coping]] (Book chapter, 2014)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1= 
Arone, A., Ivaldi, T., Loganovsky, K., Palermo, S., Parra, E., Flamini, W., &amp; Marazziti, D. (2021). The Burden of Space Exploration on the Mental Health of Astronauts: A Narrative Review. Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 18(5), 237–246. https://doi.org/10.36131/cnfioritieditore20210502

Barger, L. K., Flynn-Evans, E. E., Kubey, A., Walsh, L., Ronda, J. M., Wang, W., Wright, K. P., &amp; Czeisler, C. A. (2014). Prevalence of sleep deficiency and use of hypnotic drugs in astronauts before, during, and after spaceflight: an observational study. The Lancet Neurology, 13(9), 904–912. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1474-4422(14)70122-x

Basner, M., Dinges, D. F., Mollicone, D. J., Savelev, I., Ecker, A. J., Di Antonio, A., Jones, C. W., Hyder, E. C., Kan, K., Morukov, B. V., &amp; Sutton, J. P. (2014). Psychological and Behavioral Changes during Confinement in a 520-Day Simulated Interplanetary Mission to Mars. PLoS ONE, 9(3), e93298. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0093298

Choukér, A., &amp; Stahn, A. C. (2020). COVID-19—The largest isolation study in history: the value of shared learnings from spaceflight analogs. Npj Microgravity, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41526-020-00122-8

Desai, R. I., Limoli, C. L., Stark, C. E. L., &amp; Stark, S. M. (2022). Impact of spaceflight stressors on behavior and cognition: A molecular, neurochemical, and neurobiological perspective. Neuroscience &amp; Biobehavioral Reviews, 138, 104676. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104676

Gupta, U., Baig, S., Majid, A., &amp; Bell, S. M. (2023). The Neurology of Space Flight; How does space flight effect the human nervous system? Life Sciences in Space Research, 36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lssr.2022.09.003

Oluwafemi, F., Abdelbaki, R., Lai, J., Mora-Almanza, J., &amp; Afolayan, E. (2021). A review of astronaut mental health in manned missions: Potential interventions for cognitive and mental health challenges. Life Sciences in Space Research, 28, 26–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lssr.2020.12.002

Pagnini, F., Manzey, D., Rosnet, E., Ferravante, D., White, O., &amp; Smith, N. (2023). Human behavior and performance in deep space exploration: next challenges and research gaps. Npj Microgravity, 9(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41526-023-00270-7Palinkas, L. (2001). Psychosocial Issues in Long-Term Space: Overview. Biology Bulletin, 14(2), 25. https://web.mit.edu/16.459/www/Palinkas.pdf

Sandal, G. M. (2001). Psychosocial issues in space: future challenges. Gravitational and Space Biology Bulletin : Publication of the American Society for Gravitational and Space Biology, 14(2), 47–54. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11865868/

Saniotis, A., Henneberg, M., &amp; Mohammadi, K. (2025). Evolutionary medicine and bioastronautics: an innovative approach in addressing adverse mental health effects to astronauts during long term space missions. Frontiers in Physiology, 16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2025.1558625

Sauer, A. K., Vigouroux, M., Dougherty, P. M., Cata, J. P., &amp; Ingelmo, P. M. (2023). Pain Experience and Sensory Changes in Astronauts During and After Short-Lasting Commercial Spaceflight: A Proof-of-Concept Study. Journal of Pain Research, 16, 4253–4266. https://doi.org/10.2147/JPR.S440630

Smith, N., Peters, D., Jay, C., Sandal, G. M., Barrett, E. C., &amp; Wuebker, R. (2023). Off-World Mental Health: Considerations for the Design of Wellbeing–Supportive Technologies for Deep Space Exploration. JMIR Formative Research, 7, e37784. https://doi.org/10.2196/37784

Tomsia, M., Cieśla, J., Śmieszek, J., Florek, S., Macionga, A., Michalczyk, K., &amp; Stygar, D. (2024). Long-term space missions’ effects on the human organism: what we do know and what requires further research. Frontiers in Physiology, 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2024.1284644

Wu, B., Wang, Y., Wu, X., Liu, D., Xu, D., &amp; Wang, F. (2018). On-orbit sleep problems of astronauts and countermeasures. Military Medical Research, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40779-018-0165-6

Yin, Y., Liu, J., Fan, Q., Zhao, S., Wu, X., Wang, J., Liu, Y., Li, Y., &amp; Lu, W. (2023). Long-term spaceflight composite stress induces depression and cognitive impairment in astronauts—insights from neuroplasticity. Translational Psychiatry, 13(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-023-02638-5}}

==External links==
* [https://www.abc.net.au/news/health/2024-03-09/preparing-human-mind-space-travel-mars-astronauts-mission/103563280 The psychological challenges of space travel and preparing the mind for Mars] (abc.net.au)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c3SD6-gBduc Space and Mental Health: Managing Mental Wellbeing] (Youtube.com)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y7v4pbOebgQ Here’s what happens to astronauts’ physical and mental health after months in space] (Youtube.com)

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      <text bytes="41717" sha1="ta617eobut1lm6xp2sfmy47mrjq5tkt" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Pharoah - James VI and I - Trump.png|thumb|Religious and media leaders from the time of the Pharaohs convinced common folk to give increasing shares of what they produced to elites.]]
:''This book uses dates in [[:w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]], YYYY-MM-DD, when convenient.'' 

== Invitation to edit this book ==

You, dear reader, are invited to contribute questions, ideas and citations to support or refute claims made in this book possibly adding chapters. Wikiversity like other Wikimedia Foundation Projects invites humans to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] while writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]]. Others are invited to change or revert what you wrote. What stays tends to be written from a neutral point of view citing credible sources. If someone reverts your edit or you have a question, take it to the ''[[Wikiversity:FAQ|''''“Discuss”'''' page]]'' associated with the specific Wikiversity page most related to your concerns. 

Those who teach media literacy are encouraged to invite their students to debate and revise the contents of this book. Doing so would build on a tradition of [[:w:Wikipedia:Student assignments|instructors requiring students to edit wikipedia article(s).]]  Editing [[:w:Wikipedia|Wikipedia]] and other [[:w:Wikimedia Foundation|Wikimedia Foundation]] projects like this book is itself an exercise in media literacy: 

:''Central tenets of media literacy might include writing from a neutral point of view citing credible sources and engaging others, some of whom may disagree, in civil, supportive conversations about what can and cannot be said based on a reasonable evaluation of the available evidence. Wikimedia rules invite contributors to do just that, encouraging them to “be bold but not reckless,” contributing revisions written from a neutral point of view, citing credible sources -- and raising other questions and concerns on the ''''“Discuss”'''' page associated with the specific Wikiversity page most related to your concerns, as mentioned above.''&lt;ref&gt;For more on this, see Graves (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; 
== Text and self-help book and point of discuss ==

This book is intended both as a text and self-help book and as a point of discussion considering four levels of media literacy: 

:1. '''Think before you share''': [[Facebook whistleblower Frances Haugen says|Facebook whistleblower Frances Haugen said]], &quot;The shortest path to a click is anger or hate.&quot; The social psychology behind this phenomenon exploited also by legacy media has contributed to [[Media Literacy and You/Media consolidation, social media, and political polarization|the dramatic increase in political polarization and violence worldwide]], especially since the end of the [[w:Fairness doctrine|Fairness doctrine]] in 1987. To counter this, DiResta (2024, p. 335) recommends, &quot;Think before you share.&quot;
:2. '''Look for information to contradict preconceptions''' (Disconfirmation bias): [[w:Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government#Previous research|Virtually everyone]] (a) thinks they know more than they do ([[w:Overconfidence effect|overconfidence effect]]), and (b) prefers information and sources consistent with preconceptions ([[w:Confirmation bias|confirmation bias]]). The major media everywhere exploit this to please those who control most of the money for the media. Humans can counter this by searching for sources to help us understand our designated enemies. If we cannot explain circumstances under which we could see ourselves doing what we see our designated enemies doing, we haven't looked hard enough. 
:3. '''Talk''': Push ourselves to have friendly supportive conversations with others with whom we may vehemently disagree with the goals of agreeing to disagree agreeably and building collaboration on areas of common concern.&lt;ref&gt;Graves and Bailey (2025).&lt;/ref&gt;  
:4. '''Teach''': Humans who develop skills in the first three levels can leverage that knowledge in helping others acquire those skills. If each one teaches two&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[[:w:Each one teach one|Each one teach one]]&quot; is an African-American proverb from the time of legalized slavery. However, if each one teaches only one, the growth in literacy will only be linear. Having &quot;each one teaching two&quot;, on average, unleashes the power of doubling and [[:w:exponential growth|exponential growth]], which has the potential of educating the entirety of humanity in a reasonable period of time -- namely after 33 doublings starting from one.&lt;/ref&gt; in a certain period of time, that time period becomes a [[:w:Doubling time|doubling time]]. Ten doublings is a thousand -- actually 1,024 to be precise.&lt;ref&gt;2 time 2 = 4 times 2 = 8 times 2 = 16 times 2 = 32 times 2 = 64 times 2 = 128 times 2 = 256 times 2 = 512 times 2 = 1024: That's 10 doublings, as anyone with a modest understanding of modern digital [[:w:computer|computer]]s will tell you.&lt;/ref&gt; Twenty doublings become a million. Thirty doublings become a billion. Three more doublings become 8 billion, the [[:w:World population|world population]] as of approximately 2022-11-15.&lt;ref&gt;This book uses dates in [[:w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]], YYYY-MM-DD, when convenient.&lt;/ref&gt; Many organizations, including several United Nations agencies, already have active [[w:media literacy|media literacy]] programs that have already trained many.&lt;ref&gt;''[[Wikibooks:Antiracist Activism for Teachers and Students]]'' includes a chapter on [[Wikibooks:Antiracist Activism for Teachers and Students/Points to Consider for Teaching Anti-racism/Media Literacy In Schools|Media Literacy In Schools]].&lt;/ref&gt; This book is being written hoping to increase the effectiveness and accelerate the rate of growth in media literacy and thereby accelerate progress against many of the most pressing issues facing humanity today.

Much of this book is a [[w:Monograph|research monograph]] summarizing research that seems to have been underreported by the major media to avoid offending people who control most of the money for the media. These research results seem to be central to major political divisions. Each chapter ends in exercises to help the reader practice media literacy skills and have fun doing it. Remember: 

:''I am entitled to my [[Wiktionary:cockamamie|cockamamie]] ideas, and you are entitled to yours.''

Humor is important but must be offered in a way that does not offend others. If others are offended, they may be less interested in dialogue. The term &quot;cockamamie&quot; is used here, hoping that this style of [[w:Self-deprecation|self-deprecation]] might be more inviting for dialogue.

''Never say, &quot;You're wrong, and I'm right!&quot; instead, ask, &quot;May I offer a contrary perspective?&quot; Or &quot;May I share with you another view that I've heard?&quot; ''

Much of the information in this book seems to have been largely overlooked and perhaps suppressed, apparently because it would increase the cost of producing news, some of which would clearly offend people who control much of the money for the media; see the brief discussion of conflicts of interest by the major media in the next &quot;Key claims&quot; section.

==Key claims==

* ''Primary drivers of every major conflict include differences between the media or difference in interpretation that the different parties find credible''.
:-- This works, because everything we think we know is coded in systems of connections between neurons in our brains. These systems are more unique than fingerprints and evolve over time. The words we use do not mean the same to two different humans nor even to the same human at different points in time. In many cases these differences are inconsequential. ''Sometimes they are fatal.''&lt;ref&gt;Graves and Bailey (2026).&lt;/ref&gt;
:-- ''[[w:Social constructionism|Show me someone who knows the truth]], and I will show you someone who is dangerous'' -- especially during war or any other situation where humans may be moved to violence mandated by their belief system.&lt;ref&gt;[[w:Collateral damage|Collateral damage]] that &quot;they&quot; commit proves to &quot;us&quot; that &quot;they&quot; are subhuman or at best criminally misled and must be resisted by any means necessary. By contrast, collateral damage that &quot;we&quot; commit is unfortunate but necessary.&lt;/ref&gt;
* The major media everywhere have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest ]] in honestly reporting on [[v:Information is a public good per communications prof Pickard|anything that might offend anyone who controls large portions of the money for the media]].&lt;ref&gt;Pickard and Graves (2025), accessed 2026-02-08; Pickard (2020).&lt;/ref&gt; [[v:Media Reform Coalition challenges anti-democratic media bias in the UK|British journalist and media reform advocate Dan Hind]] said that the content produced by the [[w:BBC|BBC]] was frivolous, soap opera stuff, because leading media personalities know very little about issues of substance and believe &quot;they might get in trouble if&quot; they produced anything serious. Similar analyses seem to apply to the major media everywhere&lt;ref&gt;Hind and Graves (2025), accessed 2026-02-09.&lt;/ref&gt; but may not apply to non-profit and local media, which seem more likely to produce [[w:Investigative journalism|investigative]] / [[v:Dean Starkman and the watchdog that didn't bark|accountability journalism]]:&lt;ref&gt;Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022); see also Starkman and Graves (2025), accessed 2026-02-09.&lt;/ref&gt; [[w:Watchdog journalism|Watchdogs]] tend to protect the people who feed them. Argentine journalist [[w:Horacio Verbitsky|Horacio Verbitsky]] said, &quot;Journalism is disseminating information that someone does not want known; the rest is [[w:propaganda|propaganda]].&quot;&lt;ref&gt;p. 16 in Verbitsky (1997); English translation from [[Wikiquote:Horacio Verbitsky]], accessed 2026-02-09.&lt;/ref&gt;
* The major media everywhere create the stage upon which politicians read their lines. 
:-- Their selection of acceptable topics for news and entertainment create and maintain the &quot;[[w:Overton window|Overton window]]&quot;, which is the range of acceptable political discourse. For example, in early 1964, US President [[w:Lyndon B. Johnson|Lyndon Johnson]] understood that he could lose the 1964 presidential election that year if he were seen to be soft on communism. His response was to clandestinely provoke an attack on US naval vessels in the Gulf of Tonkin, which he could then denounce as &quot;unprovoked&quot;. During a dark and stormy night 1964-08-04 the [[w:USS Maddox (DD-731)|USS ''Maddox'']] and [[w:USS Turner Joy|''Turner Joy'']] spent a couple of hours &quot;defending themselves&quot; against radar snow, then [[w:Gulf of Tonkin incident|reported that they had sunk two attacking North Vietnamese torpedo boats]]; subsequent investigations found no evidence of the reported attacks. That incident was used to justify the [[w:Gulf of Tonkin Resolution|Gulf of Tonkin Resolution]], with only two dissenting votes in the US Congress: Those two dissenters were defeated in their next reelection campaigns, illustrating the point that the major media create the environment in which many politicians cannot get elected without betraying the nation. 
* The development of technology is never neutral in its impact on inequality but is driven to benefit people with power.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Johnson (2023)&lt;/ref&gt;. 
:-- [[Media Literacy and You/The impact of the media on political economy since the time of the Pharaohs|Improvements in agricultural technology from pre-history to the time of King James of the King James bible were managed to benefit elites.]] Then pamphlets and newspapers began to appear, the head of state stopped granting as many monopolies, and commoners began getting permission to become entrepreneurs. That led to increasing inequality until organized labor got enough political power to demand and get a bigger share of the fruits of their labors. 
:--[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|In the US those benefits peaked during the Great Depression]], when the standard conservative mantra that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers. US President Franklin Roosevelt taxed the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since, and dramatically reduced inequality, which continued to decline until increasing concentration of ownership of the media ushered in a new era of increasing inequality starting with the presidency of Ronald Reagan. 
:-- [[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future#Role of the media|Acemoglu and Johnson insist that technology, including artificial intelligence, can be developed to benefit all. However, but it will not happen without action by the poor and middle class as follows]]: 
:# Alter the narrative, 
:# Build countervailing powers [like organized labor], and 
:# Develop technical, regulatory, and policy solutions to tackle specific aspects of technology’s social bias.&lt;ref&gt;Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, ch. 11).&lt;/ref&gt;
:-- For more on this, see, e.g., the chapter on [[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]. 

=== The value of noncommercial news outlets ===

Some of the problems with the media and their contributions to increasing political polarization and violence are documented in the research summary on &quot;[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]&quot; and in the podcast series available on Wikiversity under &quot;[[:Category:Media reform to improve democracy]]&quot; with leading experts discussing their recommendations. One of the most compelling of the references discussed in that podcast series is Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022), who tallied all the federal prosecutions for political corruption in each of the 94 [[w:United States federal judicial district|US federal court district]]s between 2003 and 2019. During that period, the number of journalists in the US fell by a factor of roughly 3 -- between 60 and 70 percent. They found no statistically significant impact on federal prosecutions for political corruption of that decline in the number of journalists. 

However, each member of the [[w:Institute for Nonprofit News|Institute for Nonprofit News]] (INN) in a federal court district in one year was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption the following year. 

This suggests that the major media outlets that had so dramatically reduced their staffs had not substantively reduced the amount of investigative journalism they did. If we assume that the people prosecuted for political corruption also control substantive advertising budgets, then the major media outlets have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on such. They may report on it if some other organization like a member of INN does the research and they are threatened with a loss of audience from not reporting on it. 

:'''''Major point''''': You and I benefit, the vast majority of humans on earth benefit, from news reports presumably published by members if INN that contributed to those on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption estimated by Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022). We benefit even if we never heard about the news reports that contributed to those prosecutions. We benefit even if we have never heard of the news outlets that presumably did the investigative journalism behind those additional prosecutions. Why? Because on average those news reports likely deterred other incidents of political corruption, which likely contributed to broadly shared economic growth and the development of new technology that ultimately benefit the vast majority of humanity. Other aspects of this are documented in the research on the impact of [[w:news desert|news desert]]s, which we summarize next.  

=== Costs increase in news deserts===

There's a growing body of research describing what happens when local newspapers die. 

Perhaps most important, a 2018 research report by Gao et al. reported that the death of a local newspaper was followed by … increases in local tax revenue, averaging $85 per human per year.&lt;ref name = Gao2018&gt;Gao et al. (2018).&lt;/ref&gt; That $85 was roughly 13 hundredths of a percent of the 2019 US GDP. That's mentioned in the 2025-07-17 interview with [[Democratic delusions: Fix the media to fix democracy|Natalie Fenton about her new book, ''Democratic Delusions, How the Media Hollows out democracy and What We Can Do About It'']].

One of the most spectacular example of the cost of a news desert is the [[w:City of Bell scandal|Scandal of Bell, California]]. Their local newspaper died around 1999. Roughly a decade later the city was nearly bankrupt in spite of having property tax rates among the highest in the nation. An investigation by the ''[[w:Los Angeles Times|Los Angeles Times]]'' documented that the city manager had a compensation package worth $1.5 million a year, well over double that of the President of the United States. Other senior city officials were similarly well-remunerated. Some of the city officials went to jail over that. Did the city manager decide after 1999, &quot;Wow: The watchdog is dead. Let's have a party&quot;? 

Malfeasance also increases in business as pollution and workplace accidents increase as does the cost of capital, because investors know their money is not as secure without a local newspaper. That leads to a reduction in investments in new products, services and processes -- slowing economic growth. See &quot;[[Local newspapers limit malfeasance]]&quot;, esp. Kim et al. (2021). 

And executive compensation in increases in nonprofits, so less of what people donate goes to the charitable purpose for which they donated, according to Felix et al. (2024). Also, voter participation and split-ticket voting decline, per Benton (2019) and other references discussed in &quot;[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]&quot;. And the ultra-right does better, as noted in [[News from Germany 1900-1945 and implications for today]] and the section on &quot;[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government#Previous research|Previous research]]&quot; in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Flößer (2024).&lt;/ref&gt; 

The 0.13 percent of GDP savings estimated by Gao et al. (2018) is roughly $120 per human per year. With over 300 million humans in the U.S, that is roughly $40 billion nationwide. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Table 1. Costs increase in news deserts
|- 
! Entity !! What !!Source
|-
| local government || costs incr. 0.13% of GDP || Gao et al. (2018)
|- 
| local businesses || pollution &amp; workplace accidents incr., innovation &amp; econ growth decr. || Kim et al. (2021)
|- 
| nonprofits || exec. compensation incr. || Felix et al. (2024) 
|- 
| rowspan=2 | elections
| voter participation &amp; split-ticket voting decl. || Benton (2019)
|-
| Ultra-right does better || Flößer (2024)
|}

=== Government subsidies for news === 

John (1995) documented how in the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers per million population than at any other time or place in human history.&lt;ref&gt;This is discussed in the 2025-06-08 [[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John|interview with him]], available on Wikiversity under [[:Category:Media reform to improve democracy]], accessed 2026-04-30.&lt;/ref&gt; This encouraged literacy and limited political corruption, both of which helped [[The Great American Paradox|the early United States stay together and grow]]  while contemporary [[w:New Spain|New Spain]] / [[w:Mexico|Mexico]], fractured, shrank, and stagnated economically. As documented with Figure 1 in the chapter below on [[/The impact of the media on political economy since the time of the Pharaohs/]], that growth catapulted the young United States into its current position of dominance in the international political economy, a position it has been losing since at least 1990 -- or since the Reagan Revolution began in 1981, according to the analysis in the chapter below on [[/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future/]]. Other countries now have stronger democracies due in part to government subsidies for media in the range of 0.05 and 0.25 percent of GDP with a firewall that limits political interference in the content, according to Neff and Pickard (2024). Table 1 in &quot;[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]] compares media subsidies in various places with &quot;other points of reference&quot;.  

McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88) suggested that the relatively high rate of economic growth of the economy in the early US was due in part to postal subsidies under the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792.&lt;ref&gt;See also the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[The Great American Paradox]]&quot;, accessed 2026-04-30.&lt;/ref&gt; They estimated those subsidies at 0.21 percent of GDP. To improve the current political economy of the US, they recommended subsidies of 0.15 percent of GDP distributed to local news nonprofits on the basis of local elections.&lt;ref&gt;McChesney and Nichols (2021, 2022).&lt;/ref&gt; The Wikipedia article on &quot;[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]&quot; documents how some jurisdictions can devote that much money to local news nonprofits by matching what they spend on accounting, advertising, and public relations.&lt;ref&gt;See the section on &quot;[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government#Sampling units / experimental polities|Sampling units / experimental polities]]&quot; in the Wikiversity article on &quot;[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]&quot;, accessed 2026-04-30.&lt;/ref&gt;  

Pickard (2023) describes three basic strategies for confronting concentrated commercial media power: (1) break them up, (2) regulate them, and (3) create non-commercial, public alternatives. A fourth possibility might be [[w:externality|a graduated tax on income and wealth]] in proportion to the threat that major corporations pose to democracy. 

One class of noncommercial alternatives that Pickard mentions is local multimedia / Public Media Centers (PMCs) with management split between local journalists and boards, e.g., selected at random from registered voters. A key here is to have the boards selected in a way that cannot be influenced by people with power, whether business or political elites. Picard recommends considering '''six discrete layers''' when discussing PMCs, each of which, he says, must be radically democratised: 
# funding, 
# governance, 
# ascertainment (to determine a community’s ''critical information needs''), 
# infrastructure (including universal broadband service), 
# algorithmic (e.g., not allowing companies like Google and Facebook to suppress indexing information the might challenge their hegemony of those markets, [[w:Deep web|treating them like pedophilia and the Islamic State]]), 
# engagement, involving local communities in making their own news and in communicating their own stories; this is paramount to building trust and the grassroots-level support that this new local journalistic model requires.

All this needs to be managed in ways that provide substantive support to news deserts and underserved communities that have long been subjected to various kinds of informational redlining. This might be done by including the proposed PMCs within local libraries staffed by professional journalists, who provide training in media literacy in local schools for children and supervise students producing school newspapers. PMCs could host regular, e.g., monthly events, where local residents could share their concerns with journalist, who would use that input to help prioritize different issues for news coverage. Journalist could also coach local residents in how to research issues and collaborate with journalists in producing news reports that may be better researched and more relevant to local concerns than could be produced without such collaboration.

Management of such PMCs might be split between journalists on staff and boards of, e.g., six members selected at random from voter registration rolls serving staggered terms of one year with a new member rotated in every 2 months.  

Another alternative that could be done in parallel with local PMCs calls for 200 journalists in each US Congressional district funded at $10 billion annually in 2022 dollars, which is just a little under 4 hundredths of one percent of GDP; if such allocations are expressed as fractions of a percent of GDP, they would grow naturally with the economy. (The nominal GDP for the US was roughly $26.1 trillion in 2022.&lt;ref&gt;Johnston and Williamson (2026).&lt;/ref&gt; For 2026 it is estimated at $32.4 trillion.&lt;ref&gt;[[w:United States|United States]], accessed 2026-04-30.&lt;/ref&gt;) 

A similar model is the [[w:BBC|BBC]]’s Local Democracy Reporting Service (LDRS), in which the BBC funds journalists to cover the work of local councils and other local public bodies, funded at £8 million per year, which is a little under 2 hundredths of a percent of the [[w:United Kingdom|UK]]'s GDP of £7.27 trillion.&lt;ref&gt;[[w:United Kingdom|United Kingdom]], accessed 2026-04-30.&lt;/ref&gt; 

Pickard (2023) ended by saying, &quot;Today we face a crossroads: technocracy and oligarchy from above or radical democracy and structural reform from below. ... [T]his is not just a journalism crisis: it is a
democracy crisis.&quot;

==Table of Contents==
*[[/Introduction/]] including an exercise, asking all to discuss perceptions of the settlement of ''[[w:Dominion Voting Systems v. Fox News Network|Dominion Voting Systems v. Fox News Network]]'' in a friendly supportive manner with humans with whom they may vehemently disagree, because the alternative could be killing humans over misunderstandings. 

===Part I. The media and political economy===
# [[/The impact of the media on political economy since the time of the Pharaohs/]] describes how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James of the King James bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. During the reign of King James, pamphlets and newspapers began to compete with the church for helping commoners understand their roles in society. This produced the Industrial Revolution and modern democracies. Media consolidation since World War II slowed, then reversed this trend. 
# [[/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future/]] describes the unprecedented performance of the US political economy during the presidency of Franklin Roosevelt (FDR), insisting that much of what FDR achieved can be replicated, giving a media system that supports honest discussion of the available evidence. 
# [[/Media consolidation, social media, and political polarization/]] (Combine from McChesney and Nichols discussing the [[w:Postal Service Act|US Postal Service Act]] of 1792 with [[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]], the section on &quot;[[v:Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government#Threats from social media|Threats from social media]]&quot; in &quot;[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]], and the comments by [[v:Facebook whistleblower Frances Haugen says|Facebook whistleblower Frances Haugen that, &quot;the shortest path to a click is anger or hate.&quot;]].

===Part II. The media and war===
# [[/Deterrence without threat/]]: The historical record is clear: Nations that have prepared for war often got war, not peace. This happens for at least two reasons: First, some leaders cannot resist the temptation to use force inappropriately, sometimes clandestinely provoking others to do things that are then denounced as &quot;unprovoked&quot;; sometimes the media environment pushes them to do such. Alternatively, potential adversaries may believe -- or claim -- that you are actually preparing a first strike, and they must move preemptively or lose their ability to retaliate adequately. We can avoid these possibilities with three supportive policies: [a] Legislation that ''prohibits'' projecting force beyond our own borders. [b] Civilian-based defense training in nonviolent noncooperation like what helped Denmark survive Nazi occupation with minimal damage. And [c] a media system that penalizes rather than encourages a bellicose foreign policy.  
# [[/Responding to a nuclear attack/]] (draft in [[Responding to a nuclear attack]]. Add a discussion of Russia's Poseidon nuclear powered unmanned underwater vehicle, armed with nuclear weapons. With that, cite the record of &quot;[[w:System accident|system accident]]s&quot;. Also add material from [[Nuclear weapons and effective defense]]). 
# [[/Threats from excessive government secrecy/]] (draft in [https://sanjosepeace.org/restrict-secrecy-more-than-data-collection/ &quot;Restrict secrecy more than data collection&quot;], adding material from [https://kkfi.org/program-episodes/does-us-government-secrecy-threaten-national-security/ Connelly (2023) ''The Declassification Engine: What History Reveals About America's Top Secrets''], [[Wikipedia:Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy]] and [[1998 Embassy bombings and September 11]].
# [[/Shouting fire in a crowded theater/|Shouting ''fire'' in a crowded theater]]: Legal concerns about &quot;[[w:Shouting fire in a crowded theater|Shouting ''fire'' in a crowded theater]]&quot; date, at least in large part, from the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] decisions in ''[[w:Schenck v. United States|Schenck v. United States]]'' (1919) and ''[[w: Brandenburg v. Ohio| Brandenburg v. Ohio]]'' (1969). In ''Schenck'' the Court ruled that the government had a right to imprison Schenck and others, because their distribution of fliers encouraging draft resistance presented a [[w:clear and present danger|clear and present danger]] to the efficacy of ongoing military activities during [[w:World War I|World War I]], then in progress. The Court in ''Brandenburg'' held that the government cannot punish inflammatory speech ''unless that speech is &quot;directed to inciting or producing imminent lawless action and is likely to incite or produce such action&quot;.'' Some could argue that many uses of military force by the US and Israel since 1948 have violated international law, encouraged by biases in the major US media &quot;directed to inciting or producing imminent lawless action&quot;, though it may not be feasible to convince a court of that. Still, it might be useful to simulate such a case in a mock trial like the 1966 [[w:Russell Tribunal|Russell Tribunal]].&lt;ref&gt;Andersen (2006) provides such documentation for several such uses of force. Johnson (2026) ''How to Sell a Genocide: The Media's Complicity in the Destruction of Gaza'' organizes evidence supporting such claims for the current [[w:Gaza war|Gaza war]], which began with [[w:October 7 attacks|Palestinian attacks 2023-10-07]]. See also Andersen (2026). Might, e.g., Palestinians -- or at least Palestinian Americans -- be able to sue the [[w:Anti-Defamation League|Anti-Defamation League]] (ADL), the [[w:AIPAC|American Israel Public Affairs Committee]] (AIPAC), and all the major media outlets in the US for inciting genocide in the current [[w:Gaza war|Gaza war]]? That history includes routine suppression of coverage by the major media especially in the US of routine denial of equal protection of Israeli laws to non-Jews in Israel and under Israeli occupation, including suppression of Israeli violence against nonviolent protestors peaceably assembling and petitioning for a redress of grievances combined with over reporting of Palestinian violence and unquestioning coverage of fraudulent claims of Palestinian violence by Israel and supporters. The suppressions included underreporting of Palestinian nonviolence such as the [[w:2018–2019 Gaza border protests|(2018-2019) Great March of Return]], and suppression of the grievances inspiring such nonviolence such as indefinite detention without charges of thousands of Palestinians, including children, routine destruction of Palestinian property by settlers, confiscation of Palestinian property at gunpoint, closing [[w:Gaza Strip|Gaza]] to international trade, and maintaining Gaza on starvation rations. These routine biases in reporting have been encouraged by charges that more honest reporting would be &quot;[[w:Antisemitism|antisemetic]],  according to the ADL and AIPAC. This denial of coverage thereby encouraged Israel to increase the rate of such violations until the [[w:October 7 attacks|2023-10-07 attacks on Israel from Gaza]] unleashed Israeli &quot;retaliations&quot; way out of proportion to the alleged provocation. Sucharov (2022) reported that 69% of American Jews opposed privileging Jews over non-Jews in Israel. Their support of Israel in the current Gaza war is consistent with the media biases documented by Johnson (2026) and others including Andersen (2006, 2026). Regarding whether Israel could achieve anything positive from this war, Samuelson (2025) is skeptical. He summarized quantitative analyses of 60 previous insurgencies. The results including the observation that it is exceedingly difficult to defeat an insurgency without responding to the grievances that support it without force ratios far beyond Israel's resources.&lt;/ref&gt; 

===Part III. Climate, immigrants, education, public health, and criminal justice===
# [[/Global warming/]] [Summarize research especially on conflicts of interest of major media in honestly reporting on this issue and the research on global warming itself and activities of groups concerned about this issue. Decompose into global population times CO2 equivalents per human.] 
# [[/Immigrants/]] [Summarize research documenting that [[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary cities tend to have higher median incomes and no more crime than non-sanctuary jurisdictions]], and some studies report less crime. Moreover economists have documented that immigrants tend to be more entrepreneurial, overrepresented in patent applications, and generally increasing the rate of economic growth. See, e.g., Aghion et al. (2022) ''The power of creative destruction''; Aghion shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with two others.] 
# [[/Education/]] (draft in [[Invest in children]].) 
# [[/Public health/]] [Draft in [[UN public health data]] to be revised to be consistent with Bezruchka (2023, 2025).]
# [[/Substance abuse and addictive behavior/]] (Research cited in &quot;[[Wikipedia:War on drugs]]&quot; insists that the US and the world would have fewer problems with substance abuse and addiction problems with 100 percent public funding for treatment programs and complete decriminalization of possession and use of retail quantities of addictive substances. We would also likely have fewer problems with immigrants, as that would make it harder for the US to intervene in the internal affairs of foreign countries funded off the books, as exposed in the [[w:Iran–Contra affair|Iran–Contra affair]]. See [[w:Alfred W. McCoy|Alfred W. McCoy]] (1972; 3rd ed. 2003) ''The politics of heroin''. Journalist [[w:Gary Webb|Gary Webb]] published similar claims that the US intervention in Nicaragua in the Iran-Contra Affair was funded in part by drug money. The story was officially retracted by the ''San José Mercury News'', and Webb allegedly killed himself with 2 bullets to the head.
# [[/Criminal justice/]] (The section on &quot;[[w:United States incarceration rate#Editorial policies of major media|Editorial policies of major media]]&quot; in &quot;[[Wikipedia:United States incarceration rate]]&quot; cites research claiming that within the range range of experience in the US political economy since 1925, the incarceration rate is uncorrelated with crime: It's a function of the public's perception of crime, and that's a function of the media. That suggest that the US would be safer and more prosperous if incarceration policies were driving more by research than by editorial policies of the media. For example, there is also research that says that incarcerees who receive visits are less likely to recidivate, but that evidence is overlooked when convicts are incarcerated substantial distance from their family and friends and when the cost of phone services is substantially higher for incarcerees than among the general pubic. Also, it's known that better educated incarcerees are less likely to recidivate, but it's difficult and maybe impossible for many incarcerees to obtain education in prison.) 
# [[/Empower women and girls/]] [Cite research claiming that a primary restraint on population growth is empowering women and girls. Empowering women and girls is not just a matter of equity: It is also a means to reduce the threats of global warming, of increasing exposure to animal diseases and other problems that come with unrestrained population growth.]

=== Continuation ===

* [[/The evolving media literacy movement/]] to invite others to keep this book current with the evolving understanding of media literacy, how to encourage and promote it and the benefits of doing so.

==See also==

* [[Wikibooks:Antiracist Activism for Teachers and Students/Points to Consider for Teaching Anti-racism/Media Literacy In Schools]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}
	
==Bibliography==

* &lt;!--Daron Acemoğlu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125292212}}
* &lt;!--Robin Andersen (2006)  A century of media, a century of war--&gt;{{cite Q|Q138795568}}
* &lt;!--Robin Andersen (2026-06-02)  The Complicit Lens: US Media Coverage of Israel’s Genocide in Gaza--&gt;{{cite Q|Q138796307}}
* &lt;!--Perry Bacon Jr. (2022-10-17) &quot;America Should Spend Billions to Revive Local News&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q139594786}}
* &lt;!-- Joshua Benton (9 April 2019). &quot;When local newspapers shrink, fewer people bother to run for mayor&quot;. Nieman Foundation for Journalism --&gt;{{cite Q|Q63127216}}
* &lt;!--Stephen Bezruchka (2023) Inequality Kills Us All--&gt;{{cite Q|Q136047815}}
* &lt;!--Stephen Bezruchka (2025) ''Born Sick in the USA''--&gt;{{cite Q|Q138749292}} 
* &lt;!--Renée DiResta (2024) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality--&gt;{{cite Q|Q135107164}}
* &lt;!--Robert Felix, Joshua A. Khavis, and Mikhail Pevzner (2024) &quot;The effects of local newspaper closures on nonprofits’ executive compensation&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q132730972}}
* &lt;!--Maxim Flößer (2024-03-06) &quot;Keine Lokalzeitung -- mehr AfD&quot;, Kontext--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125287792}}
* &lt;!--Pengjie Gao, Chang Lee, and Dermot Murphy (2018) &quot;Financing Dies in Darkness? The Impact of Newspaper Closures on Public Finance&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q55670016}}
* &lt;!--Spencer Graves (2024) &quot;Wikipedia: The most democratic force on earth--&gt;{{cite Q|Q137796922}}
* &lt;!--Spencer Graves and Bryan Bailey (2025)  &quot;We have to talk&quot;, blog at PeaceWorksKC.org--&gt;{{cite Q|Q136126262}}
* [[d:Q138038060|Dan Hind and Spencer Graves (2025) &quot;Media Reform Coalition challenges anti-democratic media bias in the UK&quot; on Wikiversity]].
* &lt;!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse--&gt;{{cite Q|Q54641943}}
* &lt;!--Adam H. Johnson (2026-04-21) How to Sell a Genocide: The Media's Complicity in the Destruction of Gaza--&gt;{{cite Q|Q140073447}}
* &lt;!--Louis Johnston and Samuel H. Williamson, &quot;What Was the U.S. GDP Then?&quot; MeasuringWorth, 2026--&gt;{{cite Q|Q56881105}}
* &lt;!-- Min Kim, Derrald Stice, Han Stice, and Roger M. White (2021)  &quot;Stop the presses! Or wait, we might need them: Firm responses to local newspaper closures and layoffs&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q132459373}}
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) --&gt;{{cite Q|Q104888067}}.
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2021). &quot;The Local Journalism Initiative: a proposal to protect and extend democracy&quot;. Columbia Journalism Review, 30 November 2021 --&gt;{{cite Q|Q109978060}}
* &lt;!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2022), To Protect and Extend Democracy, Recreate Local News Media (PDF), FreePress.net (updated 25 January 2022) --&gt;{{cite Q|Q109978337|access-date=2024-06-23}}
* &lt;!--Neff and Pickard (2024) &quot;Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q131468289}}
* [[d:Q131398359|Victor Pickard (2020) ''Democracy without journalism? : confronting the misinformation society'' (Oxford U. Pr.)]].
* &lt;!-- Victor Pickard (2023-05-12) &quot;Another Media System is Possible: Ripping Open the Overton Window, from Platforms to Public Broadcasting&quot;--&gt;{{cite Q|Q131398460}}
* &lt;!--Doug Samuelson (2025)  Assessing Israel’s Approach in Gaza--&gt;{{cite Q|Q138843324}} 
* [[d:Q138037937|Dean Starkman and Spencer Graves (2025) &quot;Dean Starkman and the watchdog that didn't bark anglais&quot; on Wikiversity]].
* &lt;!--Mira Sucharov (2022)  Do American Jews Really Know What 'Zionist' Means?--&gt;{{cite Q|Q125903777}}
* [[d:Q134715465|Nikki Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022) &quot;How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption&quot;, ''SSRN Electronic Journal'']].
* [[d:Q61013892|Horacio Verbitsky (1997) ''Un mundo sin periodistas'' (in Spanish: A world without journalists; Editorial Sudamericana)]].

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[[Category:Political science]]
[[Category:Law]]
[[Category:Psychology]]
[[Category:Sociology]]
[[Category:Education]]
[[Category:Economics]]
[[Category:Media Literacy and You]]
[[Category:Freedom and abundance]]
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{{title|Body neutrality and emotional well-being:&lt;br&gt;How a body-neutral perspective can affect emotional well-being}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example:

{{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)&lt;br&gt;{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings:
** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings)
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

==Key points==
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion 
* Include key citations

== Understanding Body Neutrality ==
Overview: establishing the key concepts before moving to their emotional + psychological effects

=== Body Image ===

* What is body image? Grogan, S. (2016). ''Body image: Understanding body dissatisfaction in men, women and children'' (3rd ed.). Routledge.
* Explain how people develop perception of their bodies Shontz, F. C. (1989). [Rev. of ''Development and Structure of the Body Image, Volumes 1 and 2'']. ''Psychoanalytic Psychology'', ''6''(4), 503–507. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0736-9735.6.4.503&lt;/nowiki&gt; 
* introduce ideal standards: Frederick, D. A., Forbes, M., Gentle, B., Reynolds, T. A., &amp; Walters, T. (2012). Beauty standards. In ''Encyclopedia of human sexuality''. Wiley-Blackwell. 

=== From Body Negativity to Body Positivity to Body Neutrality ===

* What is body positivity and how did it emerge? - social media? 
* Benefits of positive body image 
* Limitations in the expectation that people SHOULD love their bodies 
* Body neutrality as an alternative? - Acceptance without requiring positive feelings 

=== Body Neutrality ===

* Finally explain body neutrality 
* How is it different to body positivity/dissatisfaction
* Body functionality rather than acceptance 
* Reducing appearance-based view 
* Acknowledging negative body-related thoughts without acting on them

=== How is body neutrality different from simply &quot;not caring&quot; about one's body ===

== Psychological Processes and Emotional Impacts ==
Overview: introducing relationship between body image and emotional well-being

=== Negative Emotions ===

* Body image can contribute to negative emotions (shame, anxiety, etc.,), reducing self-esteem and causing psychological distress
* What is body related self-esteem + self-worth?
* How evaluating oneself primarily through physical appearance can make emotional well-being vulnerable

=== Appearance-Based Self-worth ===

* Appearance-based self-evaluation - emotional wellbeing dependent on perceived attractiveness
* Self-objectification 
* How body neutrality shifts attention away from appearance

=== Psychological Effects ===

* Psychological disorders?
* Distorted self-image?

== Social and Cultural Contributions ==
Overview:

=== Appearance Ideals and Cultural Influences ===

=== Effects of Social Media ===

* Appearance Focused platforms? (TikTok, Instagram, etc.,)
* Editied pictures, filters, and digital manipulation 
* Influencer + celebrity culture 
* Body &quot;trends&quot; 

=== Individual and Social Differences ===

* Gender? Age? Race? Sexuality?
*

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Body neutrality and emotional well-being|Body neutrality and emotional well-being]] (Book chapter, 2025)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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{{title|Body neutrality and emotional well-being:&lt;br&gt;How a body-neutral perspective can affect emotional well-being}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example:

{{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)&lt;br&gt;{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings:
** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings)
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

==Key points==
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion 
* Include key citations

== Understanding Body Neutrality ==
Overview: establishing the key concepts before moving to their emotional + psychological effects

=== Body Image ===

* What is body image? Grogan, S. (2016). ''Body image: Understanding body dissatisfaction in men, women and children'' (3rd ed.). Routledge.
* Explain how people develop perception of their bodies Shontz, F. C. (1989). [Rev. of ''Development and Structure of the Body Image, Volumes 1 and 2'']. ''Psychoanalytic Psychology'', ''6''(4), 503–507. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/0736-9735.6.4.503&lt;/nowiki&gt; 
* introduce ideal standards: Frederick, D. A., Forbes, M., Gentle, B., Reynolds, T. A., &amp; Walters, T. (2012). Beauty standards. In ''Encyclopedia of human sexuality''. Wiley-Blackwell. 

=== From Body Negativity to Body Positivity to Body Neutrality ===

* What is body positivity and how did it emerge? - social media? 
* Benefits of positive body image 
* Limitations in the expectation that people SHOULD love their bodies 
* Body neutrality as an alternative? - Acceptance without requiring positive feelings 

=== Body Neutrality ===

* Finally explain body neutrality 
* How is it different to body positivity/dissatisfaction
* Body functionality rather than acceptance 
* Reducing appearance-based view 
* Acknowledging negative body-related thoughts without acting on them

=== How is body neutrality different from simply &quot;not caring&quot; about one's body ===

== Psychological Processes and Emotional Impacts ==
Overview: introducing relationship between body image and emotional well-being

=== Negative Emotions ===

* Body image can contribute to negative emotions (shame, anxiety, etc.,), reducing self-esteem and causing psychological distress
* What is body related self-esteem + self-worth?
* How evaluating oneself primarily through physical appearance can make emotional well-being vulnerable

=== Appearance-Based Self-worth ===

* Appearance-based self-evaluation - emotional wellbeing dependent on perceived attractiveness
* Self-objectification 
* How body neutrality shifts attention away from appearance

=== Psychological Effects ===

* Psychological disorders?
* Distorted self-image?

== Social and Cultural Contributions ==
Overview:

=== Appearance Ideals and Cultural Influences ===

* How differing cultures define idealised beauty?
* Thinness, muscularity, youthfulness and other appearance standards
* How do these cultural standards become internalised? 

=== Effects of Social Media ===

* Appearance Focused platforms? (TikTok, Instagram, etc.,)
* Editied pictures, filters, and digital manipulation 
* Influencer + celebrity culture 
* Body &quot;trends&quot; 
* How does this become internalised?

=== Individual and Social Differences ===

* Gender? Age? Race? Sexuality?
*How does this become internalised?

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Body neutrality and emotional well-being|Body neutrality and emotional well-being]] (Book chapter, 2025)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Body image]]  
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>The John Snow Prediabetes Institute</title>
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https://w.wiki/Skm7

The John Snow prediabetes Institute is an international research network focused on prediabetes remission (prevention) , early risk identification, and metabolic health education.

&lt;big&gt;Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. Early diagnosis and education of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes. A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI), the fasting blood sugar (glucometer), blood pressure, age, gender in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools followed by giving educational materials.The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Educational materials is available from the international diabetes organisations e.g from the ADA:&lt;/big&gt; &lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]]
&lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt; https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068[
[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|350px|right|&lt;big&gt;
Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]]

1. '''Prevalence studies ''' 
====[[/The Maritime Health database design // |1.1 The Maritime Health database design]] ====
&lt;big&gt;1.2 Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
&lt;big&gt;1.3. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.4. School childrens` Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.5 Excel recoding &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/9qvqeccto2kbuqvx7mdkl?r=ACsntb2AuiFkJbEBLObVdo0HMD67UZBBUGCGl1RPCPy1X5Y3K3e9Lf4s7cG7i7E_iH0IK-WkynXw_FNCDWybHuCgaNl_OM8yche2w2aapJGk5BTHybbsLpLayBU8VKPPqxNa2zDaNslBdQg0MhmKTFSG&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;big&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Intervention studies''' English 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;

- General research protocol draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;

- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;

- John Snow Institute bylaws &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r &lt;/ref&gt;

3. '''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;

4. '''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''
&lt;small&gt;Cordinator and Director MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey, Prof. Magda Medir Mb, Spain, Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark&lt;/small&gt;

5. '''Events''' 
====[[/|Manila conference Oct. 2026]] ====

==References==

&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Prediabetes ]]Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
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https://w.wiki/Skm7

The John Snow prediabetes Institute is an international research network focused on prediabetes remission (prevention) , early risk identification, and metabolic health education.

&lt;big&gt;Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. Early diagnosis and education of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes. A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI), the fasting blood sugar (glucometer), blood pressure, age, gender in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools followed by giving educational materials.The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Educational materials is available from the international diabetes organisations e.g from the ADA:&lt;/big&gt; &lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]]
&lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt; https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068[
[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|350px|right|&lt;big&gt;
Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]]

&lt;big&gt; 1. '''Prevalence studies ''' 

====[[/The Maritime Health database design // |1.1 The Maritime Health database design]] ==== &lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.2 Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.3. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.4. School childrens` Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.5 Excel recoding &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/9qvqeccto2kbuqvx7mdkl?r=ACsntb2AuiFkJbEBLObVdo0HMD67UZBBUGCGl1RPCPy1X5Y3K3e9Lf4s7cG7i7E_iH0IK-WkynXw_FNCDWybHuCgaNl_OM8yche2w2aapJGk5BTHybbsLpLayBU8VKPPqxNa2zDaNslBdQg0MhmKTFSG&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;big&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Intervention studies''' English 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;

- General research protocol draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;

- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;

- John Snow Institute bylaws &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r &lt;/ref&gt;

3. '''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;

4. '''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''
&lt;small&gt;Cordinator and Director MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey, Prof. Magda Medir Mb, Spain, Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark&lt;/small&gt;

5. '''Events''' 
====[[/|Manila conference Oct. 2026]] ====

==References==

&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Prediabetes ]]Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
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https://w.wiki/Skm7

The John Snow prediabetes Institute is an international research network focused on prediabetes remission (prevention) , early risk identification, and metabolic health education.

&lt;big&gt;Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. Early diagnosis and education of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes. A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI), the fasting blood sugar (glucometer), blood pressure, age, gender in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools followed by giving educational materials.The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Educational materials is available from the international diabetes organisations e.g from the ADA:&lt;/big&gt; &lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]]
&lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt; https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068[
[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|350px|right|&lt;big&gt;
Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]]

&lt;big&gt; 1. '''Prevalence studies ''' &lt;/big&gt;

===[[/The Maritime Health database design // |1.1 The Maritime Health database design]] ==== 

&lt;big&gt;1.2 Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.3. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.4. School childrens` Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.5 Excel recoding &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/9qvqeccto2kbuqvx7mdkl?r=ACsntb2AuiFkJbEBLObVdo0HMD67UZBBUGCGl1RPCPy1X5Y3K3e9Lf4s7cG7i7E_iH0IK-WkynXw_FNCDWybHuCgaNl_OM8yche2w2aapJGk5BTHybbsLpLayBU8VKPPqxNa2zDaNslBdQg0MhmKTFSG&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;big&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Intervention studies''' English 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;

- General research protocol draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;

- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;

- John Snow Institute bylaws &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r &lt;/ref&gt;

3. '''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;

4. '''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''
&lt;small&gt;Cordinator and Director MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey, Prof. Magda Medir Mb, Spain, Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark&lt;/small&gt;

5. '''Events''' 
====[[/|Manila conference Oct. 2026]] ====

==References==

&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Prediabetes ]]Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
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https://w.wiki/Skm7

The John Snow prediabetes Institute is an international research network focused on prediabetes remission (prevention) , early risk identification, and metabolic health education.

&lt;big&gt;Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. Early diagnosis and education of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes. A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI), the fasting blood sugar (glucometer), blood pressure, age, gender in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools followed by giving educational materials.The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Educational materials is available from the international diabetes organisations e.g from the ADA:&lt;/big&gt; &lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]]
&lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt; https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068[
[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|350px|right|&lt;big&gt;
Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]]

&lt;big&gt; '''1. Prevalence studies'''  &lt;/big&gt;

===[[/The Maritime Health database design // |1.1 The Maritime Health database design]]=== 

&lt;big&gt;1.2 Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.3. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.4. School childrens` Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.5 Excel recoding &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/9qvqeccto2kbuqvx7mdkl?r=ACsntb2AuiFkJbEBLObVdo0HMD67UZBBUGCGl1RPCPy1X5Y3K3e9Lf4s7cG7i7E_iH0IK-WkynXw_FNCDWybHuCgaNl_OM8yche2w2aapJGk5BTHybbsLpLayBU8VKPPqxNa2zDaNslBdQg0MhmKTFSG&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;big&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Intervention studies''' English 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;

- General research protocol draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;

- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;

- John Snow Institute bylaws &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r &lt;/ref&gt;

3. '''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;

4. '''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''
&lt;small&gt;Cordinator and Director MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey, Prof. Magda Medir Mb, Spain, Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark&lt;/small&gt;

5. '''Events''' 
====[[/|Manila conference Oct. 2026]] ====

==References==

&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Prediabetes ]]Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
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https://w.wiki/Skm7

The John Snow prediabetes Institute is an international research network focused on prediabetes remission (prevention) , early risk identification, and metabolic health education.

&lt;big&gt;Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. Early diagnosis and education of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes. A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI), the fasting blood sugar (glucometer), blood pressure, age, gender in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools followed by giving educational materials.The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer &lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt; https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068&lt;nowiki/&gt;and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Educational materials is available from the international diabetes organisations e.g from the ADA:&lt;/big&gt; &lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]]
[
[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|350px|right|&lt;big&gt;
Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]]

&lt;big&gt; '''1. Prevalence studies'''  &lt;/big&gt;

===[[/The Maritime Health database design // |1.1 The Maritime Health database design]]=== 

&lt;big&gt;1.2 Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.3. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.4. School childrens` Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.5 Excel recoding &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/9qvqeccto2kbuqvx7mdkl?r=ACsntb2AuiFkJbEBLObVdo0HMD67UZBBUGCGl1RPCPy1X5Y3K3e9Lf4s7cG7i7E_iH0IK-WkynXw_FNCDWybHuCgaNl_OM8yche2w2aapJGk5BTHybbsLpLayBU8VKPPqxNa2zDaNslBdQg0MhmKTFSG&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;big&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Intervention studies''' English 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;

- General research protocol draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;

- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;

- John Snow Institute bylaws &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r &lt;/ref&gt;

3. '''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;

4. '''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''
&lt;small&gt;Cordinator and Director MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey, Prof. Magda Medir Mb, Spain, Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark&lt;/small&gt;

5. '''Events''' 
====[[/|Manila conference Oct. 2026]] ====

==References==

&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Prediabetes ]]Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
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https://w.wiki/Skm7

The John Snow prediabetes Institute is an international research network focused on prediabetes remission (prevention) , early risk identification, and metabolic health education.

&lt;big&gt;Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. Early diagnosis and education of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes. A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI), the fasting blood sugar (glucometer), blood pressure, age, gender in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools followed by giving educational materials.The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer &lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt; https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068&lt;nowiki/&gt;and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Educational materials is available from the international diabetes organisations e.g from the ADA:&lt;/big&gt; &lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]]
[
[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|350px|right|&lt;big&gt;
Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]]

&lt;big&gt; '''1. Prevalence studies'''  &lt;/big&gt;

===[[/The Maritime Health database design // |1.1 The Maritime Health database design]]=== 

&lt;big&gt;1.2 Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.3. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.4. School childrens` Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.5 Excel recoding &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/9qvqeccto2kbuqvx7mdkl?r=ACsntb2AuiFkJbEBLObVdo0HMD67UZBBUGCGl1RPCPy1X5Y3K3e9Lf4s7cG7i7E_iH0IK-WkynXw_FNCDWybHuCgaNl_OM8yche2w2aapJGk5BTHybbsLpLayBU8VKPPqxNa2zDaNslBdQg0MhmKTFSG&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Intervention studies''' English 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;

- General research protocol draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;

- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;

- John Snow Institute bylaws &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r &lt;/ref&gt;

3. '''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;

4. '''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''
&lt;small&gt;Cordinator and Director MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey, Prof. Magda Medir Mb, Spain, Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark&lt;/small&gt;

5. '''Events''' 
====[[/|Manila conference Oct. 2026]] ====

==References==

&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Prediabetes ]]Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
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https://w.wiki/Skm7

The John Snow prediabetes Institute is an international research network focused on prediabetes remission (prevention) , early risk identification, and metabolic health education.

&lt;big&gt;Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. Early diagnosis and education of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes. A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI), the fasting blood sugar (glucometer), blood pressure, age, gender in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools followed by giving educational materials.The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer &lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt; https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068&lt;nowiki/&gt;and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Educational materials is available from the international diabetes organisations e.g from the ADA:&lt;/big&gt; &lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]][
[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|350px|right|&lt;big&gt;
Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]]

&lt;big&gt; '''1. Prevalence studies'''  &lt;/big&gt;

===[[/The Maritime Health database design // |1.1 The Maritime Health database design]]=== 

&lt;big&gt;1.2 Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.3. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.4. School childrens` Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.5 Excel recoding &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/9qvqeccto2kbuqvx7mdkl?r=ACsntb2AuiFkJbEBLObVdo0HMD67UZBBUGCGl1RPCPy1X5Y3K3e9Lf4s7cG7i7E_iH0IK-WkynXw_FNCDWybHuCgaNl_OM8yche2w2aapJGk5BTHybbsLpLayBU8VKPPqxNa2zDaNslBdQg0MhmKTFSG&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Intervention studies''' English 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;

- General research protocol draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;

- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;

- John Snow Institute bylaws &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r &lt;/ref&gt;

3. '''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;

4. '''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''
&lt;small&gt;Cordinator and Director MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey, Prof. Magda Medir Mb, Spain, Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark&lt;/small&gt;

5. '''Events''' 
====[[/|Manila conference Oct. 2026]] ====

==References==

&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Prediabetes ]]Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
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        <id>2984088</id>
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      <text bytes="5282" sha1="f4x7h7wffwq3j05zq27mgqxwpb126c4" xml:space="preserve">The John Snow prediabetes Institute is an international research network focused on prediabetes remission (prevention) , early risk identification, and metabolic health education. (https://w.wiki/Skm7)

Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. Early diagnosis and education of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes. A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI), the fasting blood sugar (glucometer), blood pressure, age, gender in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools followed by giving educational materials.The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer &lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt; https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068&lt;nowiki/&gt;and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Educational materials is available from the international diabetes organisations e.g from the ADA:&lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]][
[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|350px|right|&lt;big&gt;
Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]]

&lt;big&gt; '''1. Prevalence studies'''  &lt;/big&gt;

===[[/The Maritime Health database design // |1.1 The Maritime Health database design]]=== 

&lt;big&gt;1.2 Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.3. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.4. School childrens` Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.5 Excel recoding &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/9qvqeccto2kbuqvx7mdkl?r=ACsntb2AuiFkJbEBLObVdo0HMD67UZBBUGCGl1RPCPy1X5Y3K3e9Lf4s7cG7i7E_iH0IK-WkynXw_FNCDWybHuCgaNl_OM8yche2w2aapJGk5BTHybbsLpLayBU8VKPPqxNa2zDaNslBdQg0MhmKTFSG&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Intervention studies''' English 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;

- General research protocol draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;

- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;

- John Snow Institute bylaws &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r &lt;/ref&gt;

3. '''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;

4. '''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''
&lt;small&gt;Cordinator and Director MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey, Prof. Magda Medir Mb, Spain, Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark&lt;/small&gt;

5. '''Events''' 
====[[/|Manila conference Oct. 2026]] ====

==References==

&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Prediabetes ]]Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
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      <text bytes="5281" sha1="5kkopi8xewifo8v7vb0sy79g9f26yk8" xml:space="preserve">The John Snow prediabetes Institute is an international research network focused on prediabetes remission (prevention) , early risk identification, and metabolic health education. (https://w.wiki/Skm7)

Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. Early diagnosis and education of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes. A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI), the fasting blood sugar (glucometer), blood pressure, age, gender in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools followed by giving educational materials.The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer &lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt; https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068&lt;nowiki/&gt;and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Educational materials is available from the international diabetes organisations e.g from the ADA:&lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]][[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|350px|right|&lt;big&gt;
Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars&lt;/big&gt; ]]

&lt;big&gt; '''1. Prevalence studies'''  &lt;/big&gt;

===[[/The Maritime Health database design // |1.1 The Maritime Health database design]]=== 

&lt;big&gt;1.2 Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.3. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.4. School childrens` Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

&lt;big&gt;1.5 Excel recoding &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/9qvqeccto2kbuqvx7mdkl?r=ACsntb2AuiFkJbEBLObVdo0HMD67UZBBUGCGl1RPCPy1X5Y3K3e9Lf4s7cG7i7E_iH0IK-WkynXw_FNCDWybHuCgaNl_OM8yche2w2aapJGk5BTHybbsLpLayBU8VKPPqxNa2zDaNslBdQg0MhmKTFSG&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Intervention studies''' English 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;

- General research protocol draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;

- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;

- John Snow Institute bylaws &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r &lt;/ref&gt;

3. '''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;

4. '''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''
&lt;small&gt;Cordinator and Director MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey, Prof. Magda Medir Mb, Spain, Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark&lt;/small&gt;

5. '''Events''' 
====[[/|Manila conference Oct. 2026]] ====

==References==

&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Prediabetes ]]Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
      <sha1>5kkopi8xewifo8v7vb0sy79g9f26yk8</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824152</id>
      <parentid>2824151</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T06:42:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NDM2024</username>
        <id>2984088</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2824152</origin>
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      <text bytes="5239" sha1="nebadv99hf8kuh8axkbg9bh4acaae7v" xml:space="preserve">The John Snow prediabetes Institute is an international research network focused on prediabetes remission (prevention) , early risk identification, and metabolic health education. (https://w.wiki/Skm7)

Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. Early diagnosis and education of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes. A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI), the fasting blood sugar (glucometer), blood pressure, age, gender in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools followed by giving educational materials.The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer &lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt; https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068&lt;nowiki/&gt;and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Educational materials is available from the international diabetes organisations e.g from the ADA:&lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]][[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|350px|right|&lt;big&gt;
Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars&lt;/big&gt; ]]

&lt;big&gt; '''1. Prevalence studies'''  &lt;/big&gt;

===[[/The Maritime Health database design // |1.1 The Maritime Health database design]]=== 

1.2 Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;

1.3. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;

1.4. School childrens` Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;

1.5 Excel recoding &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/9qvqeccto2kbuqvx7mdkl?r=ACsntb2AuiFkJbEBLObVdo0HMD67UZBBUGCGl1RPCPy1X5Y3K3e9Lf4s7cG7i7E_iH0IK-WkynXw_FNCDWybHuCgaNl_OM8yche2w2aapJGk5BTHybbsLpLayBU8VKPPqxNa2zDaNslBdQg0MhmKTFSG&lt;/ref&gt; 

&lt;big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Intervention studies''' English 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;

- General research protocol draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;

- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;

- John Snow Institute bylaws &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r &lt;/ref&gt;

3. '''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;

4. '''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''
&lt;small&gt;Cordinator and Director MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey, Prof. Magda Medir Mb, Spain, Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark&lt;/small&gt;

5. '''Events''' 
====[[/|Manila conference Oct. 2026]] ====

==References==

&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Prediabetes ]]Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
      <sha1>nebadv99hf8kuh8axkbg9bh4acaae7v</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824154</id>
      <parentid>2824152</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T06:45:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NDM2024</username>
        <id>2984088</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2824154</origin>
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      <text bytes="5274" sha1="7iu3f0ke6g18eaccmmwiv3k8hx6gzj3" xml:space="preserve">The John Snow prediabetes Institute is an international research network focused on prediabetes remission (prevention) , early risk identification, and metabolic health education. (https://w.wiki/Skm7)

Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. Early diagnosis and education of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes. A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI), the fasting blood sugar (glucometer), blood pressure, age, gender in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools followed by giving educational materials.The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer &lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt; https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068&lt;nowiki/&gt;and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Educational materials is available from the international diabetes organisations e.g from the ADA:&lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]][[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|350px|right|&lt;big&gt;
Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars&lt;/big&gt; ]]

&lt;big&gt; '''1. Prevalence studies'''  &lt;/big&gt;

===[[/The Maritime Health database design // |1.1 The Maritime Health database design]]=== 

1.2  Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;

1.3. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;

1.4. School childrens` Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;

1.5  Excel recoding (pre diabetes, hypertension etc) &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/9qvqeccto2kbuqvx7mdkl?r=ACsntb2AuiFkJbEBLObVdo0HMD67UZBBUGCGl1RPCPy1X5Y3K3e9Lf4s7cG7i7E_iH0IK-WkynXw_FNCDWybHuCgaNl_OM8yche2w2aapJGk5BTHybbsLpLayBU8VKPPqxNa2zDaNslBdQg0MhmKTFSG&lt;/ref&gt; 

&lt;big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Intervention studies''' English 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;

- General research protocol draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;

- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;

- John Snow Institute bylaws &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r &lt;/ref&gt;

3. '''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;

4. '''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''
&lt;small&gt;Cordinator and Director MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey, Prof. Magda Medir Mb, Spain, Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark&lt;/small&gt;

5. '''Events''' 
====[[/|Manila conference Oct. 2026]] ====

==References==

&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Prediabetes ]]Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
      <sha1>7iu3f0ke6g18eaccmmwiv3k8hx6gzj3</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824156</id>
      <parentid>2824154</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T06:48:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NDM2024</username>
        <id>2984088</id>
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      <origin>2824156</origin>
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      <text bytes="5277" sha1="lpdt4az588jl62hkaj9r4394w1whmjb" xml:space="preserve">The John Snow prediabetes Institute is an international research network focused on prediabetes remission (prevention) , early risk identification, and metabolic health education. (https://w.wiki/Skm7)

Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. Early diagnosis and education of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes. A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI), the fasting blood sugar (glucometer), blood pressure, age, gender in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools followed by giving educational materials.The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer &lt;ref&gt;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068 &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt; and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Educational materials is available from the international diabetes organisations e.g from the ADA:&lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]][[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;
Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars&lt;/big&gt; ]]

&lt;big&gt; '''1. Prevalence studies'''  &lt;/big&gt;

===[[/The Maritime Health database design // |1.1 The Maritime Health database design]]=== 

1.2  Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;

1.3. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;

1.4. School childrens` Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;

1.5  Excel recoding (pre diabetes, hypertension etc) &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/9qvqeccto2kbuqvx7mdkl?r=ACsntb2AuiFkJbEBLObVdo0HMD67UZBBUGCGl1RPCPy1X5Y3K3e9Lf4s7cG7i7E_iH0IK-WkynXw_FNCDWybHuCgaNl_OM8yche2w2aapJGk5BTHybbsLpLayBU8VKPPqxNa2zDaNslBdQg0MhmKTFSG&lt;/ref&gt; 

&lt;big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Intervention studies''' English 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;

- General research protocol draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;

- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;

- John Snow Institute bylaws &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r &lt;/ref&gt;

3. '''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;

4. '''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''
&lt;small&gt;Cordinator and Director MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey, Prof. Magda Medir Mb, Spain, Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark&lt;/small&gt;

5. '''Events''' 
====[[/|Manila conference Oct. 2026]] ====

==References==

&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Prediabetes ]]Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
      <sha1>lpdt4az588jl62hkaj9r4394w1whmjb</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824157</id>
      <parentid>2824156</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T06:49:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NDM2024</username>
        <id>2984088</id>
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      <text bytes="5275" sha1="o27m1908rjirv4e8t03n0ctpq36g3ou" xml:space="preserve">The John Snow prediabetes Institute is an international research network focused on prediabetes remission (prevention) , early risk identification, and metabolic health education. (https://w.wiki/Skm7)

Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. Early diagnosis and education of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes. A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI), the fasting blood sugar (glucometer), blood pressure, age, gender in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools followed by giving educational materials.The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer &lt;ref&gt;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068 &lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt; and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Educational materials available from the international diabetes organisations e.g from the ADA:&lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]][[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;
Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars&lt;/big&gt; ]]

&lt;big&gt; '''1. Prevalence studies'''  &lt;/big&gt;

===[[/The Maritime Health database design // |1.1 The Maritime Health database design]]=== 

1.2  Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;

1.3. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;

1.4. School childrens` Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;

1.5  Excel recoding (pre diabetes, hypertension etc) &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/9qvqeccto2kbuqvx7mdkl?r=ACsntb2AuiFkJbEBLObVdo0HMD67UZBBUGCGl1RPCPy1X5Y3K3e9Lf4s7cG7i7E_iH0IK-WkynXw_FNCDWybHuCgaNl_OM8yche2w2aapJGk5BTHybbsLpLayBU8VKPPqxNa2zDaNslBdQg0MhmKTFSG&lt;/ref&gt; 

&lt;big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Intervention studies''' English 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;

- General research protocol draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;

- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;

- John Snow Institute bylaws &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r &lt;/ref&gt;

3. '''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;

4. '''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''
&lt;small&gt;Cordinator and Director MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey, Prof. Magda Medir Mb, Spain, Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark&lt;/small&gt;

5. '''Events''' 
====[[/|Manila conference Oct. 2026]] ====

==References==

&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Prediabetes ]]Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2824158</id>
      <parentid>2824157</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T06:50:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NDM2024</username>
        <id>2984088</id>
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      <text bytes="5203" sha1="55orkoumxyxgs58pk5q2ln825yv9e5w" xml:space="preserve">The John Snow prediabetes Institute is an international research network focused on prediabetes remission (prevention) , early risk identification, and metabolic health education. (https://w.wiki/Skm7)

Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. Early diagnosis and education of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes. A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI), the fasting blood sugar (glucometer), blood pressure, age, gender in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools followed by giving educational materials.The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer &lt;ref&gt;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068 &lt;/ref&gt; and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Educational materials available from the international diabetes organisations e.g from the ADA:&lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]][[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;
Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars&lt;/big&gt; ]]

&lt;big&gt; '''1. Prevalence studies'''  &lt;/big&gt;

===[[/The Maritime Health database design // |1.1 The Maritime Health database design]]=== 

1.2  Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;

1.3. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;

1.4. School childrens` Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;

1.5  Excel recoding (pre diabetes, hypertension etc) &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/9qvqeccto2kbuqvx7mdkl?r=ACsntb2AuiFkJbEBLObVdo0HMD67UZBBUGCGl1RPCPy1X5Y3K3e9Lf4s7cG7i7E_iH0IK-WkynXw_FNCDWybHuCgaNl_OM8yche2w2aapJGk5BTHybbsLpLayBU8VKPPqxNa2zDaNslBdQg0MhmKTFSG&lt;/ref&gt; 

&lt;big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Intervention studies''' English 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;

- General research protocol draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;

- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;

- John Snow Institute bylaws &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r &lt;/ref&gt;

3. '''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;

4. '''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''
&lt;small&gt;Cordinator and Director MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey, Prof. Magda Medir Mb, Spain, Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark&lt;/small&gt;

5. '''Events''' 
====[[/|Manila conference Oct. 2026]] ====

==References==

&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Prediabetes ]]Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
      <sha1>55orkoumxyxgs58pk5q2ln825yv9e5w</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824174</id>
      <parentid>2824158</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T07:22:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NDM2024</username>
        <id>2984088</id>
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      <origin>2824174</origin>
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      <text bytes="5249" sha1="n8qkjkx4uk0xw1lp5i56kv21ixw64jb" xml:space="preserve">The John Snow prediabetes Institute is an international research network focused on prediabetes remission (prevention) , early risk identification, and metabolic health education. (https://w.wiki/Skm7)

Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. Early diagnosis and education of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes. A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI), the fasting blood sugar (glucometer), blood pressure, age, gender in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools followed by giving educational materials.The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer &lt;ref&gt;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068 &lt;/ref&gt; and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Educational materials available from the international diabetes organisations e.g from the ADA:&lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]][[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;
Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars&lt;/big&gt; ]]

&lt;big&gt; '''1. Prevalence studies'''  &lt;/big&gt;

===[[/The Maritime Health database design // |1.1 The Maritime Health database design]]=== 

1.2  Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;

1.3. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;

1.4. School childrens` Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;

1.5  Excel recoding (pre diabetes, hypertension etc) &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/9qvqeccto2kbuqvx7mdkl?r=ACsntb2AuiFkJbEBLObVdo0HMD67UZBBUGCGl1RPCPy1X5Y3K3e9Lf4s7cG7i7E_iH0IK-WkynXw_FNCDWybHuCgaNl_OM8yche2w2aapJGk5BTHybbsLpLayBU8VKPPqxNa2zDaNslBdQg0MhmKTFSG&lt;/ref&gt; 

&lt;big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Intervention studies''' English 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;

- General research protocol draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;

- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;

- John Snow Institute bylaws &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r &lt;/ref&gt;

===[[/The John Snow Institute bylaws /]]=== 

3. '''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;

4. '''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''
&lt;small&gt;Cordinator and Director MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey, Prof. Magda Medir Mb, Spain, Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark&lt;/small&gt;

5. '''Events''' 
====[[/|Manila conference Oct. 2026]] ====

==References==

&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Prediabetes ]]Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
      <sha1>n8qkjkx4uk0xw1lp5i56kv21ixw64jb</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824176</id>
      <parentid>2824174</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T07:23:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NDM2024</username>
        <id>2984088</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* /The John Snow Institute bylaws / */</comment>
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      <text bytes="5251" sha1="sglfoekpn4jwjmwugb8m0powp1ial0q" xml:space="preserve">The John Snow prediabetes Institute is an international research network focused on prediabetes remission (prevention) , early risk identification, and metabolic health education. (https://w.wiki/Skm7)

Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. Early diagnosis and education of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes. A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI), the fasting blood sugar (glucometer), blood pressure, age, gender in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools followed by giving educational materials.The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer &lt;ref&gt;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068 &lt;/ref&gt; and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Educational materials available from the international diabetes organisations e.g from the ADA:&lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]][[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;
Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars&lt;/big&gt; ]]

&lt;big&gt; '''1. Prevalence studies'''  &lt;/big&gt;

===[[/The Maritime Health database design // |1.1 The Maritime Health database design]]=== 

1.2  Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;

1.3. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;

1.4. School childrens` Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;

1.5  Excel recoding (pre diabetes, hypertension etc) &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/9qvqeccto2kbuqvx7mdkl?r=ACsntb2AuiFkJbEBLObVdo0HMD67UZBBUGCGl1RPCPy1X5Y3K3e9Lf4s7cG7i7E_iH0IK-WkynXw_FNCDWybHuCgaNl_OM8yche2w2aapJGk5BTHybbsLpLayBU8VKPPqxNa2zDaNslBdQg0MhmKTFSG&lt;/ref&gt; 

&lt;big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Intervention studies''' English 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;

- General research protocol draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;

- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;

- John Snow Institute bylaws &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r &lt;/ref&gt;

====[[/The John Snow Institute bylaws /]]==== 

3. '''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;

4. '''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''
&lt;small&gt;Cordinator and Director MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey, Prof. Magda Medir Mb, Spain, Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark&lt;/small&gt;

5. '''Events''' 
====[[/|Manila conference Oct. 2026]] ====

==References==

&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Prediabetes ]]Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
      <sha1>sglfoekpn4jwjmwugb8m0powp1ial0q</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824181</id>
      <parentid>2824176</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T07:44:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NDM2024</username>
        <id>2984088</id>
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      <origin>2824181</origin>
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      <text bytes="5287" sha1="oxvig7evk5ax4qfebd4bjgnuigcklmc" xml:space="preserve">The John Snow prediabetes Institute is an international research network focused on prediabetes remission (prevention) , early risk identification, and metabolic health education. (https://w.wiki/Skm7)

Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. Early diagnosis and education of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes. A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI), the fasting blood sugar (glucometer), blood pressure, age, gender in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools followed by giving educational materials.The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer &lt;ref&gt;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068 &lt;/ref&gt; and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Educational materials available from the international diabetes organisations e.g from the ADA:&lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars.&lt;/big&gt;]][[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;
Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars&lt;/big&gt; ]]

&lt;big&gt; '''1. Prevalence studies'''  &lt;/big&gt;

===[[/The Maritime Health database design // |1.1 The Maritime Health database design]]=== 

1.2  Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;

1.3. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;

1.4. School childrens` Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;

1.5  Excel recoding (pre diabetes, hypertension etc) &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/9qvqeccto2kbuqvx7mdkl?r=ACsntb2AuiFkJbEBLObVdo0HMD67UZBBUGCGl1RPCPy1X5Y3K3e9Lf4s7cG7i7E_iH0IK-WkynXw_FNCDWybHuCgaNl_OM8yche2w2aapJGk5BTHybbsLpLayBU8VKPPqxNa2zDaNslBdQg0MhmKTFSG&lt;/ref&gt; 

&lt;big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Intervention studies''' English 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;

- General research protocol draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;

- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;

- John Snow Institute bylaws &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r &lt;/ref&gt;

'''3. Organisation and outcomes'''

====[[/The John Snow Institute bylaws /]]==== 

3. '''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;

4. '''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''
&lt;small&gt;Cordinator and Director MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey, Prof. Magda Medir Mb, Spain, Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark&lt;/small&gt;

5. '''Events''' 
====[[/|Manila conference Oct. 2026]] ====

==References==

&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Prediabetes ]]Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
      <sha1>oxvig7evk5ax4qfebd4bjgnuigcklmc</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824182</id>
      <parentid>2824181</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T07:46:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NDM2024</username>
        <id>2984088</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2824182</origin>
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      <text bytes="5172" sha1="nwxseqdrpbraks1y18rvxpndckyhs0x" xml:space="preserve">The John Snow prediabetes Institute is an international research network focused on prediabetes remission (prevention) , early risk identification, and metabolic health education. (https://w.wiki/Skm7)


Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. Early diagnosis and education of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes. A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI), the fasting blood sugar (glucometer), blood pressure, age, gender in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools followed by giving educational materials.The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer &lt;ref&gt;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068 &lt;/ref&gt; and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Educational materials available from the international diabetes organisations e.g from the ADA:&lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;
Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars&lt;/big&gt; ]]

&lt;big&gt; '''1. Prevalence studies'''  &lt;/big&gt;

===[[/The Maritime Health database design // |1.1 The Maritime Health database design]]=== 

1.2  Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;

1.3. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;

1.4. School childrens` Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;

1.5  Excel recoding (pre diabetes, hypertension etc) &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/9qvqeccto2kbuqvx7mdkl?r=ACsntb2AuiFkJbEBLObVdo0HMD67UZBBUGCGl1RPCPy1X5Y3K3e9Lf4s7cG7i7E_iH0IK-WkynXw_FNCDWybHuCgaNl_OM8yche2w2aapJGk5BTHybbsLpLayBU8VKPPqxNa2zDaNslBdQg0MhmKTFSG&lt;/ref&gt; 

&lt;big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Intervention studies''' English 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;

- General research protocol draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;

- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;

- John Snow Institute bylaws &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r &lt;/ref&gt;

'''3. Organisation and outcomes'''

====[[/The John Snow Institute bylaws /]]==== 

3. '''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;

4. '''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''
&lt;small&gt;Cordinator and Director MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey, Prof. Magda Medir Mb, Spain, Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark&lt;/small&gt;

5. '''Events''' 
====[[/|Manila conference Oct. 2026]] ====

==References==

&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Prediabetes ]]Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
      <sha1>nwxseqdrpbraks1y18rvxpndckyhs0x</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824184</id>
      <parentid>2824182</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T07:47:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NDM2024</username>
        <id>2984088</id>
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      <origin>2824184</origin>
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      <text bytes="5195" sha1="hv6iapbumuvc0z8jg1a1oa8bs7n6k7s" xml:space="preserve">The John Snow prediabetes Institute is an international research network focused on prediabetes remission (prevention) , early risk identification, and metabolic health education. (https://w.wiki/Skm7)


Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. Early diagnosis and education of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes. A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI), the fasting blood sugar (glucometer), blood pressure, age, gender in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools followed by giving educational materials.The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer &lt;ref&gt;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068 &lt;/ref&gt; and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Educational materials available from the international diabetes organisations e.g from the ADA:&lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;
Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars&lt;/big&gt; ]]

&lt;big&gt; '''1. Prevalence studies'''  &lt;/big&gt;

===[[/The Maritime Health database design // |1.1 The Maritime Health database design]]=== 

1.2  Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;

1.3. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;

1.4. School childrens` Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;

1.5  Excel recoding (pre diabetes, hypertension etc) &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/9qvqeccto2kbuqvx7mdkl?r=ACsntb2AuiFkJbEBLObVdo0HMD67UZBBUGCGl1RPCPy1X5Y3K3e9Lf4s7cG7i7E_iH0IK-WkynXw_FNCDWybHuCgaNl_OM8yche2w2aapJGk5BTHybbsLpLayBU8VKPPqxNa2zDaNslBdQg0MhmKTFSG&lt;/ref&gt; 

&lt;big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Intervention studies''' English 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;

'''3. Organisation and outcomes'''

====[[/The John Snow Institute bylaws /]]==== - General research pr[[Category:Prediabetes ]]otoco[[Category:Prediabetes ]]l draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;

- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;

- John Snow Institute bylaws &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r &lt;/ref&gt;

3. '''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;

4. '''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''
&lt;small&gt;Cordinator and Director MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey, Prof. Magda Medir Mb, Spain, Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark&lt;/small&gt;

5. '''Events''' 
====[[/|Manila conference Oct. 2026]] ====

==References==

&lt;references /&gt;
Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
      <sha1>hv6iapbumuvc0z8jg1a1oa8bs7n6k7s</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824185</id>
      <parentid>2824184</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T07:51:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NDM2024</username>
        <id>2984088</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2824185</origin>
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      <text bytes="5192" sha1="opq0nvmr3ujz3hq1y9ofv6741scjgez" xml:space="preserve">The John Snow prediabetes Institute is an international research network focused on prediabetes remission (prevention) , early risk identification, and metabolic health education. (https://w.wiki/Skm7)

'''Background:''' 
Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. Early diagnosis and education of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes. A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI), the fasting blood sugar (glucometer), blood pressure, age, gender in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools followed by giving educational materials.The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer &lt;ref&gt;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068 &lt;/ref&gt; and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Educational materials available from the international diabetes organisations e.g from the ADA:&lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;
Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars&lt;/big&gt; ]]

&lt;big&gt; '''1. Prevalence studies'''  &lt;/big&gt;

===[[/The Maritime Health database design // |1.1 The Maritime Health database design]]=== 

1.2  Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;

1.3. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;

1.4. School childrens` Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;

1.5  Excel recoding (pre diabetes, hypertension etc) &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/9qvqeccto2kbuqvx7mdkl?r=ACsntb2AuiFkJbEBLObVdo0HMD67UZBBUGCGl1RPCPy1X5Y3K3e9Lf4s7cG7i7E_iH0IK-WkynXw_FNCDWybHuCgaNl_OM8yche2w2aapJGk5BTHybbsLpLayBU8VKPPqxNa2zDaNslBdQg0MhmKTFSG&lt;/ref&gt; 

&lt;big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Intervention studies''' English 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;

'''3. Organisation and outcomes'''

====[[/The John Snow Institute bylaws /]]==== 

====[[/|Manila conference Oct. 2026]] ====

- General research pr[[Category:Prediabetes ]]otoco[[Category:Prediabetes ]]l draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;

- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;

- John Snow Institute bylaws &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r &lt;/ref&gt;

'''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;

'''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''
&lt;small&gt;Cordinator and Director MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey, Prof. Magda Medir Mb, Spain, Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark&lt;/small&gt;


==References==

&lt;references /&gt;
Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
      <sha1>opq0nvmr3ujz3hq1y9ofv6741scjgez</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824196</id>
      <parentid>2824185</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T08:05:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NDM2024</username>
        <id>2984088</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2824196</origin>
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      <text bytes="5230" sha1="09qqcjpl5dy30y0fjibkd0rspnehekx" xml:space="preserve">The John Snow prediabetes Institute is an international research network focused on prediabetes remission (prevention) , early risk identification, and metabolic health education. (https://w.wiki/Skm7)

'''Background:''' 
Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. (See also the General Research Draft) All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. Early diagnosis and education of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes. A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI), the fasting blood sugar (glucometer), blood pressure, age, gender in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools followed by giving educational materials.The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer &lt;ref&gt;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068 &lt;/ref&gt; and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Educational materials available from the international diabetes organisations e.g from the ADA:&lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;
Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars&lt;/big&gt; ]]

&lt;big&gt; '''1. Prevalence studies'''  &lt;/big&gt;

===[[/The Maritime Health database design // |1.1 The Maritime Health database design]]=== 

1.2  Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;

1.3. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;

1.4. School childrens` Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;

1.5  Excel recoding (pre diabetes, hypertension etc) &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/9qvqeccto2kbuqvx7mdkl?r=ACsntb2AuiFkJbEBLObVdo0HMD67UZBBUGCGl1RPCPy1X5Y3K3e9Lf4s7cG7i7E_iH0IK-WkynXw_FNCDWybHuCgaNl_OM8yche2w2aapJGk5BTHybbsLpLayBU8VKPPqxNa2zDaNslBdQg0MhmKTFSG&lt;/ref&gt; 

&lt;big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Intervention studies''' English 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;

'''3. Organisation and outcomes'''

====[[/The John Snow Institute bylaws /]]==== 

====[[/|Manila conference Oct. 2026]] ====

- General research pr[[Category:Prediabetes ]]otoco[[Category:Prediabetes ]]l draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;

- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;

- John Snow Institute bylaws &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/lccr7jtnga1u0x75117zn/John-Snow-revision-2-March-11.doc?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=lz2gi7mslcoay5dzygg8h6n6r &lt;/ref&gt;

'''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;

'''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''
&lt;small&gt;Cordinator and Director MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey, Prof. Magda Medir Mb, Spain, Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark&lt;/small&gt;


==References==

&lt;references /&gt;
Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
      <sha1>09qqcjpl5dy30y0fjibkd0rspnehekx</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824197</id>
      <parentid>2824196</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T08:06:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NDM2024</username>
        <id>2984088</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2824197</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="5045" sha1="asbwrpqmkza4i68wslklwt43ms3phjs" xml:space="preserve">The John Snow prediabetes Institute is an international research network focused on prediabetes remission (prevention) , early risk identification, and metabolic health education. (https://w.wiki/Skm7)

'''Background:''' 
Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. (See also the General Research Draft) All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. Early diagnosis and education of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes. A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI), the fasting blood sugar (glucometer), blood pressure, age, gender in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools followed by giving educational materials.The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer &lt;ref&gt;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068 &lt;/ref&gt; and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Educational materials available from the international diabetes organisations e.g from the ADA:&lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;
Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars&lt;/big&gt; ]]

&lt;big&gt; '''1. Prevalence studies'''  &lt;/big&gt;

===[[/The Maritime Health database design // |1.1 The Maritime Health database design]]=== 

1.2  Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;

1.3. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;

1.4. School childrens` Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;

1.5  Excel recoding (pre diabetes, hypertension etc) &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/9qvqeccto2kbuqvx7mdkl?r=ACsntb2AuiFkJbEBLObVdo0HMD67UZBBUGCGl1RPCPy1X5Y3K3e9Lf4s7cG7i7E_iH0IK-WkynXw_FNCDWybHuCgaNl_OM8yche2w2aapJGk5BTHybbsLpLayBU8VKPPqxNa2zDaNslBdQg0MhmKTFSG&lt;/ref&gt; 

&lt;big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Intervention studies''' English 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;

'''3. Organisation and outcomes'''

====[[/The John Snow Institute bylaws /]]==== 

====[[/|Manila conference Oct. 2026]] ====

- General research pr[[Category:Prediabetes ]]otoco[[Category:Prediabetes ]]l draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;

- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;

'''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;

'''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''
&lt;small&gt;Cordinator and Director MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey, Prof. Magda Medir Mb, Spain, Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark&lt;/small&gt;


==References==

&lt;references /&gt;
Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
      <sha1>asbwrpqmkza4i68wslklwt43ms3phjs</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824210</id>
      <parentid>2824197</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T08:38:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NDM2024</username>
        <id>2984088</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2824210</origin>
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      <text bytes="5196" sha1="t3tsvwetnfj7hrb84bkzx25oah4wbbg" xml:space="preserve">The John Snow prediabetes Institute is an international research network focused on prediabetes remission (prevention) , early risk identification, and metabolic health education. (https://w.wiki/Skm7)

'''Background:''' 
Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight. (See also the General Research Draft &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;
) All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. Early diagnosis and education of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes. A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI), the fasting blood sugar (glucometer), blood pressure, age, gender in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools followed by giving educational materials.The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer &lt;ref&gt;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068 &lt;/ref&gt; and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Educational materials available from the international diabetes organisations e.g from the ADA:&lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;
Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars&lt;/big&gt; ]]

&lt;big&gt; '''1. Prevalence studies'''  &lt;/big&gt;

===[[/The Maritime Health database design // |1.1 The Maritime Health database design]]=== 

1.2  Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;

1.3. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;

1.4. School childrens` Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;

1.5  Excel recoding (pre diabetes, hypertension etc) &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/9qvqeccto2kbuqvx7mdkl?r=ACsntb2AuiFkJbEBLObVdo0HMD67UZBBUGCGl1RPCPy1X5Y3K3e9Lf4s7cG7i7E_iH0IK-WkynXw_FNCDWybHuCgaNl_OM8yche2w2aapJGk5BTHybbsLpLayBU8VKPPqxNa2zDaNslBdQg0MhmKTFSG&lt;/ref&gt; 

&lt;big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Intervention studies''' English 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;

'''3. Organisation and outcomes'''

====[[/The John Snow Institute bylaws /]]==== 

====[[/|Manila conference Oct. 2026]] ====

- General research pr[[Category:Prediabetes ]]otoco[[Category:Prediabetes ]]l draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;

- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;

'''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;

'''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''
&lt;small&gt;Cordinator and Director MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey, Prof. Magda Medir Mb, Spain, Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark&lt;/small&gt;


==References==

&lt;references /&gt;
Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
      <sha1>t3tsvwetnfj7hrb84bkzx25oah4wbbg</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824212</id>
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      <text bytes="5156" sha1="pg7cw0z6eya1uxj3gwq4bn5rswznm2z" xml:space="preserve">The John Snow prediabetes Institute is an international research network focused on prediabetes remission (prevention) , early risk identification, and metabolic health education. (https://w.wiki/Skm7)

'''Background:''' 
Millions are at increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes with prediabetes, diabetes type 2, high blood pressure and overweight.&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt; All can lower their risks by staying physical active and eating well. Early diagnosis and education of prediabetes is a cost-effective preventive strategy that can improve long-term health outcomes. A practical strategy for prediabetes remission in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) must assume that laboratory capacity, workforce, and financing are constrained. For early identification of the risks we propose to register weight and height (BMI), the fasting blood sugar (glucometer), blood pressure, age, gender in the '''Prevalence studies''' at the schools for seafarers, nurses, medical students and the kids schools followed by giving educational materials.The 16-weeks '''intervention studies''' include learnings by short video sequences and self-monitoring of blood sugar with glucometer &lt;ref&gt;https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751991825001068 &lt;/ref&gt; and self-evaluation of diet and physical activity. Educational materials available from the international diabetes organisations e.g from the ADA:&lt;ref&gt;https://professional.diabetes.org/diabetes-support-resources&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png|250px|right|&lt;big&gt;
Lifestyle Medicine Pillars.png The focus of Lifestyle Medicine is on these 6 pillars&lt;/big&gt; ]]

&lt;big&gt; '''1. Prevalence studies'''  &lt;/big&gt;

===[[/The Maritime Health database design // |1.1 The Maritime Health database design]]=== 

1.2  Nursing Students Health Database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/tcznmmd2y3nona5e3h1ro/The-Nursing-students-health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=onbjh4o8ko1lzdvgyi8nlrotk &lt;/ref&gt;

1.3. Medical student's Health Database &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/f16h9b60u4gxgt56un2jf/The-Medical-students-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=xyfqen5trdc5lniaovipl548n &lt;/ref&gt;

1.4. School childrens` Health database &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/u6u50c8bxwhte9t2t6ck8/The-School-children-s-Health-database.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=zlyz5wn673wf7owettq3nx3h5 &lt;/ref&gt;

1.5  Excel recoding (pre diabetes, hypertension etc) &lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/9qvqeccto2kbuqvx7mdkl?r=ACsntb2AuiFkJbEBLObVdo0HMD67UZBBUGCGl1RPCPy1X5Y3K3e9Lf4s7cG7i7E_iH0IK-WkynXw_FNCDWybHuCgaNl_OM8yche2w2aapJGk5BTHybbsLpLayBU8VKPPqxNa2zDaNslBdQg0MhmKTFSG&lt;/ref&gt; 

&lt;big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
2. '''Intervention studies''' English 
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/oi6cx6tlwwvoko3ed37tn/Invitation-to-the-course-English.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=7kzg91tqfgjskxf5aji8khicx &lt;/ref&gt; Danish
&lt;ref&gt;https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/2qahc3q9hmf4skbvk77ab/Invitation-to-the-course-in-Danish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=x63w8oqvarz284zg2btq2johv &lt;/ref&gt; Spanish &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/bn71inqeeth4o4mc1fjth/Invitation-to-the-course-Spanish.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=popmr1fnodh1v951v9l7k9ezv &lt;/ref&gt;

'''3. Organisation and outcomes'''

====[[/The John Snow Institute bylaws /]]==== 

====[[/|Manila conference Oct. 2026]] ====

- General research pr[[Category:Prediabetes ]]otoco[[Category:Prediabetes ]]l draft
&lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/gau25oy5y1s57046icjt2/Research-protocol-draft.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=wat63e25ritmujwcpss8s4v0s &lt;/ref&gt;

- Health Promoting Schools &lt;ref&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/0rm7honrezbjwrcy3h3yk/Health-promoting-schools.docx?cloud_editor=word&amp;dl=0&amp;rlkey=673jyzcmwbfw7k9ui9nmtp0zh &lt;/ref&gt;

'''Publications and pptx''' 2016-2026 &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/The_International_Type_2_Diabetes_Mellitus_and_Hypertension_Research_Group#The_John_Snow_Institute &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt; https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/mw7ft423lkkpjoxywd2bf &lt;/ref&gt;

'''Prediabetes-Remission Research Network:'''
&lt;small&gt;Cordinator and Director MBA Christian Acheampong, Turkey, Prof. Magda Medir Mb, Spain, Prof. Ing. MSc. Nailet Delgado; Prof. Dr. Olaf Jensen, MD, PhD, o147248@gmail.com; MSc.Ph.D. Bishal Gyawali Prof. SDU; MSc.PhD Vivi Just-Nørregaard; Dr. Johan Hviid Andersen MD, PhD. Prof Århus University; Prof. MSc. Agnes Flores, UMECIT, Panama; Dr. Maite, Vacamonte, Panama; Bruno Nørdam, Randers; Dr. Maite Duque, Venezuela; Dr. Indira Santos Panama; Med.Stud. Ashley Lezcano, Panama; Dr. Joseph Abesamis MD Filippines; Dr. Jen Mendoza, MD, Filippines; Dr. Andra Ergle MD, Latvia; Prof. MSc. Ingrid Morató, Tarragona/Cadiz, Spain; Dr. Alejandro Martinez, MPH, Costa Rica; Dr. Med. Sci Finn Gyntelberg; NFA.and Bispebj. Hosp. Denmark&lt;/small&gt;


==References==

&lt;references /&gt;
Education 1: Research Methodology &lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education_module_links&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;</text>
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      <text bytes="513" sha1="8fduc7tmg6nh5qbp5b0imp0se52jm5d" xml:space="preserve">About me: 


[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Akrasia|Topic development]]

[[Book Chapter]]


Social contributions: 

summarise and link to ''direct evidence'' that you made at least 3 different types of contributions:

# direct edit to improve a [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapter page]] (current or previous topics)
# provided feedback by commenting on a book chapter's talk page (current or previous topics)
# posted about motivation or emotion or the assessment tasks to the UCLearn discussion forum</text>
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      <text bytes="624" sha1="8i8c31l25tgjwgzp570zq9ihmwwahcp" xml:space="preserve">About me: 


[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Akrasia|Topic development]]

[[Book Chapter]]


Social contributions: 

summarise and link to ''direct evidence'' that you made at least 3 different types of contributions:

# Edited a spelling mistake in one of the references, change made was &quot;unites&quot; to united  https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2019/Female_killer_motivation&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2824076
# provided feedback by commenting on a book chapter's talk page (current or previous topics)
# posted about motivation or emotion or the assessment tasks to the UCLearn discussion forum</text>
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      <text bytes="16946" sha1="ei3l32tpm4ixsyatcg36tavvse2mdi6" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Akrasia:&lt;br&gt;Why do people act against their better judgement?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}'''Consider this scenario'''
[[File:Canva - Woman Feeling Emotional Stress.jpg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1.'''  A women feeling stressed]]

Jordan signed up for a gym membership at the start of the year, determined to improve their physical and mental health. He bought new workout clothes, saved a list of routines and even told his friends he was committed to exercising. But when his alarm went off at 6:30am he hit snooze. Telling himself he will simply go after work instead but by 5:00pm he's to tired to go. The idea of lifting weights is to emotionally heavy and stress inducing for him, so Jordan chooses to stay home and watch a TV show. Each time Jordans alarm goes off and he ignores it, even while knowing going to the gym would be healthier and help him gain confidence, the short term comfort of staying home out ways those feelings. 

Jordan isn't lazy he his experiencing akrasia, a predictable motivational and emotional conflict between long term goals and short term impulses. {{RoundBoxBottom}}

This Chapter will explain and explore why people act against their better judgement described by psychological explanations of self control and regulation, motivational deficits and emotional avoidance. 

* '''Explanation of the problem:''' akrasia is a problem because it affects many areas of  persons life such as academics, health choices, financial decisions and relationships. People often intend to make choices that align with their values and goals, yet often make choices that are the opposite. this gap between intention and action can lead to issues with wellbeing and a sense of success in life ( reference) 
* introduce psychological importance:( why it matters)  Akrasia matters because it undermines goal achievement, wellbeing, and personal growth. It reflects a tension between reflective, value based intensions and impulsive, emotionally driven tendencies. psychological science provides tools for understanding this conflict by examining self regulation, and cognitive biases (reference). 
* why the understanding of the psychological science can help provide ways to overcome actions of akrasia or the feelings left behind form failed long term goals.( Reference) 
* Introduce motivation in relation to topic 
* Introduce emotion in relation to topic

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

* {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
'''Focus questions'''

# What is akrasia?
# What psychological processes contribute to akrasia and the conflict between long term and short term impulses?
# How do motivation and emotion interact to influence why people act against their better judgement ? 
# What evidence based strategies can help people reduce akrasia and act more consistently in line with their goals ?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Outline for chapter ==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

== Akrasia ==

* General definition/introduction:  acting against ones better judgement ect... &quot;i know i shouldn't do this but&quot;

* Historical background: originates from ancient Greek philosophy. particularly Aristotle, who used the term akrasia to describe &quot; weakness of will&quot; ect.. Describe what he argued about failure to understand emotions and impulses.( reference (needs editing):  Bobonich C., &amp;  Destrée, P. (2007). Akrasia in Greek Philosophy: From Socrates to Plotinus. BRILL .106, 1-11. https://books.google.com.au/books?id=so097j_jPBsC&amp;dq=akrasia+historical+background&amp;lr=&amp;source=gbs_navlinks_s)
* Describe what the history  laid a foundation for in modern explanations 


== Akrasia as a motivational and emotional conflict ==
'''Focus question''': what psychological processes contribute to akrasia and the conflict between long term and short term impulses?

'''Overview/introduction to argument'''; 

Explain how akrasia arises from competing internal processes. Discuss the tension between long‑term goals and short‑term impulses. Introduce the idea that akrasia is not simply “laziness” but a predictable psychological phenomenon.

describe long term and short term impulses/ goals are:  ( I want to finish my degree vs I want to just relax right now) 

* immediate emotional or motivational states vs reflective value-based reasoning.
* prioritisation of short term effective rewards even when they consciously prefer long term outcomes. this is especially true when tasks evoke discomfort. (reference)

=== Modelling the conceptual relationship ===

* Provide a model- if there is one 

'''Evidence of facilitative relationship'''

== Self‑regulation and self‑control ==

Explain all in relation to behaviours of akrasia   

* failures in self‑regulation contribute to akrasia: Conflict of internal systems (Reference/ Edit: Bella, A. F. (2023). Psychological underpinnings of akrasia: A new integrative framework based on self-regulation vulnerabilities and failures. ''New Ideas in Psychology'', ''70'', Article 101027. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.newideapsych.2023.101027) 

* Discuss ego depletion: self control is a limited resource. ego depletion is the action of drawing on self control and will power from a limited source.  (Reference: Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Muraven, M., &amp; Tice, D. M. (1998). Ego Depletion: Is the Active Self a Limited Resource? ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''74''(5), 1252–1265. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.5.12520. Inzlicht, M., &amp; Schmeichel, B. J. (2012). What Is Ego Depletion? Toward a Mechanistic Revision of the Resource Model of Self-Control. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science'', ''7''(5), 450–463.)https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612454134) 
* &lt;u&gt;(temporal discounting: disproportionate assessment  of rewards and punishment)&lt;/u&gt;  potential topic unsure 
* implementation intentions. if - then 
* Provide examples of how these processes play out in everyday life.

add figure / model 

== Motivational theories ==

* Explain how motivational deficits or conflicts lead to akrasia.
[[File:Self-Determination-Theory-Visual 1.png|thumb|Figure 2: Self-Determination Theory visual diagram ]]
Discuss self‑determination theory:

* what is SDT? - autonomous, motivation vs controlled motivation, akrasia is more likely when motivation is controlled.(reference: Deci, E. L., &amp; Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “What” and “Why” of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior. ''Psychological Inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104-01)  

*expectancy‑value theory: actions based an appraisal of successes (reference: Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81.https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015)  
* goal‑setting theory: challenging akrasia ( reference: Locke, E. A., &amp; Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. ''The American Psychologist'', ''57''(9), 705–717. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.57.9.705) 
* Show how motivation quality affects the likelihood of acting in line with long‑term goals.

add figure / model where possible  

== Emotion and akrasia ==

* Explain
* emotional avoidance:  tasks that evoke frustration are avoided this is a form of regulation ( reference : De Castella, K., Platow, M. J., Tamir, M., &amp; Gross, J. J. (2018). Beliefs about emotion: implications for avoidance-based emotion regulation and psychological health. ''Cognition and Emotion'', ''32''(4), 773–795. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2017.1353485)  
* '''anxiety: high anxiety leads to task aversion ( unsure if i want to follow through on this angle)''' 
* affect regulation: choice of immediate mood regulation over long term solutions 
* Discuss how people often choose short‑term emotional relief over long‑term outcomes.

add figure / model  

== How does this understanding of the psychological science behind akrasia help those experiencing this ( write title to something more formal) ==
'''Focus question''': what strategies are there to reduce to act of akrasia and act more consciously in line with their goals? 

* Explain how empirical findings support, challenge, or refine theoretical models
* Show how integrated knowledge helps explain akrasia more accurately. 
* Discuss implications for improving motivational and emotional lives.

Present practical, research‑supported strategies for reducing akrasia, such as: 

* Implementation intentions 

* Emotion regulation techniques 

* Reducing cognitive load 

* Structuring environments to support long‑term goals 

* Enhancing autonomous motivation 

Explain why each strategy works and how individuals can apply it. 

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
ADD scenario that follows up on jordans problem with a solutions based on principles discussed {{RoundBoxBottom}}

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* summarise the most important points in 3–5 sentences. 
* Align with subtitle and focus questions. 
* Highlight implications for personal growth and psychological wellbeing.
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}{{Hanging indent|1= References
Bobonich C., &amp;  Destrée, P. (2007). Akrasia in Greek Philosophy: From Socrates to Plotinus. BRILL .106, 1-11. https://books.google.com.au/books?id=so097j_jPBsC&amp;dq=akrasia+historical+background&amp;lr=&amp;source=gbs_navlinks_s

Bella, A. F. (2023). Psychological underpinnings of akrasia: A new integrative framework based on self-regulation vulnerabilities and failures. New Ideas in Psychology, 70, Article 101027. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.newideapsych.2023.101027)

Baumeister, R. F., et al. (1998). Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.5.1252 (doi.org in Bing) 

Deci, E. L., &amp; Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “What” and “Why” of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104-01

De Castella, K., Platow, M. J., Tamir, M., &amp; Gross, J. J. (2018). Beliefs about emotion: implications for avoidance-based emotion regulation and psychological health. Cognition and Emotion, 32(4), 773–795. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2017.1353485

Locke, E. A., &amp; Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. The American Psychologist, 57(9), 705–717. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.57.9.705)

Inzlicht, M., &amp; Schmeichel, B. J. (2012). What Is Ego Depletion? Toward a Mechanistic Revision of the Resource Model of Self-Control. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(5), 450–463. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612454134 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-control]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}'''Consider this scenario'''

Jordan signed up for a gym membership at the start of the year, determined to improve their physical and mental health. He bought new workout clothes, saved a list of routines and even told his friends he was committed to exercising. But when his alarm went off at 6:30am he hit snooze. Telling himself he will simply go after work instead but by 5:00pm he's to tired to go. The idea of lifting weights is to emotionally heavy and stress inducing for him, so Jordan chooses to stay home and watch a TV show. Each time Jordans alarm goes off and he ignores it, even while knowing going to the gym would be healthier and help him gain confidence, the short term comfort of staying home out ways those feelings. 

Jordan isn't lazy he his experiencing akrasia, a predictable motivational and emotional conflict between long term goals and short term impulses. {{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Woman Stressed At Work Illustration.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. A women stressed out ]]
This Chapter will explain and explore why people act against their better judgement described by psychological explanations of self control and regulation, motivational deficits and emotional avoidance. 

* '''Explanation of the problem:''' akrasia is a problem because it affects many areas of  persons life such as academics, health choices, financial decisions and relationships. People often intend to make choices that align with their values and goals, yet often make choices that are the opposite. this gap between intention and action can lead to issues with wellbeing and a sense of success in life ( reference) 
* introduce psychological importance:( why it matters)  Akrasia matters because it undermines goal achievement, wellbeing, and personal growth. It reflects a tension between reflective, value based intensions and impulsive, emotionally driven tendencies. psychological science provides tools for understanding this conflict by examining self regulation, and cognitive biases (reference). 
* why the understanding of the psychological science can help provide ways to overcome actions of akrasia or the feelings left behind form failed long term goals.( Reference) 
* Introduce motivation in relation to topic 
* Introduce emotion in relation to topic

* {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
'''Focus questions''' [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]]

# What is akrasia?
# What psychological processes contribute to akrasia and the conflict between long term and short term impulses?
# How do motivation and emotion interact to influence why people act against their better judgement ? 
# What evidence based strategies can help people reduce akrasia and act more consistently in line with their goals ?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Akrasia ==

* General definition/introduction:  acting against ones better judgement ect... &quot;i know i shouldn't do this but&quot;

* [[File:Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg|thumb|Figure 2. An image of Aristotle ]]Historical background: originates from ancient Greek philosophy. particularly Aristotle, who used the term akrasia to describe &quot; weakness of will&quot; ect.. Describe what he argued about failure to understand emotions and impulses.( reference (needs editing):  Bobonich C., &amp;  Destrée, P. (2007). Akrasia in Greek Philosophy: From Socrates to Plotinus. BRILL .106, 1-11. https://books.google.com.au/books?id=so097j_jPBsC&amp;dq=akrasia+historical+background&amp;lr=&amp;source=gbs_navlinks_s)
* Describe what the history  laid a foundation for in modern explanations 

== Akrasia as a motivational and emotional conflict ==
'''Focus question''': what psychological processes contribute to akrasia and the conflict between long term and short term impulses?

'''Overview/introduction to argument'''; 

Explain how akrasia arises from competing internal processes. Discuss the tension between long‑term goals and short‑term impulses. Introduce the idea that akrasia is not simply “laziness” but a predictable psychological phenomenon.

describe long term and short term impulses/ goals are:  ( I want to finish my degree vs I want to just relax right now) 

* immediate emotional or motivational states vs reflective value-based reasoning.
* prioritisation of short term effective rewards even when they consciously prefer long term outcomes. this is especially true when tasks evoke discomfort. (reference)

=== Modelling the conceptual relationship ===

* Provide a model- if there is one 

'''Evidence of facilitative relationship'''

== Self‑regulation and self‑control ==

Explain all in relation to behaviours of akrasia   

* '''failures in self‑regulation contribute to akrasia''': Conflict of internal systems (Reference/ Edit: Bella, A. F. (2023). Psychological underpinnings of akrasia: A new integrative framework based on self-regulation vulnerabilities and failures. ''New Ideas in Psychology'', ''70'', Article 101027. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.newideapsych.2023.101027) 

* '''Discuss ego depletion''': self control is a limited resource. ego depletion is the action of drawing on self control and will power from a limited source.  (Reference: Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Muraven, M., &amp; Tice, D. M. (1998). Ego Depletion: Is the Active Self a Limited Resource? ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''74''(5), 1252–1265. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.5.12520. Inzlicht, M., &amp; Schmeichel, B. J. (2012). What Is Ego Depletion? Toward a Mechanistic Revision of the Resource Model of Self-Control. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science'', ''7''(5), 450–463.)https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612454134) 
* &lt;u&gt;(temporal discounting: disproportionate assessment  of rewards and punishment)&lt;/u&gt;  potential topic unsure 
* implementation intentions. if - then 
* Provide examples of how these processes play out in everyday life.

add figure / model 

{{Robelbox|theme=5|width=30%|title=1.1 - Module overview|iconwidth=46px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{ Which subject best explains how failures in self regulation contribute to akrasia? }

|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- Ego Depletion
- Temporal discounting
+ Implementation Intentions 
- Internal system conflict 

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox-close}} 

== Motivational theories ==

* Explain how motivational deficits or conflicts lead to akrasia.
[[File:Self-Determination-Theory-Visual 1.png|thumb|Figure 3: Self-Determination Theory visual diagram ]]
Discuss self‑determination theory:

* what is SDT? - autonomous, motivation vs controlled motivation, akrasia is more likely when motivation is controlled.(reference: Deci, E. L., &amp; Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “What” and “Why” of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior. ''Psychological Inquiry'', ''11''(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104-01)  
*

*expectancy‑value theory: actions based an appraisal of successes (reference: Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81.https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015)  
* goal‑setting theory: challenging akrasia ( reference: Locke, E. A., &amp; Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. ''The American Psychologist'', ''57''(9), 705–717. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.57.9.705) 
* Show how motivation quality affects the likelihood of acting in line with long‑term goals.

add figure / model where possible  

== Emotion and akrasia ==

* Explain
* emotional avoidance:  tasks that evoke frustration are avoided this is a form of regulation ( reference : De Castella, K., Platow, M. J., Tamir, M., &amp; Gross, J. J. (2018). Beliefs about emotion: implications for avoidance-based emotion regulation and psychological health. ''Cognition and Emotion'', ''32''(4), 773–795. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2017.1353485)  
* '''anxiety: high anxiety leads to task aversion ( unsure if i want to follow through on this angle)''' 
* affect regulation: choice of immediate mood regulation over long term solutions 
* Discuss how people often choose short‑term emotional relief over long‑term outcomes.

add figure / model  

== How does this understanding of the psychological science behind akrasia help those experiencing this ( write title to something more formal) ==
'''Focus question''': what strategies are there to reduce to act of akrasia and act more consciously in line with their goals? 

* Explain how empirical findings support, challenge, or refine theoretical models
* Show how integrated knowledge helps explain akrasia more accurately. 
* Discuss implications for improving motivational and emotional lives.

Present practical, research‑supported strategies for reducing akrasia, such as: 

* Implementation intentions 

* Emotion regulation techniques 

* Reducing cognitive load 

* Structuring environments to support long‑term goals 

* Enhancing autonomous motivation 

Explain why each strategy works and how individuals can apply it 

* {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
ADD scenario that follows up on jordans problem with a solutions based on principles discussed {{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Learning features==
;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* summarise the most important points in 3–5 sentences. 
* Align with subtitle and focus questions. 
* Highlight implications for personal growth and psychological wellbeing.
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}{{Hanging indent|1= References
Bobonich C., &amp;  Destrée, P. (2007). Akrasia in Greek Philosophy: From Socrates to Plotinus. BRILL .106, 1-11. https://books.google.com.au/books?id=so097j_jPBsC&amp;dq=akrasia+historical+background&amp;lr=&amp;source=gbs_navlinks_s

Bella, A. F. (2023). Psychological underpinnings of akrasia: A new integrative framework based on self-regulation vulnerabilities and failures. New Ideas in Psychology, 70, Article 101027. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.newideapsych.2023.101027)

Baumeister, R. F., et al. (1998). Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.5.1252 (doi.org in Bing) 

Deci, E. L., &amp; Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “What” and “Why” of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104-01

De Castella, K., Platow, M. J., Tamir, M., &amp; Gross, J. J. (2018). Beliefs about emotion: implications for avoidance-based emotion regulation and psychological health. Cognition and Emotion, 32(4), 773–795. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2017.1353485

Locke, E. A., &amp; Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. The American Psychologist, 57(9), 705–717. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.57.9.705)

Inzlicht, M., &amp; Schmeichel, B. J. (2012). What Is Ego Depletion? Toward a Mechanistic Revision of the Resource Model of Self-Control. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(5), 450–463. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612454134 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-control]]</text>
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      <text bytes="19938" sha1="s6wbhou72vsig2wgom22f9xp3iloo2x" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Impulsivity versus sensation-seeking:&lt;br&gt;What is the distinction between impulsivity and sensation-seeking and how does this affect behaviour?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File: Beer Cantus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Social drinking can involve similar observable behaviours despite differences in the psychological processes underlying an individual's decision to participate.]]

[[ Imagine this; at a party, two students are offered an unfamiliar alcoholic drink. One accepts immediately without considering the consequences. The other deliberately chooses to try it because they enjoy new and stimulating experiences. Although their behaviour appears similar, the motivations underlying it may differ.]]. 

[[ Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinct psychological constructs that can contribute to similar observable behaviours via different underlying processes. Impulsivity is multidimensional and includes characteristics such as acting without sufficient premeditation, whereas sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, exciting, or stimulating experiences (Goh et al., 2020). Distinguishing these constructs is important as focusing only on observable behaviour may overlook why an individual chooses to engage in it. Research demonstrates that differing dimensions of impulsivity and sensation seeking are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour (Rogers et al., 2021). This distinction is particularly relevant to alcohol use: among college students, sensation seeking and impulsivity have been associated with alcohol involvement through different pathways, with evidence that sensation seeking is more strongly related to alcohol use and impulsivity to alcohol related behaviour (Magid et al., 2007). Thus psychological science can help explain how motivational and self regulatory differences contribute to apparently similar habits or engagement, providing a more nuanced understanding of risk taking and its potential consequences.]]. 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

[[What is impulsivity and what are its key characteristics?
What is sensation seeking and how does it differ from impulsivity?
What psychological processes explain the distinction between impulsivity and sensation seeking?
How do impulsivity and sensation seeking differentially influence risk taking behaviour?
How do these differences help explain alcohol use and related consequences?]]. 


{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==

== [[#Overview|Overview]] ==

== Understanding impulsivity ==

== Understanding sensation seeking ==

== Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking ==

== Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk taking behaviour ==

== Alcohol use and related consequences ==

== [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] ==
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
'''Overview:'''
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinguishable constructs that may contribute to similar behaviours via different psychological pathways (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Multidimensional models distinguish sensation seeking from other impulsivityrelated characteristics, supporting the importance of examining the constructs separately (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Understanding this distinction may improve explanations of risk taking and alcohol related behaviour by considering underlying motivation and behavioural regulation, rather than observable behaviour alone (Magid et al., 2007; Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding impulsivity''':
*Impulsivity is a multidimensional construct, rather than a single tendency, encompassing distinct characteristics such as urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, and sensation-seeking within the UPPS-P framework (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Varied dimensions of impulsivity may contribute to behaviour through different psychological processes, highlighting the importance of distinguishing between impulsive traits rather than treating impulsivity as a single characteristic (Samiefard et al., 2023; Türkmen et al., 2023).
*Impulsivity profiles are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, demonstrating the behavioural importance of its multidimensional structure (Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding sensation seeking''':
*Sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, varied, exciting, or stimulating experiences and can be distinguished from impulsivity characterised by poor inhibition or forethought (Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Sensation seeking is represented as a distinct dimension within multidimensional models such as the UPPS-P, supporting the view that it should not be treated as synonymous with other impulsivity related traits (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Higher sensation seeking is associated with greater risk taking behaviour, although the pursuit of stimulation rather than risk itself may underlie this association (Siraj et al., 2021).
'''Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking''':
*Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can both contribute to risky behaviour, they represent distinguishable psychological tendencies rather than interchangeable explanations for behaviour (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*A central distinction concerns the processes underlying behaviour; sensation seeking involves the pursuit of stimulation and novel experiences, whereas other dimensions of impulsivity involve tendencies such as acting without adequate forethought or under strong emotional states (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Consequently, similar observable behaviours may arise through different psychological pathways, meaning that identifying what a person does does not necessarily explain why they do it (Magid et al., 2007).
'''Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk-taking behaviour''':
*Different profiles of impulsivity are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, suggesting that individual impulsivity dimensions may have different behavioural consequences (Rogers et al., 2021).
*Sensation seeking is positively associated with risk taking, while social factors such as peer influence can also independently contribute to risky behaviour (Siraj et al., 2021).
*Different impulsivity related traits show differing associations to specific forms of risk taking; for example, recent research found sensation seeking associated with having tried sports wagering, while positive urgency was associated with greater frequency and variety of wagering and urgency with gambling-disorder symptoms (Grubbs et al., 2024).

'''Alcohol use and related consequences''':
*Sensation seeking and impulsivity can contribute to alcohol involvement through different pathways, supporting their treatment as distinct constructs rather than interchangeable predictors of drinking behaviour (Magid et al., 2007).
*Sensation seeking may be particularly relevant to alcohol consumption and the rewarding or stimulating aspects of drinking, whereas impulsivity can contribute differently to alcohol related problems and consequences (Magid et al., 2007).
*Multidimensional assessment is also relevant in clinical substance use contexts: UPPS-P dimensions can be separately assessed among individuals undergoing residential detoxification, reinforcing the value of considering distinct impulsivity related traits in understanding substance related behaviour (Kempeneers et al., 2023).

'''Conclusion''':
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but psychologically distinguishable constructs, and similar behaviours should not automatically be assumed to reflect the same underlying process (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking behavioural effects vary across contexts, with different dimensions showing different associations with health risk behaviour, risk taking, gambling, and substance related outcomes (Rogers et al., 2021; Grubbs et al., 2024).
*Distinguishing why an individual engages in behaviour such as seeking stimulation versus acting with insufficient forethought provides a more nuanced psychological explanation of risk taking and its consequences (Magid et al., 2007).

==Figures==
[[File:Sensation seeking Vs Impulsivity.png|thumb|245x245px|'''Figure 2'''. Comparison of the UPPS-P dimensions of impulsive behaviour and Zuckerman’s dimensions of sensation seeking, highlighting areas of conceptual overlap and distinction (Goh et al., 2020; Magid et al., 2007; Samiefard et al., 2023). (image created independently using Canva software).]]
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}

}}

{{tip|{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Impulsivity]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sensation seeking]]</text>
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&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File: Beer Cantus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Social drinking can involve similar observable behaviours despite differences in the psychological processes underlying an individual's decision to participate.]]

[[ Imagine this; at a party, two students are offered an unfamiliar alcoholic drink. One accepts immediately without considering the consequences. The other deliberately chooses to try it because they enjoy new and stimulating experiences. Although their behaviour appears similar, the motivations underlying it may differ.]]. 

[[ Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinct psychological constructs that can contribute to similar observable behaviours via different underlying processes. Impulsivity is multidimensional and includes characteristics such as acting without sufficient premeditation, whereas sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, exciting, or stimulating experiences (Goh et al., 2020). Distinguishing these constructs is important as focusing only on observable behaviour may overlook why an individual chooses to engage in it. Research demonstrates that differing dimensions of impulsivity and sensation seeking are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour (Rogers et al., 2021). This distinction is particularly relevant to alcohol use: among college students, sensation seeking and impulsivity have been associated with alcohol involvement through different pathways, with evidence that sensation seeking is more strongly related to alcohol use and impulsivity to alcohol related behaviour (Magid et al., 2007). Thus psychological science can help explain how motivational and self regulatory differences contribute to apparently similar habits or engagement, providing a more nuanced understanding of risk taking and its potential consequences.]]. 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

[[What is impulsivity and what are its key characteristics?
What is sensation seeking and how does it differ from impulsivity?
What psychological processes explain the distinction between impulsivity and sensation seeking?
How do impulsivity and sensation seeking differentially influence risk taking behaviour?
How do these differences help explain alcohol use and related consequences?]]. 


{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==

== [[#Overview|Overview]] ==

== Understanding impulsivity ==

== Understanding sensation seeking ==

== Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking ==

== Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk taking behaviour ==

== Alcohol use and related consequences ==

== [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] ==
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
'''Overview:'''
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinguishable constructs that may contribute to similar behaviours via different psychological pathways (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Multidimensional models distinguish sensation seeking from other impulsivityrelated characteristics, supporting the importance of examining the constructs separately (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Understanding this distinction may improve explanations of risk taking and alcohol related behaviour by considering underlying motivation and behavioural regulation, rather than observable behaviour alone (Magid et al., 2007; Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding impulsivity''':
*Impulsivity is a multidimensional construct, rather than a single tendency, encompassing distinct characteristics such as urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, and sensation-seeking within the UPPS-P framework (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Varied dimensions of impulsivity may contribute to behaviour through different psychological processes, highlighting the importance of distinguishing between impulsive traits rather than treating impulsivity as a single characteristic (Samiefard et al., 2023; Türkmen et al., 2023).
*Impulsivity profiles are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, demonstrating the behavioural importance of its multidimensional structure (Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding sensation seeking''':
*Sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, varied, exciting, or stimulating experiences and can be distinguished from impulsivity characterised by poor inhibition or forethought (Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Sensation seeking is represented as a distinct dimension within multidimensional models such as the UPPS-P, supporting the view that it should not be treated as synonymous with other impulsivity related traits (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Higher sensation seeking is associated with greater risk taking behaviour, although the pursuit of stimulation rather than risk itself may underlie this association (Siraj et al., 2021).
'''Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking''':
*Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can both contribute to risky behaviour, they represent distinguishable psychological tendencies rather than interchangeable explanations for behaviour (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*A central distinction concerns the processes underlying behaviour; sensation seeking involves the pursuit of stimulation and novel experiences, whereas other dimensions of impulsivity involve tendencies such as acting without adequate forethought or under strong emotional states (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Consequently, similar observable behaviours may arise through different psychological pathways, meaning that identifying what a person does does not necessarily explain why they do it (Magid et al., 2007).
'''Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk-taking behaviour''':
*Different profiles of impulsivity are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, suggesting that individual impulsivity dimensions may have different behavioural consequences (Rogers et al., 2021).
*Sensation seeking is positively associated with risk taking, while social factors such as peer influence can also independently contribute to risky behaviour (Siraj et al., 2021).
*Different impulsivity related traits show differing associations to specific forms of risk taking; for example, recent research found sensation seeking associated with having tried sports wagering, while positive urgency was associated with greater frequency and variety of wagering and urgency with gambling-disorder symptoms (Grubbs et al., 2024).

'''Alcohol use and related consequences''':
*Sensation seeking and impulsivity can contribute to alcohol involvement through different pathways, supporting their treatment as distinct constructs rather than interchangeable predictors of drinking behaviour (Magid et al., 2007).
*Sensation seeking may be particularly relevant to alcohol consumption and the rewarding or stimulating aspects of drinking, whereas impulsivity can contribute differently to alcohol related problems and consequences (Magid et al., 2007).
*Multidimensional assessment is also relevant in clinical substance use contexts: UPPS-P dimensions can be separately assessed among individuals undergoing residential detoxification, reinforcing the value of considering distinct impulsivity related traits in understanding substance related behaviour (Kempeneers et al., 2023).

'''Conclusion''':
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but psychologically distinguishable constructs, and similar behaviours should not automatically be assumed to reflect the same underlying process (see Figure 2; Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking behavioural effects vary across contexts, with different dimensions showing different associations with health risk behaviour, risk taking, gambling, and substance related outcomes (Rogers et al., 2021; Grubbs et al., 2024).
*Distinguishing why an individual engages in behaviour such as seeking stimulation versus acting with insufficient forethought provides a more nuanced psychological explanation of risk taking and its consequences (Magid et al., 2007).

==Figures==
[[File:Sensation seeking Vs Impulsivity.png|thumb|245x245px|'''Figure 2'''. Comparison of the UPPS-P dimensions of impulsive behaviour and Zuckerman’s dimensions of sensation seeking, highlighting areas of conceptual overlap and distinction (Goh et al., 2020; Magid et al., 2007; Samiefard et al., 2023). (image created independently using Canva software).]]
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}

}}

{{tip|{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Impulsivity]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sensation seeking]]</text>
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&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File: Beer Cantus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Social drinking can involve similar observable behaviours despite differences in the psychological processes underlying an individual's decision to participate.]]

[[ Imagine this; at a party, two students are offered an unfamiliar alcoholic drink. One accepts immediately without considering the consequences. The other deliberately chooses to try it because they enjoy new and stimulating experiences. Although their behaviour appears similar, the motivations underlying it may differ.]]. 

[[ Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinct psychological constructs that can contribute to similar observable behaviours via different underlying processes. Impulsivity is multidimensional and includes characteristics such as acting without sufficient premeditation, whereas sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, exciting, or stimulating experiences (Goh et al., 2020). Distinguishing these constructs is important as focusing only on observable behaviour may overlook why an individual chooses to engage in it. Research demonstrates that differing dimensions of impulsivity and sensation seeking are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour (Rogers et al., 2021). This distinction is particularly relevant to alcohol use: among college students, sensation seeking and impulsivity have been associated with alcohol involvement through different pathways, with evidence that sensation seeking is more strongly related to alcohol use and impulsivity to alcohol related behaviour (Magid et al., 2007). Thus psychological science can help explain how motivational and self regulatory differences contribute to apparently similar habits or engagement, providing a more nuanced understanding of risk taking and its potential consequences.]]. 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

[[What is impulsivity and what are its key characteristics?
What is sensation seeking and how does it differ from impulsivity?
What psychological processes explain the distinction between impulsivity and sensation seeking?
How do impulsivity and sensation seeking differentially influence risk taking behaviour?
How do these differences help explain alcohol use and related consequences?]]. 


{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==

== [[#Overview|Overview]] ==

== Understanding impulsivity ==

== Understanding sensation seeking ==

== Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking ==

== Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk taking behaviour ==

== Alcohol use and related consequences ==

== [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] ==
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
'''Overview:'''
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinguishable constructs that may contribute to similar behaviours via different psychological pathways (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Multidimensional models distinguish sensation seeking from other impulsivityrelated characteristics, supporting the importance of examining the constructs separately (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Understanding this distinction may improve explanations of risk taking and alcohol related behaviour by considering underlying motivation and behavioural regulation, rather than observable behaviour alone (Magid et al., 2007; Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding impulsivity''':
*Impulsivity is a multidimensional construct, rather than a single tendency, encompassing distinct characteristics such as urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, and sensation-seeking within the UPPS-P framework (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Varied dimensions of impulsivity may contribute to behaviour through different psychological processes, highlighting the importance of distinguishing between impulsive traits rather than treating impulsivity as a single characteristic (Samiefard et al., 2023; Türkmen et al., 2023).
*Impulsivity profiles are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, demonstrating the behavioural importance of its multidimensional structure (Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding sensation seeking''':
*Sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, varied, exciting, or stimulating experiences and can be distinguished from impulsivity characterised by poor inhibition or forethought (Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Sensation seeking is represented as a distinct dimension within multidimensional models such as the UPPS-P, supporting the view that it should not be treated as synonymous with other impulsivity related traits (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Higher sensation seeking is associated with greater risk taking behaviour, although the pursuit of stimulation rather than risk itself may underlie this association (Siraj et al., 2021).
'''Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking''':
*Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can both contribute to risky behaviour, they represent distinguishable psychological tendencies rather than interchangeable explanations for behaviour (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*A central distinction concerns the processes underlying behaviour; sensation seeking involves the pursuit of stimulation and novel experiences, whereas other dimensions of impulsivity involve tendencies such as acting without adequate forethought or under strong emotional states (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Consequently, similar observable behaviours may arise through different psychological pathways, meaning that identifying what a person does does not necessarily explain why they do it (Magid et al., 2007).
'''Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk-taking behaviour''':
*Different profiles of impulsivity are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, suggesting that individual impulsivity dimensions may have different behavioural consequences (Rogers et al., 2021).
*Sensation seeking is positively associated with risk taking, while social factors such as peer influence can also independently contribute to risky behaviour (Siraj et al., 2021).
*Different impulsivity related traits show differing associations to specific forms of risk taking; for example, recent research found sensation seeking associated with having tried sports wagering, while positive urgency was associated with greater frequency and variety of wagering and urgency with gambling-disorder symptoms (Grubbs et al., 2024).

'''Alcohol use and related consequences''':
*Sensation seeking and impulsivity can contribute to alcohol involvement through different pathways, supporting their treatment as distinct constructs rather than interchangeable predictors of drinking behaviour (Magid et al., 2007).
*Sensation seeking may be particularly relevant to alcohol consumption and the rewarding or stimulating aspects of drinking, whereas impulsivity can contribute differently to alcohol related problems and consequences (Magid et al., 2007).
*Multidimensional assessment is also relevant in clinical substance use contexts: UPPS-P dimensions can be separately assessed among individuals undergoing residential detoxification, reinforcing the value of considering distinct impulsivity related traits in understanding substance related behaviour (Kempeneers et al., 2023).

'''Conclusion''':
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but psychologically distinguishable constructs, and similar behaviours should not automatically be assumed to reflect the same underlying process (see Figure 2; Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking behavioural effects vary across contexts, with different dimensions showing different associations with health risk behaviour, risk taking, gambling, and substance related outcomes (Rogers et al., 2021; Grubbs et al., 2024).
*Distinguishing why an individual engages in behaviour such as seeking stimulation versus acting with insufficient forethought provides a more nuanced psychological explanation of risk taking and its consequences (Magid et al., 2007).
[[File:Sensation seeking Vs Impulsivity.png|thumb|245x245px|'''Figure 2'''. Comparison of the UPPS-P dimensions of impulsive behaviour and Zuckerman’s dimensions of sensation seeking, highlighting areas of conceptual overlap and distinction (Goh et al., 2020; Magid et al., 2007; Samiefard et al., 2023). (image created independently using Canva software).]]
==Figures==
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}

}}

{{tip|{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Impulsivity]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sensation seeking]]</text>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Reillyu3280706</username>
        <id>3106308</id>
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      <text bytes="20945" sha1="nz4243rd3axugt1ws621aquz6ri1e05" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Impulsivity versus sensation-seeking:&lt;br&gt;What is the distinction between impulsivity and sensation-seeking and how does this affect behaviour?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File: Beer Cantus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Social drinking can involve similar observable behaviours despite differences in the psychological processes underlying an individual's decision to participate.]]

[[ Imagine this; at a party, two students are offered an unfamiliar alcoholic drink. One accepts immediately without considering the consequences. The other deliberately chooses to try it because they enjoy new and stimulating experiences. Although their behaviour appears similar, the motivations underlying it may differ.]]. 

[[ Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinct psychological constructs that can contribute to similar observable behaviours via different underlying processes. Impulsivity is multidimensional and includes characteristics such as acting without sufficient premeditation, whereas sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, exciting, or stimulating experiences (Goh et al., 2020). Distinguishing these constructs is important as focusing only on observable behaviour may overlook why an individual chooses to engage in it. Research demonstrates that differing dimensions of impulsivity and sensation seeking are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour (Rogers et al., 2021). This distinction is particularly relevant to alcohol use: among college students, sensation seeking and impulsivity have been associated with alcohol involvement through different pathways, with evidence that sensation seeking is more strongly related to alcohol use and impulsivity to alcohol related behaviour (Magid et al., 2007). Thus psychological science can help explain how motivational and self regulatory differences contribute to apparently similar habits or engagement, providing a more nuanced understanding of risk taking and its potential consequences.]]. 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

[[What is impulsivity and what are its key characteristics?
What is sensation seeking and how does it differ from impulsivity?
What psychological processes explain the distinction between impulsivity and sensation seeking?
How do impulsivity and sensation seeking differentially influence risk taking behaviour?
How do these differences help explain alcohol use and related consequences?]]. 


{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==

== [[#Overview|Overview]] ==

== Understanding impulsivity ==

== Understanding sensation seeking ==

== Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking ==

== Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk taking behaviour ==

== Alcohol use and related consequences ==

== [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] ==
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
'''Overview:'''
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinguishable constructs that may contribute to similar behaviours via different psychological pathways (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Multidimensional models distinguish sensation seeking from other impulsivityrelated characteristics, supporting the importance of examining the constructs separately (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Understanding this distinction may improve explanations of risk taking and alcohol related behaviour by considering underlying motivation and behavioural regulation, rather than observable behaviour alone (Magid et al., 2007; Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding impulsivity''':
*Impulsivity is a multidimensional construct, rather than a single tendency, encompassing distinct characteristics such as urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, and sensation-seeking within the UPPS-P framework (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Varied dimensions of impulsivity may contribute to behaviour through different psychological processes, highlighting the importance of distinguishing between impulsive traits rather than treating impulsivity as a single characteristic (Samiefard et al., 2023; Türkmen et al., 2023).
*Impulsivity profiles are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, demonstrating the behavioural importance of its multidimensional structure (Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding sensation seeking''':
*Sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, varied, exciting, or stimulating experiences and can be distinguished from impulsivity characterised by poor inhibition or forethought (Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Sensation seeking is represented as a distinct dimension within multidimensional models such as the UPPS-P, supporting the view that it should not be treated as synonymous with other impulsivity related traits (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Higher sensation seeking is associated with greater risk taking behaviour, although the pursuit of stimulation rather than risk itself may underlie this association (Siraj et al., 2021).
'''Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking''':
*Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can both contribute to risky behaviour, they represent distinguishable psychological tendencies rather than interchangeable explanations for behaviour (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*A central distinction concerns the processes underlying behaviour; sensation seeking involves the pursuit of stimulation and novel experiences, whereas other dimensions of impulsivity involve tendencies such as acting without adequate forethought or under strong emotional states (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Consequently, similar observable behaviours may arise through different psychological pathways, meaning that identifying what a person does does not necessarily explain why they do it (Magid et al., 2007).
'''Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk-taking behaviour''':
*Different profiles of impulsivity are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, suggesting that individual impulsivity dimensions may have different behavioural consequences (Rogers et al., 2021).
*Sensation seeking is positively associated with risk taking, while social factors such as peer influence can also independently contribute to risky behaviour (Siraj et al., 2021).
*Different impulsivity related traits show differing associations to specific forms of risk taking; for example, recent research found sensation seeking associated with having tried sports wagering, while positive urgency was associated with greater frequency and variety of wagering and urgency with gambling-disorder symptoms (Grubbs et al., 2024).

'''Alcohol use and related consequences''':
*Sensation seeking and impulsivity can contribute to alcohol involvement through different pathways, supporting their treatment as distinct constructs rather than interchangeable predictors of drinking behaviour (Magid et al., 2007).
*Sensation seeking may be particularly relevant to alcohol consumption and the rewarding or stimulating aspects of drinking, whereas impulsivity can contribute differently to alcohol related problems and consequences (Magid et al., 2007).
*Multidimensional assessment is also relevant in clinical substance use contexts: UPPS-P dimensions can be separately assessed among individuals undergoing residential detoxification, reinforcing the value of considering distinct impulsivity related traits in understanding substance related behaviour (Kempeneers et al., 2023).

'''Conclusion''':
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but psychologically distinguishable constructs, and similar behaviours should not automatically be assumed to reflect the same underlying process (see Figure 2; Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking behavioural effects vary across contexts, with different dimensions showing different associations with health risk behaviour, risk taking, gambling, and substance related outcomes (Rogers et al., 2021; Grubbs et al., 2024).
*Distinguishing why an individual engages in behaviour such as seeking stimulation versus acting with insufficient forethought provides a more nuanced psychological explanation of risk taking and its consequences (Magid et al., 2007).
[[File:Sensation seeking Vs Impulsivity.png|thumb|245x245px|'''Figure 2'''. Comparison of the UPPS-P dimensions of impulsive behaviour and Zuckerman’s dimensions of sensation seeking, highlighting areas of conceptual overlap and distinction (Goh et al., 2020; Magid et al., 2007; Samiefard et al., 2023). (image created independently using Canva software).]]
==Figures==
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! Feature !! Impulsivity !! Sensation seeking
|-
| '''Core characteristic''' || Tendency toward rash or insufficiently considered action across multiple dimensions || Tendency to seek novel, varied, exciting or stimulating experiences
|-
| '''Key Proces''' || Can involve reduced forethought, urgency or behavioural regulation || Motivation toward novelty, excitement and stimulation
|-
|'''Risk Taking'''
|Risk may result from insufficient consideration of consequences or other impulsive tendencies
|Risk may be accepted in pursuit of rewarding or stimulating experiences
|-
|'''UPPS-S'''
|Multidimensional model including positive urgency, negative urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance and sensation seeking
|Sensation seeking is one distinct dimension within the UPPS-P model
|-
|'''Example'''
|Immediately accepting an unfamiliar drink without considering consequences
|Deliberately trying the drink because the experience is novel and exciting
|-
|'''Behavioural Outcome'''
|Can contribute to health-risk, gambling and substance related behaviours
|Can contribute to risk taking, alcohol use and novelty oriented behaviour
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}

}}

{{tip|{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Impulsivity]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sensation seeking]]</text>
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&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File: Beer Cantus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Social drinking can involve similar observable behaviours despite differences in the psychological processes underlying an individual's decision to participate.]]

[[ Imagine this; at a party, two students are offered an unfamiliar alcoholic drink. One accepts immediately without considering the consequences. The other deliberately chooses to try it because they enjoy new and stimulating experiences. Although their behaviour appears similar, the motivations underlying it may differ.]]. 

[[ Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinct psychological constructs that can contribute to similar observable behaviours via different underlying processes. Impulsivity is multidimensional and includes characteristics such as acting without sufficient premeditation, whereas sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, exciting, or stimulating experiences (Goh et al., 2020). Distinguishing these constructs is important as focusing only on observable behaviour may overlook why an individual chooses to engage in it. Research demonstrates that differing dimensions of impulsivity and sensation seeking are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour (Rogers et al., 2021). This distinction is particularly relevant to alcohol use: among college students, sensation seeking and impulsivity have been associated with alcohol involvement through different pathways, with evidence that sensation seeking is more strongly related to alcohol use and impulsivity to alcohol related behaviour (Magid et al., 2007). Thus psychological science can help explain how motivational and self regulatory differences contribute to apparently similar habits or engagement, providing a more nuanced understanding of risk taking and its potential consequences.]]. 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

[[What is impulsivity and what are its key characteristics?
What is sensation seeking and how does it differ from impulsivity?
What psychological processes explain the distinction between impulsivity and sensation seeking?
How do impulsivity and sensation seeking differentially influence risk taking behaviour?
How do these differences help explain alcohol use and related consequences?]]. 


{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==

== [[#Overview|Overview]] ==

== Understanding impulsivity ==

== Understanding sensation seeking ==

== Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking ==

== Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk taking behaviour ==

== Alcohol use and related consequences ==

== [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] ==
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
'''Overview:'''
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinguishable constructs that may contribute to similar behaviours via different psychological pathways (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Multidimensional models distinguish sensation seeking from other impulsivityrelated characteristics, supporting the importance of examining the constructs separately (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Understanding this distinction may improve explanations of risk taking and alcohol related behaviour by considering underlying motivation and behavioural regulation, rather than observable behaviour alone (Magid et al., 2007; Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding impulsivity''':
*Impulsivity is a multidimensional construct, rather than a single tendency, encompassing distinct characteristics such as urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, and sensation-seeking within the UPPS-P framework (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Varied dimensions of impulsivity may contribute to behaviour through different psychological processes, highlighting the importance of distinguishing between impulsive traits rather than treating impulsivity as a single characteristic (Samiefard et al., 2023; Türkmen et al., 2023).
*Impulsivity profiles are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, demonstrating the behavioural importance of its multidimensional structure (Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding sensation seeking''':
*Sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, varied, exciting, or stimulating experiences and can be distinguished from impulsivity characterised by poor inhibition or forethought (Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Sensation seeking is represented as a distinct dimension within multidimensional models such as the UPPS-P, supporting the view that it should not be treated as synonymous with other impulsivity related traits (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Higher sensation seeking is associated with greater risk taking behaviour, although the pursuit of stimulation rather than risk itself may underlie this association (Siraj et al., 2021).
'''Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking''':
*Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can both contribute to risky behaviour, they represent distinguishable psychological tendencies rather than interchangeable explanations for behaviour (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*A central distinction concerns the processes underlying behaviour; sensation seeking involves the pursuit of stimulation and novel experiences, whereas other dimensions of impulsivity involve tendencies such as acting without adequate forethought or under strong emotional states (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Consequently, similar observable behaviours may arise through different psychological pathways, meaning that identifying what a person does does not necessarily explain why they do it (Magid et al., 2007).
'''Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk-taking behaviour''':
*Different profiles of impulsivity are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, suggesting that individual impulsivity dimensions may have different behavioural consequences (Rogers et al., 2021).
*Sensation seeking is positively associated with risk taking, while social factors such as peer influence can also independently contribute to risky behaviour (Siraj et al., 2021).
*Different impulsivity related traits show differing associations to specific forms of risk taking; for example, recent research found sensation seeking associated with having tried sports wagering, while positive urgency was associated with greater frequency and variety of wagering and urgency with gambling-disorder symptoms (Grubbs et al., 2024).

'''Alcohol use and related consequences''':
*Sensation seeking and impulsivity can contribute to alcohol involvement through different pathways, supporting their treatment as distinct constructs rather than interchangeable predictors of drinking behaviour (Magid et al., 2007).
*Sensation seeking may be particularly relevant to alcohol consumption and the rewarding or stimulating aspects of drinking, whereas impulsivity can contribute differently to alcohol related problems and consequences (Magid et al., 2007).
*Multidimensional assessment is also relevant in clinical substance use contexts: UPPS-P dimensions can be separately assessed among individuals undergoing residential detoxification, reinforcing the value of considering distinct impulsivity related traits in understanding substance related behaviour (Kempeneers et al., 2023).

'''Conclusion''':
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but psychologically distinguishable constructs, and similar behaviours should not automatically be assumed to reflect the same underlying process (see Figure 2; Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking behavioural effects vary across contexts, with different dimensions showing different associations with health risk behaviour, risk taking, gambling, and substance related outcomes (Rogers et al., 2021; Grubbs et al., 2024).
*Distinguishing why an individual engages in behaviour such as seeking stimulation versus acting with insufficient forethought provides a more nuanced psychological explanation of risk taking and its consequences (Magid et al., 2007).
[[File:Sensation seeking Vs Impulsivity.png|thumb|245x245px|'''Figure 2'''. Comparison of the UPPS-P dimensions of impulsive behaviour and Zuckerman’s dimensions of sensation seeking, highlighting areas of conceptual overlap and distinction (Goh et al., 2020; Magid et al., 2007; Samiefard et al., 2023). (image created independently using Canva software).]]
==Figures==
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

'''Table – Comparing impulsivity and sensation''' '''seeking''' 

The comparison table summarises the major conceptual differences and similarities between impulsivity and sensation seeking, including their defining characteristics, underlying processes, and relationships with risk taking behaviour.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! Feature !! Impulsivity !! Sensation seeking
|-
| '''Core characteristic''' || Tendency toward rash or insufficiently considered action across multiple dimensions || Tendency to seek novel, varied, exciting or stimulating experiences
|-
| '''Key Proces''' || Can involve reduced forethought, urgency or behavioural regulation || Motivation toward novelty, excitement and stimulation
|-
|'''Risk Taking'''
|Risk may result from insufficient consideration of consequences or other impulsive tendencies
|Risk may be accepted in pursuit of rewarding or stimulating experiences
|-
|'''UPPS-S'''
|Multidimensional model including positive urgency, negative urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance and sensation seeking
|Sensation seeking is one distinct dimension within the UPPS-P model
|-
|'''Example'''
|Immediately accepting an unfamiliar drink without considering consequences
|Deliberately trying the drink because the experience is novel and exciting
|-
|'''Behavioural Outcome'''
|Can contribute to health-risk, gambling and substance related behaviours
|Can contribute to risk taking, alcohol use and novelty oriented behaviour
|}
Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can contribute to similar observable behaviours, their underlying characteristics and psychological processes differ (see Table 1; Goh et al., 2020; Magid et al., 2007).
;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}

}}

{{tip|{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
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[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Impulsivity]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sensation seeking]]</text>
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      <text bytes="22147" sha1="2zgelly5wgynfx3b72bm0ts20j4det5" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Impulsivity versus sensation-seeking:&lt;br&gt;What is the distinction between impulsivity and sensation-seeking and how does this affect behaviour?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File: Beer Cantus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Social drinking can involve similar observable behaviours despite differences in the psychological processes underlying an individual's decision to participate.]]

[[ Imagine this; at a party, two students are offered an unfamiliar alcoholic drink. One accepts immediately without considering the consequences. The other deliberately chooses to try it because they enjoy new and stimulating experiences. Although their behaviour appears similar, the motivations underlying it may differ.]]. 

[[ Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinct psychological constructs that can contribute to similar observable behaviours via different underlying processes. Impulsivity is multidimensional and includes characteristics such as acting without sufficient premeditation, whereas sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, exciting, or stimulating experiences (Goh et al., 2020). Distinguishing these constructs is important as focusing only on observable behaviour may overlook why an individual chooses to engage in it. Research demonstrates that differing dimensions of impulsivity and sensation seeking are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour (Rogers et al., 2021). This distinction is particularly relevant to alcohol use: among college students, sensation seeking and impulsivity have been associated with alcohol involvement through different pathways, with evidence that sensation seeking is more strongly related to alcohol use and impulsivity to alcohol related behaviour (Magid et al., 2007). Thus psychological science can help explain how motivational and self regulatory differences contribute to apparently similar habits or engagement, providing a more nuanced understanding of risk taking and its potential consequences.]]. 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

[[What is impulsivity and what are its key characteristics?
What is sensation seeking and how does it differ from impulsivity?
What psychological processes explain the distinction between impulsivity and sensation seeking?
How do impulsivity and sensation seeking differentially influence risk taking behaviour?
How do these differences help explain alcohol use and related consequences?]]. 


{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==

== [[#Overview|Overview]] ==

== Understanding impulsivity ==

== Understanding sensation seeking ==

== Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking ==

== Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk taking behaviour ==

== Alcohol use and related consequences ==

== [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] ==
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
'''Overview:'''
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinguishable constructs that may contribute to similar behaviours via different psychological pathways (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Multidimensional models distinguish sensation seeking from other impulsivityrelated characteristics, supporting the importance of examining the constructs separately (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Understanding this distinction may improve explanations of risk taking and alcohol related behaviour by considering underlying motivation and behavioural regulation, rather than observable behaviour alone (Magid et al., 2007; Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding impulsivity''':
*Impulsivity is a multidimensional construct, rather than a single tendency, encompassing distinct characteristics such as urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, and sensation-seeking within the UPPS-P framework (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Varied dimensions of impulsivity may contribute to behaviour through different psychological processes, highlighting the importance of distinguishing between impulsive traits rather than treating impulsivity as a single characteristic (Samiefard et al., 2023; Türkmen et al., 2023).
*Impulsivity profiles are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, demonstrating the behavioural importance of its multidimensional structure (Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding sensation seeking''':
*Sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, varied, exciting, or stimulating experiences and can be distinguished from impulsivity characterised by poor inhibition or forethought (Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Sensation seeking is represented as a distinct dimension within multidimensional models such as the UPPS-P, supporting the view that it should not be treated as synonymous with other impulsivity related traits (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Higher sensation seeking is associated with greater risk taking behaviour, although the pursuit of stimulation rather than risk itself may underlie this association (Siraj et al., 2021).
'''Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking''':
*Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can both contribute to risky behaviour, they represent distinguishable psychological tendencies rather than interchangeable explanations for behaviour (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*A central distinction concerns the processes underlying behaviour; sensation seeking involves the pursuit of stimulation and novel experiences, whereas other dimensions of impulsivity involve tendencies such as acting without adequate forethought or under strong emotional states (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Consequently, similar observable behaviours may arise through different psychological pathways, meaning that identifying what a person does does not necessarily explain why they do it (Magid et al., 2007).
'''Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk-taking behaviour''':
*Different profiles of impulsivity are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, suggesting that individual impulsivity dimensions may have different behavioural consequences (Rogers et al., 2021).
*Sensation seeking is positively associated with risk taking, while social factors such as peer influence can also independently contribute to risky behaviour (Siraj et al., 2021).
*Different impulsivity related traits show differing associations to specific forms of risk taking; for example, recent research found sensation seeking associated with having tried sports wagering, while positive urgency was associated with greater frequency and variety of wagering and urgency with gambling-disorder symptoms (Grubbs et al., 2024).

'''Alcohol use and related consequences''':
*Sensation seeking and impulsivity can contribute to alcohol involvement through different pathways, supporting their treatment as distinct constructs rather than interchangeable predictors of drinking behaviour (Magid et al., 2007).
*Sensation seeking may be particularly relevant to alcohol consumption and the rewarding or stimulating aspects of drinking, whereas impulsivity can contribute differently to alcohol related problems and consequences (Magid et al., 2007).
*Multidimensional assessment is also relevant in clinical substance use contexts: UPPS-P dimensions can be separately assessed among individuals undergoing residential detoxification, reinforcing the value of considering distinct impulsivity related traits in understanding substance related behaviour (Kempeneers et al., 2023).

'''Conclusion''':
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but psychologically distinguishable constructs, and similar behaviours should not automatically be assumed to reflect the same underlying process (see Figure 2; Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking behavioural effects vary across contexts, with different dimensions showing different associations with health risk behaviour, risk taking, gambling, and substance related outcomes (Rogers et al., 2021; Grubbs et al., 2024).
*Distinguishing why an individual engages in behaviour such as seeking stimulation versus acting with insufficient forethought provides a more nuanced psychological explanation of risk taking and its consequences (Magid et al., 2007).
[[File:Sensation seeking Vs Impulsivity.png|thumb|245x245px|'''Figure 2'''. Comparison of the UPPS-P dimensions of impulsive behaviour and Zuckerman’s dimensions of sensation seeking, highlighting areas of conceptual overlap and distinction (Goh et al., 2020; Magid et al., 2007; Samiefard et al., 2023). (image created independently using Canva software).]]
==Figures==
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

'''Table – Comparing impulsivity and sensation''' '''seeking''' 

The comparison table summarises the major conceptual differences and similarities between impulsivity and sensation seeking, including their defining characteristics, underlying processes, and relationships with risk taking behaviour.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! Feature !! Impulsivity !! Sensation seeking
|-
| '''Core characteristic''' || Tendency toward rash or insufficiently considered action across multiple dimensions || Tendency to seek novel, varied, exciting or stimulating experiences
|-
| '''Key Proces''' || Can involve reduced forethought, urgency or behavioural regulation || Motivation toward novelty, excitement and stimulation
|-
|'''Risk Taking'''
|Risk may result from insufficient consideration of consequences or other impulsive tendencies
|Risk may be accepted in pursuit of rewarding or stimulating experiences
|-
|'''UPPS-S'''
|Multidimensional model including positive urgency, negative urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance and sensation seeking
|Sensation seeking is one distinct dimension within the UPPS-P model
|-
|'''Example'''
|Immediately accepting an unfamiliar drink without considering consequences
|Deliberately trying the drink because the experience is novel and exciting
|-
|'''Behavioural Outcome'''
|Can contribute to health-risk, gambling and substance related behaviours
|Can contribute to risk taking, alcohol use and novelty oriented behaviour
|}
Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can contribute to similar observable behaviours, their underlying characteristics and psychological processes differ (see Table 1; Goh et al., 2020; Magid et al., 2007).
;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{A student is offered an unfamiliar alcoholic drink at a party and immediately accepts without considering the possible consequences. Which characteristic best explains this behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

+ Lack of premeditation
- Thrill and adventure seeking
- Experience seeking
- Boredom susceptibility

{A student deliberately chooses to try an unfamiliar activity because they enjoy novelty, excitement, and stimulation. Which construct best explains this motivation?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- Lack of perseverance
+ Sensation seeking
- Negative urgency
- Lack of premeditation

{Which statement best describes the distinction between impulsivity and sensation seeking?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- Impulsivity and sensation seeking are interchangeable terms for the same psychological construct.
- Sensation seeking always involves acting without considering consequences.
+ Similar observable behaviours can arise from different underlying motivations and psychological processes.
- Only impulsivity is associated with risk taking behaviour.
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}

}}

{{tip|{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Impulsivity]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sensation seeking]]</text>
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    </revision>
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      <id>2823919</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Reillyu3280706</username>
        <id>3106308</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added quiz heading</comment>
      <origin>2823919</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="22194" sha1="hwpuzq67fkwckibqm2bagc9283n0df5" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Impulsivity versus sensation-seeking:&lt;br&gt;What is the distinction between impulsivity and sensation-seeking and how does this affect behaviour?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File: Beer Cantus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Social drinking can involve similar observable behaviours despite differences in the psychological processes underlying an individual's decision to participate.]]

[[ Imagine this; at a party, two students are offered an unfamiliar alcoholic drink. One accepts immediately without considering the consequences. The other deliberately chooses to try it because they enjoy new and stimulating experiences. Although their behaviour appears similar, the motivations underlying it may differ.]]. 

[[ Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinct psychological constructs that can contribute to similar observable behaviours via different underlying processes. Impulsivity is multidimensional and includes characteristics such as acting without sufficient premeditation, whereas sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, exciting, or stimulating experiences (Goh et al., 2020). Distinguishing these constructs is important as focusing only on observable behaviour may overlook why an individual chooses to engage in it. Research demonstrates that differing dimensions of impulsivity and sensation seeking are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour (Rogers et al., 2021). This distinction is particularly relevant to alcohol use: among college students, sensation seeking and impulsivity have been associated with alcohol involvement through different pathways, with evidence that sensation seeking is more strongly related to alcohol use and impulsivity to alcohol related behaviour (Magid et al., 2007). Thus psychological science can help explain how motivational and self regulatory differences contribute to apparently similar habits or engagement, providing a more nuanced understanding of risk taking and its potential consequences.]]. 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

[[What is impulsivity and what are its key characteristics?
What is sensation seeking and how does it differ from impulsivity?
What psychological processes explain the distinction between impulsivity and sensation seeking?
How do impulsivity and sensation seeking differentially influence risk taking behaviour?
How do these differences help explain alcohol use and related consequences?]]. 


{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==

== [[#Overview|Overview]] ==

== Understanding impulsivity ==

== Understanding sensation seeking ==

== Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking ==

== Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk taking behaviour ==

== Alcohol use and related consequences ==

== [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] ==
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
'''Overview:'''
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinguishable constructs that may contribute to similar behaviours via different psychological pathways (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Multidimensional models distinguish sensation seeking from other impulsivityrelated characteristics, supporting the importance of examining the constructs separately (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Understanding this distinction may improve explanations of risk taking and alcohol related behaviour by considering underlying motivation and behavioural regulation, rather than observable behaviour alone (Magid et al., 2007; Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding impulsivity''':
*Impulsivity is a multidimensional construct, rather than a single tendency, encompassing distinct characteristics such as urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, and sensation-seeking within the UPPS-P framework (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Varied dimensions of impulsivity may contribute to behaviour through different psychological processes, highlighting the importance of distinguishing between impulsive traits rather than treating impulsivity as a single characteristic (Samiefard et al., 2023; Türkmen et al., 2023).
*Impulsivity profiles are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, demonstrating the behavioural importance of its multidimensional structure (Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding sensation seeking''':
*Sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, varied, exciting, or stimulating experiences and can be distinguished from impulsivity characterised by poor inhibition or forethought (Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Sensation seeking is represented as a distinct dimension within multidimensional models such as the UPPS-P, supporting the view that it should not be treated as synonymous with other impulsivity related traits (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Higher sensation seeking is associated with greater risk taking behaviour, although the pursuit of stimulation rather than risk itself may underlie this association (Siraj et al., 2021).
'''Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking''':
*Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can both contribute to risky behaviour, they represent distinguishable psychological tendencies rather than interchangeable explanations for behaviour (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*A central distinction concerns the processes underlying behaviour; sensation seeking involves the pursuit of stimulation and novel experiences, whereas other dimensions of impulsivity involve tendencies such as acting without adequate forethought or under strong emotional states (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Consequently, similar observable behaviours may arise through different psychological pathways, meaning that identifying what a person does does not necessarily explain why they do it (Magid et al., 2007).
'''Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk-taking behaviour''':
*Different profiles of impulsivity are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, suggesting that individual impulsivity dimensions may have different behavioural consequences (Rogers et al., 2021).
*Sensation seeking is positively associated with risk taking, while social factors such as peer influence can also independently contribute to risky behaviour (Siraj et al., 2021).
*Different impulsivity related traits show differing associations to specific forms of risk taking; for example, recent research found sensation seeking associated with having tried sports wagering, while positive urgency was associated with greater frequency and variety of wagering and urgency with gambling-disorder symptoms (Grubbs et al., 2024).

'''Alcohol use and related consequences''':
*Sensation seeking and impulsivity can contribute to alcohol involvement through different pathways, supporting their treatment as distinct constructs rather than interchangeable predictors of drinking behaviour (Magid et al., 2007).
*Sensation seeking may be particularly relevant to alcohol consumption and the rewarding or stimulating aspects of drinking, whereas impulsivity can contribute differently to alcohol related problems and consequences (Magid et al., 2007).
*Multidimensional assessment is also relevant in clinical substance use contexts: UPPS-P dimensions can be separately assessed among individuals undergoing residential detoxification, reinforcing the value of considering distinct impulsivity related traits in understanding substance related behaviour (Kempeneers et al., 2023).

'''Conclusion''':
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but psychologically distinguishable constructs, and similar behaviours should not automatically be assumed to reflect the same underlying process (see Figure 2; Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking behavioural effects vary across contexts, with different dimensions showing different associations with health risk behaviour, risk taking, gambling, and substance related outcomes (Rogers et al., 2021; Grubbs et al., 2024).
*Distinguishing why an individual engages in behaviour such as seeking stimulation versus acting with insufficient forethought provides a more nuanced psychological explanation of risk taking and its consequences (Magid et al., 2007).
[[File:Sensation seeking Vs Impulsivity.png|thumb|245x245px|'''Figure 2'''. Comparison of the UPPS-P dimensions of impulsive behaviour and Zuckerman’s dimensions of sensation seeking, highlighting areas of conceptual overlap and distinction (Goh et al., 2020; Magid et al., 2007; Samiefard et al., 2023). (image created independently using Canva software).]]
==Figures==
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

'''Table – Comparing impulsivity and sensation''' '''seeking''' 

The comparison table summarises the major conceptual differences and similarities between impulsivity and sensation seeking, including their defining characteristics, underlying processes, and relationships with risk taking behaviour.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! Feature !! Impulsivity !! Sensation seeking
|-
| '''Core characteristic''' || Tendency toward rash or insufficiently considered action across multiple dimensions || Tendency to seek novel, varied, exciting or stimulating experiences
|-
| '''Key Proces''' || Can involve reduced forethought, urgency or behavioural regulation || Motivation toward novelty, excitement and stimulation
|-
|'''Risk Taking'''
|Risk may result from insufficient consideration of consequences or other impulsive tendencies
|Risk may be accepted in pursuit of rewarding or stimulating experiences
|-
|'''UPPS-S'''
|Multidimensional model including positive urgency, negative urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance and sensation seeking
|Sensation seeking is one distinct dimension within the UPPS-P model
|-
|'''Example'''
|Immediately accepting an unfamiliar drink without considering consequences
|Deliberately trying the drink because the experience is novel and exciting
|-
|'''Behavioural Outcome'''
|Can contribute to health-risk, gambling and substance related behaviours
|Can contribute to risk taking, alcohol use and novelty oriented behaviour
|}
Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can contribute to similar observable behaviours, their underlying characteristics and psychological processes differ (see Table 1; Goh et al., 2020; Magid et al., 2007).
;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:

'''Quiz: Impulsivity or sensation seeking?'''
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{A student is offered an unfamiliar alcoholic drink at a party and immediately accepts without considering the possible consequences. Which characteristic best explains this behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

+ Lack of premeditation
- Thrill and adventure seeking
- Experience seeking
- Boredom susceptibility

{A student deliberately chooses to try an unfamiliar activity because they enjoy novelty, excitement, and stimulation. Which construct best explains this motivation?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- Lack of perseverance
+ Sensation seeking
- Negative urgency
- Lack of premeditation

{Which statement best describes the distinction between impulsivity and sensation seeking?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- Impulsivity and sensation seeking are interchangeable terms for the same psychological construct.
- Sensation seeking always involves acting without considering consequences.
+ Similar observable behaviours can arise from different underlying motivations and psychological processes.
- Only impulsivity is associated with risk taking behaviour.
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}

}}

{{tip|{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Impulsivity]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sensation seeking]]</text>
      <sha1>hwpuzq67fkwckibqm2bagc9283n0df5</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2823920</id>
      <parentid>2823919</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T19:18:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Reillyu3280706</username>
        <id>3106308</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <origin>2823920</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="22505" sha1="fi90nb1uwfvqmkfmc3o3p68f7ohh151" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Impulsivity versus sensation-seeking:&lt;br&gt;What is the distinction between impulsivity and sensation-seeking and how does this affect behaviour?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File: Beer Cantus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Social drinking can involve similar observable behaviours despite differences in the psychological processes underlying an individual's decision to participate.]]

[[ Imagine this; at a party, two students are offered an unfamiliar alcoholic drink. One accepts immediately without considering the consequences. The other deliberately chooses to try it because they enjoy new and stimulating experiences. Although their behaviour appears similar, the motivations underlying it may differ.]]. 

[[ Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinct psychological constructs that can contribute to similar observable behaviours via different underlying processes. Impulsivity is multidimensional and includes characteristics such as acting without sufficient premeditation, whereas sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, exciting, or stimulating experiences (Goh et al., 2020). Distinguishing these constructs is important as focusing only on observable behaviour may overlook why an individual chooses to engage in it. Research demonstrates that differing dimensions of impulsivity and sensation seeking are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour (Rogers et al., 2021). This distinction is particularly relevant to alcohol use: among college students, sensation seeking and impulsivity have been associated with alcohol involvement through different pathways, with evidence that sensation seeking is more strongly related to alcohol use and impulsivity to alcohol related behaviour (Magid et al., 2007). Thus psychological science can help explain how motivational and self regulatory differences contribute to apparently similar habits or engagement, providing a more nuanced understanding of risk taking and its potential consequences.]]. 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

[[What is impulsivity and what are its key characteristics?
What is sensation seeking and how does it differ from impulsivity?
What psychological processes explain the distinction between impulsivity and sensation seeking?
How do impulsivity and sensation seeking differentially influence risk taking behaviour?
How do these differences help explain alcohol use and related consequences?]]. 


{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==

== [[#Overview|Overview]] ==

== Understanding impulsivity ==

== Understanding sensation seeking ==

== Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking ==

== Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk taking behaviour ==

== Alcohol use and related consequences ==

== [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] ==
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
'''Overview:'''
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinguishable constructs that may contribute to similar behaviours via different psychological pathways (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Multidimensional models distinguish sensation seeking from other impulsivityrelated characteristics, supporting the importance of examining the constructs separately (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Understanding this distinction may improve explanations of risk taking and alcohol related behaviour by considering underlying motivation and behavioural regulation, rather than observable behaviour alone (Magid et al., 2007; Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding impulsivity''':
*Impulsivity is a multidimensional construct, rather than a single tendency, encompassing distinct characteristics such as urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, and sensation-seeking within the UPPS-P framework (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Varied dimensions of impulsivity may contribute to behaviour through different psychological processes, highlighting the importance of distinguishing between impulsive traits rather than treating impulsivity as a single characteristic (Samiefard et al., 2023; Türkmen et al., 2023).
*Impulsivity profiles are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, demonstrating the behavioural importance of its multidimensional structure (Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding sensation seeking''':
*Sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, varied, exciting, or stimulating experiences and can be distinguished from impulsivity characterised by poor inhibition or forethought (Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Sensation seeking is represented as a distinct dimension within multidimensional models such as the UPPS-P, supporting the view that it should not be treated as synonymous with other impulsivity related traits (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Higher sensation seeking is associated with greater risk taking behaviour, although the pursuit of stimulation rather than risk itself may underlie this association (Siraj et al., 2021).
'''Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking''':
*Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can both contribute to risky behaviour, they represent distinguishable psychological tendencies rather than interchangeable explanations for behaviour (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*A central distinction concerns the processes underlying behaviour; sensation seeking involves the pursuit of stimulation and novel experiences, whereas other dimensions of impulsivity involve tendencies such as acting without adequate forethought or under strong emotional states (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Consequently, similar observable behaviours may arise through different psychological pathways, meaning that identifying what a person does does not necessarily explain why they do it (Magid et al., 2007).
'''Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk-taking behaviour''':
*Different profiles of impulsivity are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, suggesting that individual impulsivity dimensions may have different behavioural consequences (Rogers et al., 2021).
*Sensation seeking is positively associated with risk taking, while social factors such as peer influence can also independently contribute to risky behaviour (Siraj et al., 2021).
*Different impulsivity related traits show differing associations to specific forms of risk taking; for example, recent research found sensation seeking associated with having tried sports wagering, while positive urgency was associated with greater frequency and variety of wagering and urgency with gambling-disorder symptoms (Grubbs et al., 2024).

'''Alcohol use and related consequences''':
*Sensation seeking and impulsivity can contribute to alcohol involvement through different pathways, supporting their treatment as distinct constructs rather than interchangeable predictors of drinking behaviour (Magid et al., 2007).
*Sensation seeking may be particularly relevant to alcohol consumption and the rewarding or stimulating aspects of drinking, whereas impulsivity can contribute differently to alcohol related problems and consequences (Magid et al., 2007).
*Multidimensional assessment is also relevant in clinical substance use contexts: UPPS-P dimensions can be separately assessed among individuals undergoing residential detoxification, reinforcing the value of considering distinct impulsivity related traits in understanding substance related behaviour (Kempeneers et al., 2023).

'''Conclusion''':
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but psychologically distinguishable constructs, and similar behaviours should not automatically be assumed to reflect the same underlying process (see Figure 2; Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking behavioural effects vary across contexts, with different dimensions showing different associations with health risk behaviour, risk taking, gambling, and substance related outcomes (Rogers et al., 2021; Grubbs et al., 2024).
*Distinguishing why an individual engages in behaviour such as seeking stimulation versus acting with insufficient forethought provides a more nuanced psychological explanation of risk taking and its consequences (Magid et al., 2007).
[[File:Sensation seeking Vs Impulsivity.png|thumb|245x245px|'''Figure 2'''. Comparison of the UPPS-P dimensions of impulsive behaviour and Zuckerman’s dimensions of sensation seeking, highlighting areas of conceptual overlap and distinction (Goh et al., 2020; Magid et al., 2007; Samiefard et al., 2023). (image created independently using Canva software).]]
==Figures==
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

'''Table – Comparing impulsivity and sensation''' '''seeking''' 

The comparison table summarises the major conceptual differences and similarities between impulsivity and sensation seeking, including their defining characteristics, underlying processes, and relationships with risk taking behaviour.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! Feature !! Impulsivity !! Sensation seeking
|-
| '''Core characteristic''' || Tendency toward rash or insufficiently considered action across multiple dimensions || Tendency to seek novel, varied, exciting or stimulating experiences
|-
| '''Key Proces''' || Can involve reduced forethought, urgency or behavioural regulation || Motivation toward novelty, excitement and stimulation
|-
|'''Risk Taking'''
|Risk may result from insufficient consideration of consequences or other impulsive tendencies
|Risk may be accepted in pursuit of rewarding or stimulating experiences
|-
|'''UPPS-S'''
|Multidimensional model including positive urgency, negative urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance and sensation seeking
|Sensation seeking is one distinct dimension within the UPPS-P model
|-
|'''Example'''
|Immediately accepting an unfamiliar drink without considering consequences
|Deliberately trying the drink because the experience is novel and exciting
|-
|'''Behavioural Outcome'''
|Can contribute to health-risk, gambling and substance related behaviours
|Can contribute to risk taking, alcohol use and novelty oriented behaviour
|}
Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can contribute to similar observable behaviours, their underlying characteristics and psychological processes differ (see Table 1; Goh et al., 2020; Magid et al., 2007).
;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:

'''Quiz: Impulsivity or sensation seeking?'''
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{A student is offered an unfamiliar alcoholic drink at a party and immediately accepts without considering the possible consequences. Which characteristic best explains this behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

+ Lack of premeditation
- Thrill and adventure seeking
- Experience seeking
- Boredom susceptibility

{A student deliberately chooses to try an unfamiliar activity because they enjoy novelty, excitement, and stimulation. Which construct best explains this motivation?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- Lack of perseverance
+ Sensation seeking
- Negative urgency
- Lack of premeditation

{Which statement best describes the distinction between impulsivity and sensation seeking?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- Impulsivity and sensation seeking are interchangeable terms for the same psychological construct.
- Sensation seeking always involves acting without considering consequences.
+ Similar observable behaviours can arise from different underlying motivations and psychological processes.
- Only impulsivity is associated with risk taking behaviour.
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Sensation seeking|Sensation seeking – Motivation and emotion (Wikiversity)]]
* [[w:Sensation Seeking Scale|Sensation Seeking Scale (Wikipedia)]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Arousal|Arousal and sensation seeking – Motivation and emotion (Wikiversity)]][[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}

}}

{{tip|{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Impulsivity]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sensation seeking]]</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2026-08-21T19:20:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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        <id>3106308</id>
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&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File: Beer Cantus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Social drinking can involve similar observable behaviours despite differences in the psychological processes underlying an individual's decision to participate.]]

[[ Imagine this; at a party, two students are offered an unfamiliar alcoholic drink. One accepts immediately without considering the consequences. The other deliberately chooses to try it because they enjoy new and stimulating experiences. Although their behaviour appears similar, the motivations underlying it may differ.]]. 

[[ Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinct psychological constructs that can contribute to similar observable behaviours via different underlying processes. Impulsivity is multidimensional and includes characteristics such as acting without sufficient premeditation, whereas sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, exciting, or stimulating experiences (Goh et al., 2020). Distinguishing these constructs is important as focusing only on observable behaviour may overlook why an individual chooses to engage in it. Research demonstrates that differing dimensions of impulsivity and sensation seeking are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour (Rogers et al., 2021). This distinction is particularly relevant to alcohol use: among college students, sensation seeking and impulsivity have been associated with alcohol involvement through different pathways, with evidence that sensation seeking is more strongly related to alcohol use and impulsivity to alcohol related behaviour (Magid et al., 2007). Thus psychological science can help explain how motivational and self regulatory differences contribute to apparently similar habits or engagement, providing a more nuanced understanding of risk taking and its potential consequences.]]. 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

[[What is impulsivity and what are its key characteristics?
What is sensation seeking and how does it differ from impulsivity?
What psychological processes explain the distinction between impulsivity and sensation seeking?
How do impulsivity and sensation seeking differentially influence risk taking behaviour?
How do these differences help explain alcohol use and related consequences?]]. 


{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==

== [[#Overview|Overview]] ==

== Understanding impulsivity ==

== Understanding sensation seeking ==

== Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking ==

== Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk taking behaviour ==

== Alcohol use and related consequences ==

== [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] ==
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
'''Overview:'''
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinguishable constructs that may contribute to similar behaviours via different psychological pathways (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Multidimensional models distinguish sensation seeking from other impulsivityrelated characteristics, supporting the importance of examining the constructs separately (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Understanding this distinction may improve explanations of risk taking and alcohol related behaviour by considering underlying motivation and behavioural regulation, rather than observable behaviour alone (Magid et al., 2007; Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding impulsivity''':
*Impulsivity is a multidimensional construct, rather than a single tendency, encompassing distinct characteristics such as urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, and sensation-seeking within the UPPS-P framework (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Varied dimensions of impulsivity may contribute to behaviour through different psychological processes, highlighting the importance of distinguishing between impulsive traits rather than treating impulsivity as a single characteristic (Samiefard et al., 2023; Türkmen et al., 2023).
*Impulsivity profiles are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, demonstrating the behavioural importance of its multidimensional structure (Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding sensation seeking''':
*Sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, varied, exciting, or stimulating experiences and can be distinguished from impulsivity characterised by poor inhibition or forethought (Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Sensation seeking is represented as a distinct dimension within multidimensional models such as the UPPS-P, supporting the view that it should not be treated as synonymous with other impulsivity related traits (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Higher sensation seeking is associated with greater risk taking behaviour, although the pursuit of stimulation rather than risk itself may underlie this association (Siraj et al., 2021).
'''Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking''':
*Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can both contribute to risky behaviour, they represent distinguishable psychological tendencies rather than interchangeable explanations for behaviour (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*A central distinction concerns the processes underlying behaviour; sensation seeking involves the pursuit of stimulation and novel experiences, whereas other dimensions of impulsivity involve tendencies such as acting without adequate forethought or under strong emotional states (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Consequently, similar observable behaviours may arise through different psychological pathways, meaning that identifying what a person does does not necessarily explain why they do it (Magid et al., 2007).
'''Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk-taking behaviour''':
*Different profiles of impulsivity are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, suggesting that individual impulsivity dimensions may have different behavioural consequences (Rogers et al., 2021).
*Sensation seeking is positively associated with risk taking, while social factors such as peer influence can also independently contribute to risky behaviour (Siraj et al., 2021).
*Different impulsivity related traits show differing associations to specific forms of risk taking; for example, recent research found sensation seeking associated with having tried sports wagering, while positive urgency was associated with greater frequency and variety of wagering and urgency with gambling-disorder symptoms (Grubbs et al., 2024).

'''Alcohol use and related consequences''':
*Sensation seeking and impulsivity can contribute to alcohol involvement through different pathways, supporting their treatment as distinct constructs rather than interchangeable predictors of drinking behaviour (Magid et al., 2007).
*Sensation seeking may be particularly relevant to alcohol consumption and the rewarding or stimulating aspects of drinking, whereas impulsivity can contribute differently to alcohol related problems and consequences (Magid et al., 2007).
*Multidimensional assessment is also relevant in clinical substance use contexts: UPPS-P dimensions can be separately assessed among individuals undergoing residential detoxification, reinforcing the value of considering distinct impulsivity related traits in understanding substance related behaviour (Kempeneers et al., 2023).

'''Conclusion''':
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but psychologically distinguishable constructs, and similar behaviours should not automatically be assumed to reflect the same underlying process (see Figure 2; Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking behavioural effects vary across contexts, with different dimensions showing different associations with health risk behaviour, risk taking, gambling, and substance related outcomes (Rogers et al., 2021; Grubbs et al., 2024).
*Distinguishing why an individual engages in behaviour such as seeking stimulation versus acting with insufficient forethought provides a more nuanced psychological explanation of risk taking and its consequences (Magid et al., 2007).
[[File:Sensation seeking Vs Impulsivity.png|thumb|245x245px|'''Figure 2'''. Comparison of the UPPS-P dimensions of impulsive behaviour and Zuckerman’s dimensions of sensation seeking, highlighting areas of conceptual overlap and distinction (Goh et al., 2020; Magid et al., 2007; Samiefard et al., 2023). (image created independently using Canva software).]]
==Figures==
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

'''Table – Comparing impulsivity and sensation''' '''seeking''' 

The comparison table summarises the major conceptual differences and similarities between impulsivity and sensation seeking, including their defining characteristics, underlying processes, and relationships with risk taking behaviour.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! Feature !! Impulsivity !! Sensation seeking
|-
| '''Core characteristic''' || Tendency toward rash or insufficiently considered action across multiple dimensions || Tendency to seek novel, varied, exciting or stimulating experiences
|-
| '''Key Proces''' || Can involve reduced forethought, urgency or behavioural regulation || Motivation toward novelty, excitement and stimulation
|-
|'''Risk Taking'''
|Risk may result from insufficient consideration of consequences or other impulsive tendencies
|Risk may be accepted in pursuit of rewarding or stimulating experiences
|-
|'''UPPS-S'''
|Multidimensional model including positive urgency, negative urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance and sensation seeking
|Sensation seeking is one distinct dimension within the UPPS-P model
|-
|'''Example'''
|Immediately accepting an unfamiliar drink without considering consequences
|Deliberately trying the drink because the experience is novel and exciting
|-
|'''Behavioural Outcome'''
|Can contribute to health-risk, gambling and substance related behaviours
|Can contribute to risk taking, alcohol use and novelty oriented behaviour
|}
Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can contribute to similar observable behaviours, their underlying characteristics and psychological processes differ (see Table 1; Goh et al., 2020; Magid et al., 2007).
;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:

'''Quiz: Impulsivity or sensation seeking?'''
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{A student is offered an unfamiliar alcoholic drink at a party and immediately accepts without considering the possible consequences. Which characteristic best explains this behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

+ Lack of premeditation
- Thrill and adventure seeking
- Experience seeking
- Boredom susceptibility

{A student deliberately chooses to try an unfamiliar activity because they enjoy novelty, excitement, and stimulation. Which construct best explains this motivation?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- Lack of perseverance
+ Sensation seeking
- Negative urgency
- Lack of premeditation

{Which statement best describes the distinction between impulsivity and sensation seeking?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- Impulsivity and sensation seeking are interchangeable terms for the same psychological construct.
- Sensation seeking always involves acting without considering consequences.
+ Similar observable behaviours can arise from different underlying motivations and psychological processes.
- Only impulsivity is associated with risk taking behaviour.
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Sensation seeking|Sensation seeking – Motivation and emotion (Wikiversity)]]
* [[w:Sensation Seeking Scale|Sensation Seeking Scale (Wikipedia)]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Arousal|Arousal and sensation seeking – Motivation and emotion (Wikiversity)]]

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}

}}

{{tip|{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Impulsivity]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sensation seeking]]</text>
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&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File: Beer Cantus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Social drinking can involve similar observable behaviours despite differences in the psychological processes underlying an individual's decision to participate.]]

[[ Imagine this; at a party, two students are offered an unfamiliar alcoholic drink. One accepts immediately without considering the consequences. The other deliberately chooses to try it because they enjoy new and stimulating experiences. Although their behaviour appears similar, the motivations underlying it may differ.]]. 

[[ Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinct psychological constructs that can contribute to similar observable behaviours via different underlying processes. Impulsivity is multidimensional and includes characteristics such as acting without sufficient premeditation, whereas sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, exciting, or stimulating experiences (Goh et al., 2020). Distinguishing these constructs is important as focusing only on observable behaviour may overlook why an individual chooses to engage in it. Research demonstrates that differing dimensions of impulsivity and sensation seeking are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour (Rogers et al., 2021). This distinction is particularly relevant to alcohol use: among college students, sensation seeking and impulsivity have been associated with alcohol involvement through different pathways, with evidence that sensation seeking is more strongly related to alcohol use and impulsivity to alcohol related behaviour (Magid et al., 2007). Thus psychological science can help explain how motivational and self regulatory differences contribute to apparently similar habits or engagement, providing a more nuanced understanding of risk taking and its potential consequences.]]. 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

[[What is impulsivity and what are its key characteristics?
What is sensation seeking and how does it differ from impulsivity?
What psychological processes explain the distinction between impulsivity and sensation seeking?
How do impulsivity and sensation seeking differentially influence risk taking behaviour?
How do these differences help explain alcohol use and related consequences?]]. 


{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==

== [[#Overview|Overview]] ==

== Understanding impulsivity ==

== Understanding sensation seeking ==

== Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking ==

== Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk taking behaviour ==

== Alcohol use and related consequences ==

== [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] ==
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
'''Overview:'''
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinguishable constructs that may contribute to similar behaviours via different psychological pathways (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Multidimensional models distinguish sensation seeking from other impulsivityrelated characteristics, supporting the importance of examining the constructs separately (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Understanding this distinction may improve explanations of risk taking and alcohol related behaviour by considering underlying motivation and behavioural regulation, rather than observable behaviour alone (Magid et al., 2007; Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding impulsivity''':
*Impulsivity is a multidimensional construct, rather than a single tendency, encompassing distinct characteristics such as urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, and sensation-seeking within the UPPS-P framework (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Varied dimensions of impulsivity may contribute to behaviour through different psychological processes, highlighting the importance of distinguishing between impulsive traits rather than treating impulsivity as a single characteristic (Samiefard et al., 2023; Türkmen et al., 2023).
*Impulsivity profiles are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, demonstrating the behavioural importance of its multidimensional structure (Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding sensation seeking''':
*Sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, varied, exciting, or stimulating experiences and can be distinguished from impulsivity characterised by poor inhibition or forethought (Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Sensation seeking is represented as a distinct dimension within multidimensional models such as the UPPS-P, supporting the view that it should not be treated as synonymous with other impulsivity related traits (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Higher sensation seeking is associated with greater risk taking behaviour, although the pursuit of stimulation rather than risk itself may underlie this association (Siraj et al., 2021).
'''Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking''':
*Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can both contribute to risky behaviour, they represent distinguishable psychological tendencies rather than interchangeable explanations for behaviour (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*A central distinction concerns the processes underlying behaviour; sensation seeking involves the pursuit of stimulation and novel experiences, whereas other dimensions of impulsivity involve tendencies such as acting without adequate forethought or under strong emotional states (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Consequently, similar observable behaviours may arise through different psychological pathways, meaning that identifying what a person does does not necessarily explain why they do it (Magid et al., 2007).
'''Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk-taking behaviour''':
*Different profiles of impulsivity are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, suggesting that individual impulsivity dimensions may have different behavioural consequences (Rogers et al., 2021).
*Sensation seeking is positively associated with risk taking, while social factors such as peer influence can also independently contribute to risky behaviour (Siraj et al., 2021).
*Different impulsivity related traits show differing associations to specific forms of risk taking; for example, recent research found sensation seeking associated with having tried sports wagering, while positive urgency was associated with greater frequency and variety of wagering and urgency with gambling-disorder symptoms (Grubbs et al., 2024).

'''Alcohol use and related consequences''':
*Sensation seeking and impulsivity can contribute to alcohol involvement through different pathways, supporting their treatment as distinct constructs rather than interchangeable predictors of drinking behaviour (Magid et al., 2007).
*Sensation seeking may be particularly relevant to alcohol consumption and the rewarding or stimulating aspects of drinking, whereas impulsivity can contribute differently to alcohol related problems and consequences (Magid et al., 2007).
*Multidimensional assessment is also relevant in clinical substance use contexts: UPPS-P dimensions can be separately assessed among individuals undergoing residential detoxification, reinforcing the value of considering distinct impulsivity related traits in understanding substance related behaviour (Kempeneers et al., 2023).

'''Conclusion''':
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but psychologically distinguishable constructs, and similar behaviours should not automatically be assumed to reflect the same underlying process (see Figure 2; Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking behavioural effects vary across contexts, with different dimensions showing different associations with health risk behaviour, risk taking, gambling, and substance related outcomes (Rogers et al., 2021; Grubbs et al., 2024).
*Distinguishing why an individual engages in behaviour such as seeking stimulation versus acting with insufficient forethought provides a more nuanced psychological explanation of risk taking and its consequences (Magid et al., 2007).
[[File:Sensation seeking Vs Impulsivity.png|thumb|245x245px|'''Figure 2'''. Comparison of the UPPS-P dimensions of impulsive behaviour and Zuckerman’s dimensions of sensation seeking, highlighting areas of conceptual overlap and distinction (Goh et al., 2020; Magid et al., 2007; Samiefard et al., 2023). (image created independently using Canva software).]]
==Figures==
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

'''Table – Comparing impulsivity and sensation''' '''seeking''' 

The comparison table summarises the major conceptual differences and similarities between impulsivity and sensation seeking, including their defining characteristics, underlying processes, and relationships with risk taking behaviour.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! Feature !! Impulsivity !! Sensation seeking
|-
| '''Core characteristic''' || Tendency toward rash or insufficiently considered action across multiple dimensions || Tendency to seek novel, varied, exciting or stimulating experiences
|-
| '''Key Proces''' || Can involve reduced forethought, urgency or behavioural regulation || Motivation toward novelty, excitement and stimulation
|-
|'''Risk Taking'''
|Risk may result from insufficient consideration of consequences or other impulsive tendencies
|Risk may be accepted in pursuit of rewarding or stimulating experiences
|-
|'''UPPS-S'''
|Multidimensional model including positive urgency, negative urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance and sensation seeking
|Sensation seeking is one distinct dimension within the UPPS-P model
|-
|'''Example'''
|Immediately accepting an unfamiliar drink without considering consequences
|Deliberately trying the drink because the experience is novel and exciting
|-
|'''Behavioural Outcome'''
|Can contribute to health-risk, gambling and substance related behaviours
|Can contribute to risk taking, alcohol use and novelty oriented behaviour
|}
Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can contribute to similar observable behaviours, their underlying characteristics and psychological processes differ (see Table 1; Goh et al., 2020; Magid et al., 2007).
;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:

'''Quiz: Impulsivity or sensation seeking?'''
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{A student is offered an unfamiliar alcoholic drink at a party and immediately accepts without considering the possible consequences. Which characteristic best explains this behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

+ Lack of premeditation
- Thrill and adventure seeking
- Experience seeking
- Boredom susceptibility

{A student deliberately chooses to try an unfamiliar activity because they enjoy novelty, excitement, and stimulation. Which construct best explains this motivation?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- Lack of perseverance
+ Sensation seeking
- Negative urgency
- Lack of premeditation

{Which statement best describes the distinction between impulsivity and sensation seeking?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- Impulsivity and sensation seeking are interchangeable terms for the same psychological construct.
- Sensation seeking always involves acting without considering consequences.
+ Similar observable behaviours can arise from different underlying motivations and psychological processes.
- Only impulsivity is associated with risk taking behaviour.
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Sensation seeking|Sensation seeking – Motivation and emotion (Wikiversity)]]
* [[w:Sensation Seeking Scale|Sensation Seeking Scale (Wikipedia)]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Arousal|Arousal and sensation seeking – Motivation and emotion (Wikiversity)]]

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}

}}

{{tip|{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}}}

==External links==
* [https://www.impulsivity.org/measurement/upps_p/ UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale]
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/sensation-seeking-scale APA Dictionary of Psychology – Sensation-Seeking Scale]
* [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/9781405186407.wbiecs029 Sensation Seeking – Zuckerman]</text>
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&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File: Beer Cantus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Social drinking can involve similar observable behaviours despite differences in the psychological processes underlying an individual's decision to participate.]]

[[ Imagine this; at a party, two students are offered an unfamiliar alcoholic drink. One accepts immediately without considering the consequences. The other deliberately chooses to try it because they enjoy new and stimulating experiences. Although their behaviour appears similar, the motivations underlying it may differ.]]. 

[[ Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinct psychological constructs that can contribute to similar observable behaviours via different underlying processes. Impulsivity is multidimensional and includes characteristics such as acting without sufficient premeditation, whereas sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, exciting, or stimulating experiences (Goh et al., 2020). Distinguishing these constructs is important as focusing only on observable behaviour may overlook why an individual chooses to engage in it. Research demonstrates that differing dimensions of impulsivity and sensation seeking are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour (Rogers et al., 2021). This distinction is particularly relevant to alcohol use: among college students, sensation seeking and impulsivity have been associated with alcohol involvement through different pathways, with evidence that sensation seeking is more strongly related to alcohol use and impulsivity to alcohol related behaviour (Magid et al., 2007). Thus psychological science can help explain how motivational and self regulatory differences contribute to apparently similar habits or engagement, providing a more nuanced understanding of risk taking and its potential consequences.{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

1. What is impulsivity and what are its key characteristics?

2. What is sensation seeking and how does it differ from impulsivity?

3. What psychological processes explain the distinction between impulsivity and sensation seeking?

4. How do impulsivity and sensation seeking differentially influence risk-taking behaviour?

5. How do these differences help explain alcohol use and related consequences?


{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==

== [[#Overview|Overview]] ==

== Understanding impulsivity ==

== Understanding sensation seeking ==

== Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking ==

== Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk taking behaviour ==

== Alcohol use and related consequences ==

== [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] ==
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
'''Overview:'''
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinguishable constructs that may contribute to similar behaviours via different psychological pathways (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Multidimensional models distinguish sensation seeking from other impulsivityrelated characteristics, supporting the importance of examining the constructs separately (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Understanding this distinction may improve explanations of risk taking and alcohol related behaviour by considering underlying motivation and behavioural regulation, rather than observable behaviour alone (Magid et al., 2007; Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding impulsivity''':
*Impulsivity is a multidimensional construct, rather than a single tendency, encompassing distinct characteristics such as urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, and sensation-seeking within the UPPS-P framework (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Varied dimensions of impulsivity may contribute to behaviour through different psychological processes, highlighting the importance of distinguishing between impulsive traits rather than treating impulsivity as a single characteristic (Samiefard et al., 2023; Türkmen et al., 2023).
*Impulsivity profiles are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, demonstrating the behavioural importance of its multidimensional structure (Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding sensation seeking''':
*Sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, varied, exciting, or stimulating experiences and can be distinguished from impulsivity characterised by poor inhibition or forethought (Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Sensation seeking is represented as a distinct dimension within multidimensional models such as the UPPS-P, supporting the view that it should not be treated as synonymous with other impulsivity related traits (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Higher sensation seeking is associated with greater risk taking behaviour, although the pursuit of stimulation rather than risk itself may underlie this association (Siraj et al., 2021).
'''Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking''':
*Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can both contribute to risky behaviour, they represent distinguishable psychological tendencies rather than interchangeable explanations for behaviour (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*A central distinction concerns the processes underlying behaviour; sensation seeking involves the pursuit of stimulation and novel experiences, whereas other dimensions of impulsivity involve tendencies such as acting without adequate forethought or under strong emotional states (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Consequently, similar observable behaviours may arise through different psychological pathways, meaning that identifying what a person does does not necessarily explain why they do it (Magid et al., 2007).
'''Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk-taking behaviour''':
*Different profiles of impulsivity are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, suggesting that individual impulsivity dimensions may have different behavioural consequences (Rogers et al., 2021).
*Sensation seeking is positively associated with risk taking, while social factors such as peer influence can also independently contribute to risky behaviour (Siraj et al., 2021).
*Different impulsivity related traits show differing associations to specific forms of risk taking; for example, recent research found sensation seeking associated with having tried sports wagering, while positive urgency was associated with greater frequency and variety of wagering and urgency with gambling-disorder symptoms (Grubbs et al., 2024).

'''Alcohol use and related consequences''':
*Sensation seeking and impulsivity can contribute to alcohol involvement through different pathways, supporting their treatment as distinct constructs rather than interchangeable predictors of drinking behaviour (Magid et al., 2007).
*Sensation seeking may be particularly relevant to alcohol consumption and the rewarding or stimulating aspects of drinking, whereas impulsivity can contribute differently to alcohol related problems and consequences (Magid et al., 2007).
*Multidimensional assessment is also relevant in clinical substance use contexts: UPPS-P dimensions can be separately assessed among individuals undergoing residential detoxification, reinforcing the value of considering distinct impulsivity related traits in understanding substance related behaviour (Kempeneers et al., 2023).

'''Conclusion''':
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but psychologically distinguishable constructs, and similar behaviours should not automatically be assumed to reflect the same underlying process (see Figure 2; Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking behavioural effects vary across contexts, with different dimensions showing different associations with health risk behaviour, risk taking, gambling, and substance related outcomes (Rogers et al., 2021; Grubbs et al., 2024).
*Distinguishing why an individual engages in behaviour such as seeking stimulation versus acting with insufficient forethought provides a more nuanced psychological explanation of risk taking and its consequences (Magid et al., 2007).
[[File:Sensation seeking Vs Impulsivity.png|thumb|245x245px|'''Figure 2'''. Comparison of the UPPS-P dimensions of impulsive behaviour and Zuckerman’s dimensions of sensation seeking, highlighting areas of conceptual overlap and distinction (Goh et al., 2020; Magid et al., 2007; Samiefard et al., 2023). (image created independently using Canva software).]]
==Figures==
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

'''Table – Comparing impulsivity and sensation''' '''seeking''' 

The comparison table summarises the major conceptual differences and similarities between impulsivity and sensation seeking, including their defining characteristics, underlying processes, and relationships with risk taking behaviour.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! Feature !! Impulsivity !! Sensation seeking
|-
| '''Core characteristic''' || Tendency toward rash or insufficiently considered action across multiple dimensions || Tendency to seek novel, varied, exciting or stimulating experiences
|-
| '''Key Proces''' || Can involve reduced forethought, urgency or behavioural regulation || Motivation toward novelty, excitement and stimulation
|-
|'''Risk Taking'''
|Risk may result from insufficient consideration of consequences or other impulsive tendencies
|Risk may be accepted in pursuit of rewarding or stimulating experiences
|-
|'''UPPS-S'''
|Multidimensional model including positive urgency, negative urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance and sensation seeking
|Sensation seeking is one distinct dimension within the UPPS-P model
|-
|'''Example'''
|Immediately accepting an unfamiliar drink without considering consequences
|Deliberately trying the drink because the experience is novel and exciting
|-
|'''Behavioural Outcome'''
|Can contribute to health-risk, gambling and substance related behaviours
|Can contribute to risk taking, alcohol use and novelty oriented behaviour
|}
Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can contribute to similar observable behaviours, their underlying characteristics and psychological processes differ (see Table 1; Goh et al., 2020; Magid et al., 2007).
;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:

'''Quiz: Impulsivity or sensation seeking?'''
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{A student is offered an unfamiliar alcoholic drink at a party and immediately accepts without considering the possible consequences. Which characteristic best explains this behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

+ Lack of premeditation
- Thrill and adventure seeking
- Experience seeking
- Boredom susceptibility

{A student deliberately chooses to try an unfamiliar activity because they enjoy novelty, excitement, and stimulation. Which construct best explains this motivation?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- Lack of perseverance
+ Sensation seeking
- Negative urgency
- Lack of premeditation

{Which statement best describes the distinction between impulsivity and sensation seeking?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- Impulsivity and sensation seeking are interchangeable terms for the same psychological construct.
- Sensation seeking always involves acting without considering consequences.
+ Similar observable behaviours can arise from different underlying motivations and psychological processes.
- Only impulsivity is associated with risk taking behaviour.
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Sensation seeking|Sensation seeking – Motivation and emotion (Wikiversity)]]
* [[w:Sensation Seeking Scale|Sensation Seeking Scale (Wikipedia)]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Arousal|Arousal and sensation seeking – Motivation and emotion (Wikiversity)]]

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}

}}

{{tip|{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}}}

==External links==
* [https://www.impulsivity.org/measurement/upps_p/ UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale]
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/sensation-seeking-scale APA Dictionary of Psychology – Sensation-Seeking Scale]
* [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/9781405186407.wbiecs029 Sensation Seeking – Zuckerman]</text>
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&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File: Beer Cantus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Social drinking can involve similar observable behaviours despite differences in the psychological processes underlying an individual's decision to participate.]]

[[ Imagine this; at a party, two students are offered an unfamiliar alcoholic drink. One accepts immediately without considering the consequences. The other deliberately chooses to try it because they enjoy new and stimulating experiences. Although their behaviour appears similar, the motivations underlying it may differ.]]. 

[[ Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinct psychological constructs that can contribute to similar observable behaviours via different underlying processes. Impulsivity is multidimensional and includes characteristics such as acting without sufficient premeditation, whereas sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, exciting, or stimulating experiences (Goh et al., 2020). Distinguishing these constructs is important as focusing only on observable behaviour may overlook why an individual chooses to engage in it. Research demonstrates that differing dimensions of impulsivity and sensation seeking are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour (Rogers et al., 2021). This distinction is particularly relevant to alcohol use: among college students, sensation seeking and impulsivity have been associated with alcohol involvement through different pathways, with evidence that sensation seeking is more strongly related to alcohol use and impulsivity to alcohol related behaviour (Magid et al., 2007). Thus psychological science can help explain how motivational and self regulatory differences contribute to apparently similar habits or engagement, providing a more nuanced understanding of risk taking and its potential consequences.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

1. What is impulsivity and what are its key characteristics?

2. What is sensation seeking and how does it differ from impulsivity?

3. What psychological processes explain the distinction between impulsivity and sensation seeking?

4. How do impulsivity and sensation seeking differentially influence risk-taking behaviour?

5. How do these differences help explain alcohol use and related consequences?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==

== [[#Overview|Overview]] ==

== Understanding impulsivity ==

== Understanding sensation seeking ==

== Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking ==

== Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk taking behaviour ==

== Alcohol use and related consequences ==

== [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] ==
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
'''Overview:'''
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinguishable constructs that may contribute to similar behaviours via different psychological pathways (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Multidimensional models distinguish sensation seeking from other impulsivityrelated characteristics, supporting the importance of examining the constructs separately (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Understanding this distinction may improve explanations of risk taking and alcohol related behaviour by considering underlying motivation and behavioural regulation, rather than observable behaviour alone (Magid et al., 2007; Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding impulsivity''':
*Impulsivity is a multidimensional construct, rather than a single tendency, encompassing distinct characteristics such as urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, and sensation-seeking within the UPPS-P framework (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Varied dimensions of impulsivity may contribute to behaviour through different psychological processes, highlighting the importance of distinguishing between impulsive traits rather than treating impulsivity as a single characteristic (Samiefard et al., 2023; Türkmen et al., 2023).
*Impulsivity profiles are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, demonstrating the behavioural importance of its multidimensional structure (Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding sensation seeking''':
*Sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, varied, exciting, or stimulating experiences and can be distinguished from impulsivity characterised by poor inhibition or forethought (Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Sensation seeking is represented as a distinct dimension within multidimensional models such as the UPPS-P, supporting the view that it should not be treated as synonymous with other impulsivity related traits (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Higher sensation seeking is associated with greater risk taking behaviour, although the pursuit of stimulation rather than risk itself may underlie this association (Siraj et al., 2021).
'''Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking''':
*Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can both contribute to risky behaviour, they represent distinguishable psychological tendencies rather than interchangeable explanations for behaviour (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*A central distinction concerns the processes underlying behaviour; sensation seeking involves the pursuit of stimulation and novel experiences, whereas other dimensions of impulsivity involve tendencies such as acting without adequate forethought or under strong emotional states (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Consequently, similar observable behaviours may arise through different psychological pathways, meaning that identifying what a person does does not necessarily explain why they do it (Magid et al., 2007).
'''Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk-taking behaviour''':
*Different profiles of impulsivity are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, suggesting that individual impulsivity dimensions may have different behavioural consequences (Rogers et al., 2021).
*Sensation seeking is positively associated with risk taking, while social factors such as peer influence can also independently contribute to risky behaviour (Siraj et al., 2021).
*Different impulsivity related traits show differing associations to specific forms of risk taking; for example, recent research found sensation seeking associated with having tried sports wagering, while positive urgency was associated with greater frequency and variety of wagering and urgency with gambling-disorder symptoms (Grubbs et al., 2024).

'''Alcohol use and related consequences''':
*Sensation seeking and impulsivity can contribute to alcohol involvement through different pathways, supporting their treatment as distinct constructs rather than interchangeable predictors of drinking behaviour (Magid et al., 2007).
*Sensation seeking may be particularly relevant to alcohol consumption and the rewarding or stimulating aspects of drinking, whereas impulsivity can contribute differently to alcohol related problems and consequences (Magid et al., 2007).
*Multidimensional assessment is also relevant in clinical substance use contexts: UPPS-P dimensions can be separately assessed among individuals undergoing residential detoxification, reinforcing the value of considering distinct impulsivity related traits in understanding substance related behaviour (Kempeneers et al., 2023).

'''Conclusion''':
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but psychologically distinguishable constructs, and similar behaviours should not automatically be assumed to reflect the same underlying process (see Figure 2; Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking behavioural effects vary across contexts, with different dimensions showing different associations with health risk behaviour, risk taking, gambling, and substance related outcomes (Rogers et al., 2021; Grubbs et al., 2024).
*Distinguishing why an individual engages in behaviour such as seeking stimulation versus acting with insufficient forethought provides a more nuanced psychological explanation of risk taking and its consequences (Magid et al., 2007).
[[File:Sensation seeking Vs Impulsivity.png|thumb|245x245px|'''Figure 2'''. Comparison of the UPPS-P dimensions of impulsive behaviour and Zuckerman’s dimensions of sensation seeking, highlighting areas of conceptual overlap and distinction (Goh et al., 2020; Magid et al., 2007; Samiefard et al., 2023). (image created independently using Canva software).]]
==Figures==
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

'''Table – Comparing impulsivity and sensation''' '''seeking''' 

The comparison table summarises the major conceptual differences and similarities between impulsivity and sensation seeking, including their defining characteristics, underlying processes, and relationships with risk taking behaviour.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! Feature !! Impulsivity !! Sensation seeking
|-
| '''Core characteristic''' || Tendency toward rash or insufficiently considered action across multiple dimensions || Tendency to seek novel, varied, exciting or stimulating experiences
|-
| '''Key Proces''' || Can involve reduced forethought, urgency or behavioural regulation || Motivation toward novelty, excitement and stimulation
|-
|'''Risk Taking'''
|Risk may result from insufficient consideration of consequences or other impulsive tendencies
|Risk may be accepted in pursuit of rewarding or stimulating experiences
|-
|'''UPPS-S'''
|Multidimensional model including positive urgency, negative urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance and sensation seeking
|Sensation seeking is one distinct dimension within the UPPS-P model
|-
|'''Example'''
|Immediately accepting an unfamiliar drink without considering consequences
|Deliberately trying the drink because the experience is novel and exciting
|-
|'''Behavioural Outcome'''
|Can contribute to health-risk, gambling and substance related behaviours
|Can contribute to risk taking, alcohol use and novelty oriented behaviour
|}
Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can contribute to similar observable behaviours, their underlying characteristics and psychological processes differ (see Table 1; Goh et al., 2020; Magid et al., 2007).
;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:

'''Quiz: Impulsivity or sensation seeking?'''
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{A student is offered an unfamiliar alcoholic drink at a party and immediately accepts without considering the possible consequences. Which characteristic best explains this behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

+ Lack of premeditation
- Thrill and adventure seeking
- Experience seeking
- Boredom susceptibility

{A student deliberately chooses to try an unfamiliar activity because they enjoy novelty, excitement, and stimulation. Which construct best explains this motivation?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- Lack of perseverance
+ Sensation seeking
- Negative urgency
- Lack of premeditation

{Which statement best describes the distinction between impulsivity and sensation seeking?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- Impulsivity and sensation seeking are interchangeable terms for the same psychological construct.
- Sensation seeking always involves acting without considering consequences.
+ Similar observable behaviours can arise from different underlying motivations and psychological processes.
- Only impulsivity is associated with risk taking behaviour.
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Sensation seeking|Sensation seeking – Motivation and emotion (Wikiversity)]]
* [[w:Sensation Seeking Scale|Sensation Seeking Scale (Wikipedia)]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Arousal|Arousal and sensation seeking – Motivation and emotion (Wikiversity)]]

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}

}}

{{tip|{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}}}

==External links==
* [https://www.impulsivity.org/measurement/upps_p/ UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale]
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/sensation-seeking-scale APA Dictionary of Psychology – Sensation-Seeking Scale]
* [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/9781405186407.wbiecs029 Sensation Seeking – Zuckerman]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File: Beer Cantus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Social drinking can involve similar observable behaviours despite differences in the psychological processes underlying an individual's decision to participate.]]

Imagine this; at a party, two students are offered an unfamiliar alcoholic drink. One accepts immediately without considering the consequences. The other deliberately chooses to try it because they enjoy new and stimulating experiences. Although their behaviour appears similar, the motivations underlying it may differ.

* Impulsivity and sensation-seeking are related but psychologically distinct constructs. Impulsivity involves tendencies such as acting without sufficient forethought, whereas sensation-seeking reflects a motivation to pursue novel, exciting, or stimulating experiences (Goh et al., 2020; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).

* Distinguishing these constructs is important because similar observable behaviours may arise from different underlying motivations and psychological processes, with dimensions of impulsivity and sensation-seeking showing different associations with risk-taking and health-risk behaviours (Rogers et al., 2021).

* Alcohol use demonstrates why this distinction matters: sensation-seeking has been more strongly associated with alcohol consumption, whereas impulsivity may be more strongly associated with alcohol-related problems and consequences (Magid et al., 2007).

Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinct psychological constructs that can contribute to similar observable behaviours via different underlying processes. Impulsivity is multidimensional and includes characteristics such as acting without sufficient premeditation, whereas sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, exciting, or stimulating experiences (Goh et al., 2020). Distinguishing these constructs is important as focusing only on observable behaviour may overlook why an individual chooses to engage in it. Research demonstrates that differing dimensions of impulsivity and sensation seeking are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour (Rogers et al., 2021). This distinction is particularly relevant to alcohol use: among college students, sensation seeking and impulsivity have been associated with alcohol involvement through different pathways, with evidence that sensation seeking is more strongly related to alcohol use and impulsivity to alcohol related behaviour (Magid et al., 2007). Thus psychological science can help explain how motivational and self regulatory differences contribute to apparently similar habits or engagement, providing a more nuanced understanding of risk taking and its potential consequences.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

1. What is impulsivity and what are its key characteristics?

2. What is sensation seeking and how does it differ from impulsivity?

3. What psychological processes explain the distinction between impulsivity and sensation seeking?

4. How do impulsivity and sensation seeking differentially influence risk-taking behaviour?

5. How do these differences help explain alcohol use and related consequences?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==

== [[#Overview|Overview]] ==

== Understanding impulsivity ==

== Understanding sensation seeking ==

== Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking ==

== Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk taking behaviour ==

== Alcohol use and related consequences ==

== [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] ==
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
'''Overview:'''
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinguishable constructs that may contribute to similar behaviours via different psychological pathways (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Multidimensional models distinguish sensation seeking from other impulsivityrelated characteristics, supporting the importance of examining the constructs separately (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Understanding this distinction may improve explanations of risk taking and alcohol related behaviour by considering underlying motivation and behavioural regulation, rather than observable behaviour alone (Magid et al., 2007; Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding impulsivity''':
*Impulsivity is a multidimensional construct, rather than a single tendency, encompassing distinct characteristics such as urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, and sensation-seeking within the UPPS-P framework (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Varied dimensions of impulsivity may contribute to behaviour through different psychological processes, highlighting the importance of distinguishing between impulsive traits rather than treating impulsivity as a single characteristic (Samiefard et al., 2023; Türkmen et al., 2023).
*Impulsivity profiles are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, demonstrating the behavioural importance of its multidimensional structure (Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding sensation seeking''':
*Sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, varied, exciting, or stimulating experiences and can be distinguished from impulsivity characterised by poor inhibition or forethought (Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Sensation seeking is represented as a distinct dimension within multidimensional models such as the UPPS-P, supporting the view that it should not be treated as synonymous with other impulsivity related traits (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Higher sensation seeking is associated with greater risk taking behaviour, although the pursuit of stimulation rather than risk itself may underlie this association (Siraj et al., 2021).
'''Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking''':
*Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can both contribute to risky behaviour, they represent distinguishable psychological tendencies rather than interchangeable explanations for behaviour (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*A central distinction concerns the processes underlying behaviour; sensation seeking involves the pursuit of stimulation and novel experiences, whereas other dimensions of impulsivity involve tendencies such as acting without adequate forethought or under strong emotional states (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Consequently, similar observable behaviours may arise through different psychological pathways, meaning that identifying what a person does does not necessarily explain why they do it (Magid et al., 2007).
'''Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk-taking behaviour''':
*Different profiles of impulsivity are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, suggesting that individual impulsivity dimensions may have different behavioural consequences (Rogers et al., 2021).
*Sensation seeking is positively associated with risk taking, while social factors such as peer influence can also independently contribute to risky behaviour (Siraj et al., 2021).
*Different impulsivity related traits show differing associations to specific forms of risk taking; for example, recent research found sensation seeking associated with having tried sports wagering, while positive urgency was associated with greater frequency and variety of wagering and urgency with gambling-disorder symptoms (Grubbs et al., 2024).

'''Alcohol use and related consequences''':
*Sensation seeking and impulsivity can contribute to alcohol involvement through different pathways, supporting their treatment as distinct constructs rather than interchangeable predictors of drinking behaviour (Magid et al., 2007).
*Sensation seeking may be particularly relevant to alcohol consumption and the rewarding or stimulating aspects of drinking, whereas impulsivity can contribute differently to alcohol related problems and consequences (Magid et al., 2007).
*Multidimensional assessment is also relevant in clinical substance use contexts: UPPS-P dimensions can be separately assessed among individuals undergoing residential detoxification, reinforcing the value of considering distinct impulsivity related traits in understanding substance related behaviour (Kempeneers et al., 2023).

'''Conclusion''':
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but psychologically distinguishable constructs, and similar behaviours should not automatically be assumed to reflect the same underlying process (see Figure 2; Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking behavioural effects vary across contexts, with different dimensions showing different associations with health risk behaviour, risk taking, gambling, and substance related outcomes (Rogers et al., 2021; Grubbs et al., 2024).
*Distinguishing why an individual engages in behaviour such as seeking stimulation versus acting with insufficient forethought provides a more nuanced psychological explanation of risk taking and its consequences (Magid et al., 2007).
[[File:Sensation seeking Vs Impulsivity.png|thumb|245x245px|'''Figure 2'''. Comparison of the UPPS-P dimensions of impulsive behaviour and Zuckerman’s dimensions of sensation seeking, highlighting areas of conceptual overlap and distinction (Goh et al., 2020; Magid et al., 2007; Samiefard et al., 2023). (image created independently using Canva software).]]
==Figures==
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

'''Table – Comparing impulsivity and sensation''' '''seeking''' 

The comparison table summarises the major conceptual differences and similarities between impulsivity and sensation seeking, including their defining characteristics, underlying processes, and relationships with risk taking behaviour.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! Feature !! Impulsivity !! Sensation seeking
|-
| '''Core characteristic''' || Tendency toward rash or insufficiently considered action across multiple dimensions || Tendency to seek novel, varied, exciting or stimulating experiences
|-
| '''Key Proces''' || Can involve reduced forethought, urgency or behavioural regulation || Motivation toward novelty, excitement and stimulation
|-
|'''Risk Taking'''
|Risk may result from insufficient consideration of consequences or other impulsive tendencies
|Risk may be accepted in pursuit of rewarding or stimulating experiences
|-
|'''UPPS-S'''
|Multidimensional model including positive urgency, negative urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance and sensation seeking
|Sensation seeking is one distinct dimension within the UPPS-P model
|-
|'''Example'''
|Immediately accepting an unfamiliar drink without considering consequences
|Deliberately trying the drink because the experience is novel and exciting
|-
|'''Behavioural Outcome'''
|Can contribute to health-risk, gambling and substance related behaviours
|Can contribute to risk taking, alcohol use and novelty oriented behaviour
|}
Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can contribute to similar observable behaviours, their underlying characteristics and psychological processes differ (see Table 1; Goh et al., 2020; Magid et al., 2007).
;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:

'''Quiz: Impulsivity or sensation seeking?'''
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{A student is offered an unfamiliar alcoholic drink at a party and immediately accepts without considering the possible consequences. Which characteristic best explains this behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

+ Lack of premeditation
- Thrill and adventure seeking
- Experience seeking
- Boredom susceptibility

{A student deliberately chooses to try an unfamiliar activity because they enjoy novelty, excitement, and stimulation. Which construct best explains this motivation?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- Lack of perseverance
+ Sensation seeking
- Negative urgency
- Lack of premeditation

{Which statement best describes the distinction between impulsivity and sensation seeking?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- Impulsivity and sensation seeking are interchangeable terms for the same psychological construct.
- Sensation seeking always involves acting without considering consequences.
+ Similar observable behaviours can arise from different underlying motivations and psychological processes.
- Only impulsivity is associated with risk taking behaviour.
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Sensation seeking|Sensation seeking – Motivation and emotion (Wikiversity)]]
* [[w:Sensation Seeking Scale|Sensation Seeking Scale (Wikipedia)]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Arousal|Arousal and sensation seeking – Motivation and emotion (Wikiversity)]]

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}

}}

{{tip|{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}}}

==External links==
* [https://www.impulsivity.org/measurement/upps_p/ UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale]
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/sensation-seeking-scale APA Dictionary of Psychology – Sensation-Seeking Scale]
* [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/9781405186407.wbiecs029 Sensation Seeking – Zuckerman]</text>
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      <text bytes="22100" sha1="6ae3kkebvk6n3207h4rrutrp03767aj" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Impulsivity versus sensation-seeking:&lt;br&gt;What is the distinction between impulsivity and sensation-seeking and how does this affect behaviour?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File: Beer Cantus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Social drinking can involve similar observable behaviours despite differences in the psychological processes underlying an individual's decision to participate.]]

Imagine this; at a party, two students are offered an unfamiliar alcoholic drink. One accepts immediately without considering the consequences. The other deliberately chooses to try it because they enjoy new and stimulating experiences. Although their behaviour appears similar, the motivations underlying it may differ.

* Impulsivity and sensation-seeking are related but psychologically distinct constructs. Impulsivity involves tendencies such as acting without sufficient forethought, whereas sensation seeking reflects a motivation to pursue novel, exciting, or stimulating experiences (Goh et al., 2020; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).

* Distinguishing these constructs is important because similar observable behaviours may arise from different underlying motivations and psychological processes, with dimensions of impulsivity and sensation seeking showing different associations with risk taking and health risk behaviours (Rogers et al., 2021).

* Alcohol use demonstrates why this distinction matters: sensation-seeking has been more strongly associated with alcohol consumption, whereas impulsivity may be more strongly associated with alcohol related problems and consequences (Magid et al., 2007).

Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinct psychological constructs that can contribute to similar observable behaviours via different underlying processes. Impulsivity is multidimensional and includes characteristics such as acting without sufficient premeditation, whereas sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, exciting, or stimulating experiences (Goh et al., 2020). Distinguishing these constructs is important as focusing only on observable behaviour may overlook why an individual chooses to engage in it. Research demonstrates that differing dimensions of impulsivity and sensation seeking are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour (Rogers et al., 2021). This distinction is particularly relevant to alcohol use: among college students, sensation seeking and impulsivity have been associated with alcohol involvement through different pathways, with evidence that sensation seeking is more strongly related to alcohol use and impulsivity to alcohol related behaviour (Magid et al., 2007). Thus psychological science can help explain how motivational and self regulatory differences contribute to apparently similar habits or engagement, providing a more nuanced understanding of risk taking and its potential consequences.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

1. What is impulsivity and what are its key characteristics?

2. What is sensation seeking and how does it differ from impulsivity?

3. What psychological processes explain the distinction between impulsivity and sensation seeking?

4. How do impulsivity and sensation seeking differentially influence risk-taking behaviour?

5. How do these differences help explain alcohol use and related consequences?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==

== [[#Overview|Overview]] ==

== Understanding impulsivity ==

== Understanding sensation seeking ==

== Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking ==

== Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk taking behaviour ==

== Alcohol use and related consequences ==

== [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] ==
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
'''Overview:'''
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinguishable constructs that may contribute to similar behaviours via different psychological pathways (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Multidimensional models distinguish sensation seeking from other impulsivityrelated characteristics, supporting the importance of examining the constructs separately (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Understanding this distinction may improve explanations of risk taking and alcohol related behaviour by considering underlying motivation and behavioural regulation, rather than observable behaviour alone (Magid et al., 2007; Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding impulsivity''':
*Impulsivity is a multidimensional construct, rather than a single tendency, encompassing distinct characteristics such as urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, and sensation-seeking within the UPPS-P framework (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Varied dimensions of impulsivity may contribute to behaviour through different psychological processes, highlighting the importance of distinguishing between impulsive traits rather than treating impulsivity as a single characteristic (Samiefard et al., 2023; Türkmen et al., 2023).
*Impulsivity profiles are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, demonstrating the behavioural importance of its multidimensional structure (Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding sensation seeking''':
*Sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, varied, exciting, or stimulating experiences and can be distinguished from impulsivity characterised by poor inhibition or forethought (Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Sensation seeking is represented as a distinct dimension within multidimensional models such as the UPPS-P, supporting the view that it should not be treated as synonymous with other impulsivity related traits (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Higher sensation seeking is associated with greater risk taking behaviour, although the pursuit of stimulation rather than risk itself may underlie this association (Siraj et al., 2021).
'''Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking''':
*Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can both contribute to risky behaviour, they represent distinguishable psychological tendencies rather than interchangeable explanations for behaviour (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*A central distinction concerns the processes underlying behaviour; sensation seeking involves the pursuit of stimulation and novel experiences, whereas other dimensions of impulsivity involve tendencies such as acting without adequate forethought or under strong emotional states (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Consequently, similar observable behaviours may arise through different psychological pathways, meaning that identifying what a person does does not necessarily explain why they do it (Magid et al., 2007).
'''Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk-taking behaviour''':
*Different profiles of impulsivity are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, suggesting that individual impulsivity dimensions may have different behavioural consequences (Rogers et al., 2021).
*Sensation seeking is positively associated with risk taking, while social factors such as peer influence can also independently contribute to risky behaviour (Siraj et al., 2021).
*Different impulsivity related traits show differing associations to specific forms of risk taking; for example, recent research found sensation seeking associated with having tried sports wagering, while positive urgency was associated with greater frequency and variety of wagering and urgency with gambling-disorder symptoms (Grubbs et al., 2024).

'''Alcohol use and related consequences''':
*Sensation seeking and impulsivity can contribute to alcohol involvement through different pathways, supporting their treatment as distinct constructs rather than interchangeable predictors of drinking behaviour (Magid et al., 2007).
*Sensation seeking may be particularly relevant to alcohol consumption and the rewarding or stimulating aspects of drinking, whereas impulsivity can contribute differently to alcohol related problems and consequences (Magid et al., 2007).
*Multidimensional assessment is also relevant in clinical substance use contexts: UPPS-P dimensions can be separately assessed among individuals undergoing residential detoxification, reinforcing the value of considering distinct impulsivity related traits in understanding substance related behaviour (Kempeneers et al., 2023).

'''Conclusion''':
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but psychologically distinguishable constructs, and similar behaviours should not automatically be assumed to reflect the same underlying process (see Figure 2; Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking behavioural effects vary across contexts, with different dimensions showing different associations with health risk behaviour, risk taking, gambling, and substance related outcomes (Rogers et al., 2021; Grubbs et al., 2024).
*Distinguishing why an individual engages in behaviour such as seeking stimulation versus acting with insufficient forethought provides a more nuanced psychological explanation of risk taking and its consequences (Magid et al., 2007).
[[File:Sensation seeking Vs Impulsivity.png|thumb|245x245px|'''Figure 2'''. Comparison of the UPPS-P dimensions of impulsive behaviour and Zuckerman’s dimensions of sensation seeking, highlighting areas of conceptual overlap and distinction (Goh et al., 2020; Magid et al., 2007; Samiefard et al., 2023). (image created independently using Canva software).]]
==Figures==
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

'''Table – Comparing impulsivity and sensation''' '''seeking''' 

The comparison table summarises the major conceptual differences and similarities between impulsivity and sensation seeking, including their defining characteristics, underlying processes, and relationships with risk taking behaviour.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! Feature !! Impulsivity !! Sensation seeking
|-
| '''Core characteristic''' || Tendency toward rash or insufficiently considered action across multiple dimensions || Tendency to seek novel, varied, exciting or stimulating experiences
|-
| '''Key Proces''' || Can involve reduced forethought, urgency or behavioural regulation || Motivation toward novelty, excitement and stimulation
|-
|'''Risk Taking'''
|Risk may result from insufficient consideration of consequences or other impulsive tendencies
|Risk may be accepted in pursuit of rewarding or stimulating experiences
|-
|'''UPPS-S'''
|Multidimensional model including positive urgency, negative urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance and sensation seeking
|Sensation seeking is one distinct dimension within the UPPS-P model
|-
|'''Example'''
|Immediately accepting an unfamiliar drink without considering consequences
|Deliberately trying the drink because the experience is novel and exciting
|-
|'''Behavioural Outcome'''
|Can contribute to health-risk, gambling and substance related behaviours
|Can contribute to risk taking, alcohol use and novelty oriented behaviour
|}
Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can contribute to similar observable behaviours, their underlying characteristics and psychological processes differ (see Table 1; Goh et al., 2020; Magid et al., 2007).
;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:

'''Quiz: Impulsivity or sensation seeking?'''
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{A student is offered an unfamiliar alcoholic drink at a party and immediately accepts without considering the possible consequences. Which characteristic best explains this behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

+ Lack of premeditation
- Thrill and adventure seeking
- Experience seeking
- Boredom susceptibility

{A student deliberately chooses to try an unfamiliar activity because they enjoy novelty, excitement, and stimulation. Which construct best explains this motivation?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- Lack of perseverance
+ Sensation seeking
- Negative urgency
- Lack of premeditation

{Which statement best describes the distinction between impulsivity and sensation seeking?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- Impulsivity and sensation seeking are interchangeable terms for the same psychological construct.
- Sensation seeking always involves acting without considering consequences.
+ Similar observable behaviours can arise from different underlying motivations and psychological processes.
- Only impulsivity is associated with risk taking behaviour.
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Sensation seeking|Sensation seeking – Motivation and emotion (Wikiversity)]]
* [[w:Sensation Seeking Scale|Sensation Seeking Scale (Wikipedia)]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Arousal|Arousal and sensation seeking – Motivation and emotion (Wikiversity)]]

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}

}}

{{tip|{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}}}

==External links==
* [https://www.impulsivity.org/measurement/upps_p/ UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale]
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/sensation-seeking-scale APA Dictionary of Psychology – Sensation-Seeking Scale]
* [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/9781405186407.wbiecs029 Sensation Seeking – Zuckerman]</text>
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&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
[[File: Beer Cantus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Social drinking can involve similar observable behaviours despite differences in the psychological processes underlying an individual's decision to participate.]]

Imagine this; at a party, two students are offered an unfamiliar alcoholic drink. One accepts immediately without considering the consequences. The other deliberately chooses to try it because they enjoy new and stimulating experiences. Although their behaviour appears similar, the motivations underlying it may differ.

* Impulsivity and sensation-seeking are related but psychologically distinct constructs. Impulsivity involves tendencies such as acting without sufficient forethought, whereas sensation seeking reflects a motivation to pursue novel, exciting, or stimulating experiences (Goh et al., 2020; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).

* Distinguishing these constructs is important because similar observable behaviours may arise from different underlying motivations and psychological processes, with dimensions of impulsivity and sensation seeking showing different associations with risk taking and health risk behaviours (Rogers et al., 2021).

* Alcohol use demonstrates why this distinction matters: sensation-seeking has been more strongly associated with alcohol consumption, whereas impulsivity may be more strongly associated with alcohol related problems and consequences (Magid et al., 2007).

Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinct psychological constructs that can contribute to similar observable behaviours via different underlying processes. Impulsivity is multidimensional and includes characteristics such as acting without sufficient premeditation, whereas sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, exciting, or stimulating experiences (Goh et al., 2020). Distinguishing these constructs is important as focusing only on observable behaviour may overlook why an individual chooses to engage in it. Research demonstrates that differing dimensions of impulsivity and sensation seeking are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour (Rogers et al., 2021). This distinction is particularly relevant to alcohol use: among college students, sensation seeking and impulsivity have been associated with alcohol involvement through different pathways, with evidence that sensation seeking is more strongly related to alcohol use and impulsivity to alcohol related behaviour (Magid et al., 2007). Thus psychological science can help explain how motivational and self regulatory differences contribute to apparently similar habits or engagement, providing a more nuanced understanding of risk taking and its potential consequences.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

1. What is impulsivity and what are its key characteristics?

2. What is sensation seeking and how does it differ from impulsivity?

3. What psychological processes explain the distinction between impulsivity and sensation seeking?

4. How do impulsivity and sensation seeking differentially influence risk-taking behaviour?

5. How do these differences help explain alcohol use and related consequences?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== [[#Overview|Overview]] ==

== Understanding impulsivity ==

== Understanding sensation seeking ==

== Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking ==

== Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk taking behaviour ==

== Alcohol use and related consequences ==

== [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]] ==
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
'''Overview:'''
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but distinguishable constructs that may contribute to similar behaviours via different psychological pathways (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Multidimensional models distinguish sensation seeking from other impulsivityrelated characteristics, supporting the importance of examining the constructs separately (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Understanding this distinction may improve explanations of risk taking and alcohol related behaviour by considering underlying motivation and behavioural regulation, rather than observable behaviour alone (Magid et al., 2007; Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding impulsivity''':
*Impulsivity is a multidimensional construct, rather than a single tendency, encompassing distinct characteristics such as urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, and sensation-seeking within the UPPS-P framework (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Varied dimensions of impulsivity may contribute to behaviour through different psychological processes, highlighting the importance of distinguishing between impulsive traits rather than treating impulsivity as a single characteristic (Samiefard et al., 2023; Türkmen et al., 2023).
*Impulsivity profiles are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, demonstrating the behavioural importance of its multidimensional structure (Rogers et al., 2021).
'''Understanding sensation seeking''':
*Sensation seeking reflects a tendency to pursue novel, varied, exciting, or stimulating experiences and can be distinguished from impulsivity characterised by poor inhibition or forethought (Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Sensation seeking is represented as a distinct dimension within multidimensional models such as the UPPS-P, supporting the view that it should not be treated as synonymous with other impulsivity related traits (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Higher sensation seeking is associated with greater risk taking behaviour, although the pursuit of stimulation rather than risk itself may underlie this association (Siraj et al., 2021).
'''Distinguishing impulsivity from sensation seeking''':
*Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can both contribute to risky behaviour, they represent distinguishable psychological tendencies rather than interchangeable explanations for behaviour (Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*A central distinction concerns the processes underlying behaviour; sensation seeking involves the pursuit of stimulation and novel experiences, whereas other dimensions of impulsivity involve tendencies such as acting without adequate forethought or under strong emotional states (Goh et al., 2020; Samiefard et al., 2023).
*Consequently, similar observable behaviours may arise through different psychological pathways, meaning that identifying what a person does does not necessarily explain why they do it (Magid et al., 2007).
'''Impulsivity, sensation-seeking, and risk-taking behaviour''':
*Different profiles of impulsivity are associated with different patterns of health risk behaviour, including substance use and risky sexual behaviour, suggesting that individual impulsivity dimensions may have different behavioural consequences (Rogers et al., 2021).
*Sensation seeking is positively associated with risk taking, while social factors such as peer influence can also independently contribute to risky behaviour (Siraj et al., 2021).
*Different impulsivity related traits show differing associations to specific forms of risk taking; for example, recent research found sensation seeking associated with having tried sports wagering, while positive urgency was associated with greater frequency and variety of wagering and urgency with gambling-disorder symptoms (Grubbs et al., 2024).

'''Alcohol use and related consequences''':
*Sensation seeking and impulsivity can contribute to alcohol involvement through different pathways, supporting their treatment as distinct constructs rather than interchangeable predictors of drinking behaviour (Magid et al., 2007).
*Sensation seeking may be particularly relevant to alcohol consumption and the rewarding or stimulating aspects of drinking, whereas impulsivity can contribute differently to alcohol related problems and consequences (Magid et al., 2007).
*Multidimensional assessment is also relevant in clinical substance use contexts: UPPS-P dimensions can be separately assessed among individuals undergoing residential detoxification, reinforcing the value of considering distinct impulsivity related traits in understanding substance related behaviour (Kempeneers et al., 2023).

'''Conclusion''':
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking are related but psychologically distinguishable constructs, and similar behaviours should not automatically be assumed to reflect the same underlying process (see Figure 2; Magid et al., 2007; Ravert &amp; Donnellan, 2021).
*Impulsivity and sensation seeking behavioural effects vary across contexts, with different dimensions showing different associations with health risk behaviour, risk taking, gambling, and substance related outcomes (Rogers et al., 2021; Grubbs et al., 2024).
*Distinguishing why an individual engages in behaviour such as seeking stimulation versus acting with insufficient forethought provides a more nuanced psychological explanation of risk taking and its consequences (Magid et al., 2007).
[[File:Sensation seeking Vs Impulsivity.png|thumb|245x245px|'''Figure 2'''. Comparison of the UPPS-P dimensions of impulsive behaviour and Zuckerman’s dimensions of sensation seeking, highlighting areas of conceptual overlap and distinction (Goh et al., 2020; Magid et al., 2007; Samiefard et al., 2023). (image created independently using Canva software).]]
==Figures==
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

'''Table – Comparing impulsivity and sensation''' '''seeking''' 

The comparison table summarises the major conceptual differences and similarities between impulsivity and sensation seeking, including their defining characteristics, underlying processes, and relationships with risk taking behaviour.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! Feature !! Impulsivity !! Sensation seeking
|-
| '''Core characteristic''' || Tendency toward rash or insufficiently considered action across multiple dimensions || Tendency to seek novel, varied, exciting or stimulating experiences
|-
| '''Key Proces''' || Can involve reduced forethought, urgency or behavioural regulation || Motivation toward novelty, excitement and stimulation
|-
|'''Risk Taking'''
|Risk may result from insufficient consideration of consequences or other impulsive tendencies
|Risk may be accepted in pursuit of rewarding or stimulating experiences
|-
|'''UPPS-S'''
|Multidimensional model including positive urgency, negative urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance and sensation seeking
|Sensation seeking is one distinct dimension within the UPPS-P model
|-
|'''Example'''
|Immediately accepting an unfamiliar drink without considering consequences
|Deliberately trying the drink because the experience is novel and exciting
|-
|'''Behavioural Outcome'''
|Can contribute to health-risk, gambling and substance related behaviours
|Can contribute to risk taking, alcohol use and novelty oriented behaviour
|}
Whilst impulsivity and sensation seeking can contribute to similar observable behaviours, their underlying characteristics and psychological processes differ (see Table 1; Goh et al., 2020; Magid et al., 2007).
;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:

'''Quiz: Impulsivity or sensation seeking?'''
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{A student is offered an unfamiliar alcoholic drink at a party and immediately accepts without considering the possible consequences. Which characteristic best explains this behaviour?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

+ Lack of premeditation
- Thrill and adventure seeking
- Experience seeking
- Boredom susceptibility

{A student deliberately chooses to try an unfamiliar activity because they enjoy novelty, excitement, and stimulation. Which construct best explains this motivation?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- Lack of perseverance
+ Sensation seeking
- Negative urgency
- Lack of premeditation

{Which statement best describes the distinction between impulsivity and sensation seeking?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- Impulsivity and sensation seeking are interchangeable terms for the same psychological construct.
- Sensation seeking always involves acting without considering consequences.
+ Similar observable behaviours can arise from different underlying motivations and psychological processes.
- Only impulsivity is associated with risk taking behaviour.
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Sensation seeking|Sensation seeking – Motivation and emotion (Wikiversity)]]
* [[w:Sensation Seeking Scale|Sensation Seeking Scale (Wikipedia)]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Arousal|Arousal and sensation seeking – Motivation and emotion (Wikiversity)]]

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}

}}

{{tip|{{Hanging indent|1=
Goh, P. K., Lee, C. A., Martel, M. M., Fillmore, M. T., Derefinko, K. J., &amp; Lynam, D. R. (2020). Conceptualizing the UPPS-P model of impulsive personality through network analysis: Key dimensions and general robustness across young adulthood. ''Journal of Personality, 88''(6), 1302–1314. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12572

Grubbs, J. B., Connolly, A. J., Floyd, C. G., Kim, H. S., &amp; Kraus, S. W. (2024). Impulsivity and diverse forms of sports wagering in the U.S.: An examination of the UPPS-P model. ''Addictive Behaviors, 156'', 108058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108058

Kempeneers, P., Mreyen, K., Pallincourt, R., Remacle, F., Wildemeersch, G., &amp; Simon, J. (2023). Validation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale and clinical correlates of its scores in French-speaking patients starting a residential detoxification program. ''Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine, 45''(5), 503–510. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176231157411

Magid, V., MacLean, M. G., &amp; Colder, C. R. (2007). Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. ''Addictive Behaviors, 32''(10), 2046–2061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.015

Ravert, R. D., &amp; Donnellan, M. B. (2021). Impulsivity and sensation seeking: Differing associations with psychological well-being. ''Applied Research in Quality of Life, 16''(4), 1503–1515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-020-09829-y

Rogers, M. M., Kelley, K., &amp; McKinney, C. (2021). Trait impulsivity and health risk behaviors: A latent profile analysis. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 171'', 110511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110511

Samiefard, M., Salehi Fadardi, J., Kareshki, H., &amp; Stacy, A. W. (2023). Validity and reliability of a revised S-UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale: The interplay between impulsivity and working memory. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(2), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2081922

Sârbescu, P., &amp; Rusu, A. (2021). Personality predictors of speeding: Anger-aggression and impulsive-sensation seeking. A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Journal of Safety Research, 77'', 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2021.02.004

Siraj, R., Najam, B., &amp; Ghazal, S. (2021). Sensation seeking, peer influence, and risk-taking behavior in adolescents. ''Education Research International, 2021'', 8403024. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8403024

Türkmen, İ., Rodoplu, N., Üner, B. S., Esmer, Ş. C., Altan-Atalay, A., &amp; Ece, B. (2023). When the UPPS-P model of impulsivity meets a revised approach: The development and validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale. ''Journal of Personality Assessment, 105''(3), 355–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2022.2093730
}}}}

==External links==
* [https://www.impulsivity.org/measurement/upps_p/ UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale]
* [https://dictionary.apa.org/sensation-seeking-scale APA Dictionary of Psychology – Sensation-Seeking Scale]
* [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/9781405186407.wbiecs029 Sensation Seeking – Zuckerman]</text>
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    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment</title>
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      <text bytes="33870" sha1="7ahtlzk0vga35k3v1a988q1o4s3ddxi" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment - &lt;br&gt;How does it work and what are the effects?}}
__TOC__
== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
''' Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): What does it really cost society?'''

[[File:Post-traumatic stress disorder world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 1:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]

•	PTSD is estimated to have had a total excess economic burden in the USA of more than US$232 billion in 2018 (Davis et al., 2022). (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $433 billion).

•	PTSDs 2020-21 societal burden in the UK was estimated at over $£40 billion, with 92.4% of these costs to society being indirect versus direct clinical costs (Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025) (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $77 billion).

•	In Australia, the 2025 annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was $112,172 (Magnusson &amp; Dey, 2025).

•	Individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidity complications having a 3x cost effect on individuals with PTSD (Bothe et al., 2020).

Figure 1 caption highlights the 2024 global impact of PTSD, with the Wikimedia Commons picture also displaying some, albeit dated (2004) but informative distribution data.{{Figure|Figure 1: The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.[1]}}{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a significant public health concern that can develop after severe or life-threatening trauma, with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Its emotional impact is shaped largely by emotional dysregulation, in which individuals struggle to manage intense adverse feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017). These can trigger a destructive cycle of cognitive and behavioural avoidance as individuals attempt to reduce overwhelming distress. However, avoidance can strengthen fear networks and prevent the adaptive processing of traumatic memories. As a result, maladaptive stress responses like hypervigilance may persist, increasing psychological vulnerabilities that limit social adaptation, personal wellness, and the possibility of long-term recovery (Efremov, 2025).

=== '''Chapter learning feature: Predict the outcome''' ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
Andriy*, a soldier with PTSD encounters a violent, trauma-related image. His emotional system predicts: '''TRAUMA CUE''' - '''DANGER''' - '''DISTRESS''' - '''AVOID'''  

However, in an emerging immersive PTSD treatment, Andriy instead walks towards the image, while remaining in a controlled and safe environment.

What might happen to Andriy when the expected danger does not occur?

'''A.''' His fear response becomes stronger.

'''B.''' His memory cannot change once it has been formed.

'''C.''' The mismatch between expected danger and safety may create an opportunity for new emotional learning.

'''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play?

''Keep your answer and thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment''.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

PTSD often leaves individuals caught between a desire for relief and powerful emotional responses that can drive avoidance, in turn becoming a core barrier to recovery  (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Emerging immersive interventions such as [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] (VRET) and Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), address this barrier by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025). van Gelderen et al. (2018) suggest that these technologies foster presence, or the illusion of being there, which can increase engagement and support emotional processing . For example, by physically walking toward trauma-related images, patients perform [[wikipedia:Fear|Fear]] Antagonistic Actions  (de Haart et al., 2026). de Haart et al. (2026), propose that this approach to behaviour maximises the mismatch between expected threat and actual safety, allowing traumatic memories to be reconsolidated in a less distressing form and ultimately promoting psychological recovery.

* A fictional name assigned for the learning scenario. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''[[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]]

* Why is emotional processing important in PTSD?
* How might immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? 
* How do virtual reality (VR) and 3MDR translate psychological mechanisms into treatment?
* What does the research evidence tell us about immersive treatment effects and limitations?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


== Why is emotional processing important in [[wikipedia:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|PTSD]]? (500-550wds) ==

=== Understanding PTSD and emotions ===
[[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.]]
''(Felemban et. al, 2026; López-Ojeda, W., &amp; Hurley, R. A. 2022;'' 

* ''PTSD and the cycle of avoidance''
* cognitive avoidance
* intrusive memories
* avoidance, hyper arousal, negative emotional challenges and changes

=== Why treatment can be difficult ===

* ''barriers in traditional treatment'' 
* ''failure rates in response to treatment -'' ''up to 39.2% of patients fail to respond and military drop out rates are estimated between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026)'' 
* ''difficulties in engaging with emotional processing for fear extinction''
* Emotion regulation - not just what sufferes of PTSD may lack, but maybe also something that can change through treatment.

=== Why avoidance matters ===

* ''Therapy is trying to disrupt the process of trauma-distress, avoidance, short-term relief, reduced opportunity for learning, persistence of symptoms.''
&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;
{Type the question here...
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+ The correct answer.
- Wrong or misleading answer.
- Wrong or misleading answer.
- Wrong or misleading answer.
&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/quiz&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
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== How might immersive therapies influence emotional processes? (700 words) ==

* ''Section introduction''
** ''Introduce concepts such as multisensory presence and engagement''
** ''embodied cognition, divergent thinking, body states''

* Lopez, Vermetten &amp; Van Gelderen

=== What is immersive therapy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&amp;oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;? ===

* ''the nature of immersive interventions (Felemban et. al, 2026; López-Ojeda, W., &amp; Hurley, R. A. 2022; Weiderhold et al, 2024)''
** ''maybe room to introduce or reference some UC PhD work by Ravi here or draw on his experience and research''
** ''Virtual reality exposure therapy'' 
** ''3MDR''
** ''mechanisms of change - presence, embodiment, side-by-side, activating''
** ''prediction error - re-consolidation of traumatic memory (Vermetten et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018)''

=== Emotional processing and PTSD ===

* ''[[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|Transdiagnostic]] emotion dsyregulation - Elkit &amp; Dahl, 2025;''
** ''loose ability to modulate emotions - guilt, fear, shame''
** ''reduction in coping strategies - individuals trapped in states of high combat readiness''
* ''Memory network activation''
** ''Activation of brains salience and central executive networks''
** ''use of cues - photographs, music,''
** ''trauma retrival''
[[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|right|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025).]]

=== Avoidance and emotional confrontation ===

* ''Bypassing avoidance cycle''
** ''activating side by side partnerships''
* ''Fear agnostic actions (de Haart, 2026: Van Geldere et al., 2018)''
** ''walking towards trauma, not away''
** ''3MDR introduces the physical movement''
** ''Approach behaviour - dissolving a natural tendency to pull away from distress''

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Moving from emotional avoidance to emotional processing.''' 

People with PTSD may avoid thoughts, memories and situations that trigger distress. Psychology theory suggests that emotion regulation shapes how individuals respond to their environment (Trejo et al., 2015). In Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), the act of physically walking toward a virtual trauma stimulus may serve as a physical counterpoint to emotional avoidance. In turn, this can create a prediction error that could help update traumatic memories with experiences of safety (de Haart et al., 2026). Of consequence, is that an individuals emotional regulation may also improve throughout treatment, regardless of the PTSD outcomes: a trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD (including childhood sexual trauma) found that intensive trauma treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities despite severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Fear [[wikipedia:Extinction_(psychology)|extinction]] and inhibitory learning ===

* ''Create safe associations''
* ''inhibitory learning - suppress fear response''
* ''Maximise prediction errors''
* ''consolidate extinction learning via increasing [[wikipedia:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain derived neurotropic factor]] (BNDF)''

=== [[wikipedia:Memory_consolidation|Memory reconsolidation]] ===

* ''[[wikipedia:Lability|Labile]] or [[wikipedia:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory''
** ''introducing safe or contextual information - reconsolidate memory''
* ''Taxing working memory''
** ''dual attention tasks''
* ''Linguistic shifts''
** ''[[wikipedia:Affect_labeling|Affective labelling]]'' 
** ''[[wikipedia:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] - shift from past tense to present tense''
** ''increased ability to articulate emotional states''

== How do VR and 3MDR translate psychological mechanisms into treatment? (600-650 wds) ==

* ''Introduction''
** ''Facilitating psychological change''
** ''Emotional processing theory and inhibitory learning''
** ''Highly controlled environments''
** ''Overcoming treatment barriers - depending on how I write paragraph above in why treatment can be difficult''
*** ''Cognitive and behavioural barriers''
*** ''failure rates - new information - maybe a bit more on military angle?''
** ''Enhancing memory accessibility''
*** ''precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks''
*** ''patient selected cues''

=== [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] ===

* ''Reconstructing trauma - safe and regulated context''
** ''controlled, graded and personal''
* ''bypassing imagination challenges - amnesia, struggling to engage with visualisation techniques of standard treatments''
* ''Clinical efficacy''
* ''(Macey, 2026; Felemban, 2026, van Gelderen)''

=== Presence and emotional activation ===

* ''Illusion of being there - user experience presence (Kukharuk et al. 2025)''
* ''multisensory - visual, auditory, haptic, movement, scent (Lopes et al. 2025)''
* ''Psychological habitation - virtual transfer of emotions and stimuli previously avoided to a safe space or trauma reminder (Kukharuk et al. 2025)''
* Links between emotion regulation as an antecedent to [[wikipedia:Optimism|optimisim]] (Trejo et al. 2015)
** affect illusion and predictive values
** broaden and build a upward spiral of emotion

=== 3MDR ===

* ''(The Vermetten 2025 reading has an excellent flow chat to use if I can figure out how to get it embedded. the journal article is Creative Commons4.0 - need to ask James.''
* ''Activating Context - shift from sedentary, face to face therapy, to one of movement and side by side, where patient and therapist can view the virtual environment together.'' 
* ''three phase protocol -  pre platform, platform exposure and post platform reconsolidation''
* ''Break through potential?''

=== [[wikipedia:Embodied_cognition|Embodied cognition]] and recovery impact ===

* ''Mind body interaction with the environment''
** ''Fear agnostic actions''
** ''boosting divergent thinking and linguistic shifts''
* ''Modulating stress responses (Osman et al. 2016)''
* ''Bypassing avoidance (Boska et al. 2025)''

== What are the effects of immersive therapy? (500-550wds) ==

* ''Reductions in symptom severity enhanced emotional engagement and disruption of maladaptive avoidance patterns''
* ''create presence and facilitate fear extinction and memory reconsolidation''
* ''cognitive gains in divergent thinking and sustained attention (Lopes and Vermetten)''

=== What does the VR evidence show? ===

* ''Clinical efficiacy - meta analysis of 444 veterans - pooled mean difference in pre-post comparison - use Felemben 2026 efficacy study data here'' 
* ''comparison to standard PTSD care''
* ''non-exposure stabilisation - use the Ukraine study of non-exposure 360 degree VR producing rapid mood improvements and reductions in anxiety and depression (Kukharuk, 2025)''
* ''Multi sensory benefits''

=== What does the 3MDR evidence show? ===

* ''showing effective for complex, treatment resistance cases''
* ''assists in breakthrough from failed standard treatments''
* ''lingustic progress''
* ''acceptability of treatment - significant difference in drop out rates'' 

=== What are the limitations? ===
''Wellness vs disease models - prioritise post traumatic growth&amp; optimism (Niles et al, 2023)''

* ''Methodological [[wikipedia:Heterogeneity_(disambiguation)|heterogeneity]] - major variations in session structure, hardaare and processes followed''
* ''difficult to draw definitive conclusions''
* ''sample size constraints''
* ''lack of long term data''
* ''structural barriers and cost of material and equipment''
* ''technical side effects - e.g motion or cyber sickness''
* ''generalisability of outcomes - predominately white, military male populations - may not be directly transferable to diverse civilian groups or gender spectrums.'' 

=== Ukraine War: an applied example. ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Scenario: The Hotspots of War'''

Andriy* used to be a baker from Kyiv and is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces. Like thousands of his fellow soldiers, he had no prior military training and is now struggling with the crushing weight of hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible and his mind is in a constant state of combat readiness, even the quietest room can pose a threat.

Andriy has begun his third week of treatment at the Veterans Mental Health and Rehabilitation Centre in Kyiv. During the Pre-platform Preparation phase, he worked closely with his therapist to identify what the Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR) manual calls a ‘hotspot’. He has selected seven specific, painful memories, each represented by photographs.

[[File:US Army 53481 Virtual Tech Makes Recovery a Reality at Walter Reed.jpg|US_Army_53481_Virtual_Tech_Makes_Recovery_a_Reality_at_Walter_Reed]]

'''Figure 4.''' A military veteran views a digital scene while harnessed to a platform

Now, Andriy steps onto the 3MDR platform. Instead of sitting, he is harnessed to a treadmill, with his therapist standing by his side as a partner, both are facing a large panoramic screen. As Andriy begins to walk at a steady walking pace, his self-selected warm-up music, this one a familiar song from his last front line deployment, begins to play. This is deliberate as it is intended to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025).

A virtual, digital tunnel appears, and at its end, the first of his hotspot images grows until it fills his field of vision. As he physically approaches the memory, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025):

1.	What do you '''SEE''' in the picture?
2.	What does the picture '''TELL''' you?
3.	What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW?

When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is digitally placed onto the screen as an affective label. Immediately after he reads the label aloud, an oscillating red ball begins to move across the image. Andriy must call out the numbers appearing on the ball while maintaining focus on his emotional state. This dual-attention task is designed to tax his working memory, competing for limited cognitive resources and reducing the vividness and emotional intensity of the trauma.

By the end of the 60-minute session, as he transitions to his cool-down music, Andriy feels a profound shift. Through the mechanisms of embodied cognition, he has physically walked toward what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety. He finishes the session with a sense of moving forward, having transformed a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative

*''Andriy is a fictional name used for this Wiki scenario and given to one of the 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries'' (Kukharuk et al., 2025). 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}


== Conclusion ==

* ''PTSD involves disrupted emotional processing''
* ''immersive therapy provides an opportunity to approach vs avoid trauma''
* ''a number of psychological mechanisims can contribute towards the desired change''
* ''evidence is beginning to support positive effects, but sample sizes, timeframes and different methods mean understanding WHY is difficult. If we don't know WHY, risk false generalisations and opportunity cost of expensive treatment programs etc''
* ''immersion techniques are simply the tool being used, not the psychological mechanism of change''

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}}
[[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] '''Take home message:''' Fill in this text as I finish the chapter - this is a place holder box for simple take home message.
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== See also ==
[[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)]] (Wikiversity)

[[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety]] (Wikiversity)

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias]] (Wikiversity Book Chapter)

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking]] (Wikiversity Book Chapter)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}
Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., &amp; Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within ptsd clusters and moral injury subtypes. Military psychology, 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904

Bothe, T., Jacob, J., Kröger, C., &amp; Walker, J. (2020). How expensive are post-traumatic stress disorders? Estimating incremental health care and economic costs on anonymised claims data. Eur J Health Econ, 21(6), 917-930. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10198-020-01184-x

Davis, L. L., Schein, J., Cloutier, M., Gagnon-Sanschagrin, P., Maitland, J., Urganus, A., Guerin, A., Lefebvre, P., &amp; Houle, C. R. (2022). The economic burden of posttraumatic stress disorder in the united states from a societal perspective. The Journal of clinical psychiatry, 83(3), 21m14116. Retrieved 2022/04//, from http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/35485933
https://www.psychiatrist.com/read-pdf/40672
https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.21m14116 

de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., &amp; Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for ptsd with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803

Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. Journal of Rational-Emotive &amp; Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 44(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7

Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., &amp; Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive vr therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in ukraine. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097

López-Ojeda, W., &amp; Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for ptsd. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 34(1), A4-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244

Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., Jesus, B. J. d., Roberge, M. C., &amp; Falk, T. H. (2025, 30 Sept.-2 Oct. 2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. 2025 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX), 

Magnussen, A., &amp; Dey, T. (2025). The economic burden of ptsd in veterans: Why cost of illness studies matter. https://www.bdo.com.au/en-au/insights/advisory/economics/the-economic-burden-of-ptsd-in-veterans-why-cost-of-illness-studies-matter 

Montgomery-Marks, P., Bandyopadhyay, S., Weisman, C. B., &amp; Bose, T. (2025). Economic burden of ptsd in the uk: A systematic review and economic analysis. BMJ Open, 15(7), e084394. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2024-084394

Osman, A., Paczynski, M., &amp; Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. Military psychology, 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128

Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., &amp; McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. Military psychology, 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081

van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., &amp; Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, Volume 9 - 2018. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176

van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., &amp; De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe ptsd? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417

Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., &amp; Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and clinical psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl1), S122. https://doi.org/DOI:10.5152/pcp.2025.241028

Westphal, M., Aldao, A., &amp; Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157

Wiederhold, B. K., &amp; Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930
}}

== External links ==
'''Web:''' National Center for PTSD (USA) https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp

'''Web:''' Australian Government Health advice - PTSD https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd

'''Web:''' Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide: Final Report&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report

'''Podcast:''' Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c

'''Video:''' 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans with PTSD https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo

'''Video:''' VR Exposure for Combat PTSD with EMDR Integration https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc

'''Final Report:''' Randomised control trial of 3MDR for treatment of resistant PTSD in military veterans&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf

== Key points ==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:

* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:

# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:

* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

*

== Figures ==
[[File:Thought_bubble.svg|right|thumb|157x157px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

== Learning features ==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}

; Scenarios

* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}

; Feature boxes

* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

; Embedded links

* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[wikipedia:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[wikipedia:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

; Tables

* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
!
!Known to self
!Not known to self
|-
|'''Known to others'''
|Open area
|Blind spot
|-
|'''Not known to others'''
|Hidden area
|Unknown
|}

; Quizzes

* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==

* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?}}

== See also ==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[wikipedia:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses}}

== References ==
This section lists the cited references in [[wikipedia:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted}}

== External links ==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:

* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]]
__FORCETOC__</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824164</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-08-22T07:09:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>StretchBeyond</username>
        <id>3105744</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Overview */</comment>
      <origin>2824164</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="33923" sha1="c2rbiytd7i8cqekdl497n5y0boqhot7" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment - &lt;br&gt;How does it work and what are the effects?}}
__TOC__
== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}[[Image:Crystal Clear app help index.svg|left|50px]]
''' Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): What does it really cost society?'''

[[File:Post-traumatic stress disorder world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 1:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]


•	PTSD is estimated to have had a total excess economic burden in the USA of more than US$232 billion in 2018 (Davis et al., 2022). (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $433 billion).

•	PTSDs 2020-21 societal burden in the UK was estimated at over $£40 billion, with 92.4% of these costs to society being indirect versus direct clinical costs (Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025) (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $77 billion).

•	In Australia, the 2025 annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was $112,172 (Magnusson &amp; Dey, 2025).

•	Individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidity complications having a 3x cost effect on individuals with PTSD (Bothe et al., 2020).

Figure 1 caption highlights the 2024 global impact of PTSD, with the Wikimedia Commons picture also displaying some, albeit dated (2004) but informative distribution data.{{Figure|Figure 1: The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.[1]}}{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a significant public health concern that can develop after severe or life-threatening trauma, with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Its emotional impact is shaped largely by emotional dysregulation, in which individuals struggle to manage intense adverse feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017). These can trigger a destructive cycle of cognitive and behavioural avoidance as individuals attempt to reduce overwhelming distress. However, avoidance can strengthen fear networks and prevent the adaptive processing of traumatic memories. As a result, maladaptive stress responses like hypervigilance may persist, increasing psychological vulnerabilities that limit social adaptation, personal wellness, and the possibility of long-term recovery (Efremov, 2025).

=== '''Chapter learning feature: Predict the outcome''' ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
Andriy*, a soldier with PTSD encounters a violent, trauma-related image. His emotional system predicts: '''TRAUMA CUE''' - '''DANGER''' - '''DISTRESS''' - '''AVOID'''  

However, in an emerging immersive PTSD treatment, Andriy instead walks towards the image, while remaining in a controlled and safe environment.

What might happen to Andriy when the expected danger does not occur?

'''A.''' His fear response becomes stronger.

'''B.''' His memory cannot change once it has been formed.

'''C.''' The mismatch between expected danger and safety may create an opportunity for new emotional learning.

'''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play?

''Keep your answer and thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment''.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

PTSD often leaves individuals caught between a desire for relief and powerful emotional responses that can drive avoidance, in turn becoming a core barrier to recovery  (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Emerging immersive interventions such as [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] (VRET) and Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), address this barrier by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025). van Gelderen et al. (2018) suggest that these technologies foster presence, or the illusion of being there, which can increase engagement and support emotional processing . For example, by physically walking toward trauma-related images, patients perform [[wikipedia:Fear|Fear]] Antagonistic Actions  (de Haart et al., 2026). de Haart et al. (2026), propose that this approach to behaviour maximises the mismatch between expected threat and actual safety, allowing traumatic memories to be reconsolidated in a less distressing form and ultimately promoting psychological recovery.

* A fictional name assigned for the learning scenario. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''[[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]]

* Why is emotional processing important in PTSD?
* How might immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? 
* How do virtual reality (VR) and 3MDR translate psychological mechanisms into treatment?
* What does the research evidence tell us about immersive treatment effects and limitations?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


== Why is emotional processing important in [[wikipedia:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|PTSD]]? (500-550wds) ==

=== Understanding PTSD and emotions ===
[[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.]]
''(Felemban et. al, 2026; López-Ojeda, W., &amp; Hurley, R. A. 2022;'' 

* ''PTSD and the cycle of avoidance''
* cognitive avoidance
* intrusive memories
* avoidance, hyper arousal, negative emotional challenges and changes

=== Why treatment can be difficult ===

* ''barriers in traditional treatment'' 
* ''failure rates in response to treatment -'' ''up to 39.2% of patients fail to respond and military drop out rates are estimated between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026)'' 
* ''difficulties in engaging with emotional processing for fear extinction''
* Emotion regulation - not just what sufferes of PTSD may lack, but maybe also something that can change through treatment.

=== Why avoidance matters ===

* ''Therapy is trying to disrupt the process of trauma-distress, avoidance, short-term relief, reduced opportunity for learning, persistence of symptoms.''
&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;
{Type the question here...
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ The correct answer.
- Wrong or misleading answer.
- Wrong or misleading answer.
- Wrong or misleading answer.
&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/quiz&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Placeholder for an immersive therapy comparison table to be built
!
!
!
!
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
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|
|
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|-
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|}

== How might immersive therapies influence emotional processes? (700 words) ==

* ''Section introduction''
** ''Introduce concepts such as multisensory presence and engagement''
** ''embodied cognition, divergent thinking, body states''

* Lopez, Vermetten &amp; Van Gelderen

=== What is immersive therapy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&amp;oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;? ===

* ''the nature of immersive interventions (Felemban et. al, 2026; López-Ojeda, W., &amp; Hurley, R. A. 2022; Weiderhold et al, 2024)''
** ''maybe room to introduce or reference some UC PhD work by Ravi here or draw on his experience and research''
** ''Virtual reality exposure therapy'' 
** ''3MDR''
** ''mechanisms of change - presence, embodiment, side-by-side, activating''
** ''prediction error - re-consolidation of traumatic memory (Vermetten et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018)''

=== Emotional processing and PTSD ===

* ''[[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|Transdiagnostic]] emotion dsyregulation - Elkit &amp; Dahl, 2025;''
** ''loose ability to modulate emotions - guilt, fear, shame''
** ''reduction in coping strategies - individuals trapped in states of high combat readiness''
* ''Memory network activation''
** ''Activation of brains salience and central executive networks''
** ''use of cues - photographs, music,''
** ''trauma retrival''
[[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|right|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025).]]

=== Avoidance and emotional confrontation ===

* ''Bypassing avoidance cycle''
** ''activating side by side partnerships''
* ''Fear agnostic actions (de Haart, 2026: Van Geldere et al., 2018)''
** ''walking towards trauma, not away''
** ''3MDR introduces the physical movement''
** ''Approach behaviour - dissolving a natural tendency to pull away from distress''

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Moving from emotional avoidance to emotional processing.''' 

People with PTSD may avoid thoughts, memories and situations that trigger distress. Psychology theory suggests that emotion regulation shapes how individuals respond to their environment (Trejo et al., 2015). In Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), the act of physically walking toward a virtual trauma stimulus may serve as a physical counterpoint to emotional avoidance. In turn, this can create a prediction error that could help update traumatic memories with experiences of safety (de Haart et al., 2026). Of consequence, is that an individuals emotional regulation may also improve throughout treatment, regardless of the PTSD outcomes: a trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD (including childhood sexual trauma) found that intensive trauma treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities despite severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Fear [[wikipedia:Extinction_(psychology)|extinction]] and inhibitory learning ===

* ''Create safe associations''
* ''inhibitory learning - suppress fear response''
* ''Maximise prediction errors''
* ''consolidate extinction learning via increasing [[wikipedia:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain derived neurotropic factor]] (BNDF)''

=== [[wikipedia:Memory_consolidation|Memory reconsolidation]] ===

* ''[[wikipedia:Lability|Labile]] or [[wikipedia:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory''
** ''introducing safe or contextual information - reconsolidate memory''
* ''Taxing working memory''
** ''dual attention tasks''
* ''Linguistic shifts''
** ''[[wikipedia:Affect_labeling|Affective labelling]]'' 
** ''[[wikipedia:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] - shift from past tense to present tense''
** ''increased ability to articulate emotional states''

== How do VR and 3MDR translate psychological mechanisms into treatment? (600-650 wds) ==

* ''Introduction''
** ''Facilitating psychological change''
** ''Emotional processing theory and inhibitory learning''
** ''Highly controlled environments''
** ''Overcoming treatment barriers - depending on how I write paragraph above in why treatment can be difficult''
*** ''Cognitive and behavioural barriers''
*** ''failure rates - new information - maybe a bit more on military angle?''
** ''Enhancing memory accessibility''
*** ''precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks''
*** ''patient selected cues''

=== [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] ===

* ''Reconstructing trauma - safe and regulated context''
** ''controlled, graded and personal''
* ''bypassing imagination challenges - amnesia, struggling to engage with visualisation techniques of standard treatments''
* ''Clinical efficacy''
* ''(Macey, 2026; Felemban, 2026, van Gelderen)''

=== Presence and emotional activation ===

* ''Illusion of being there - user experience presence (Kukharuk et al. 2025)''
* ''multisensory - visual, auditory, haptic, movement, scent (Lopes et al. 2025)''
* ''Psychological habitation - virtual transfer of emotions and stimuli previously avoided to a safe space or trauma reminder (Kukharuk et al. 2025)''
* Links between emotion regulation as an antecedent to [[wikipedia:Optimism|optimisim]] (Trejo et al. 2015)
** affect illusion and predictive values
** broaden and build a upward spiral of emotion

=== 3MDR ===

* ''(The Vermetten 2025 reading has an excellent flow chat to use if I can figure out how to get it embedded. the journal article is Creative Commons4.0 - need to ask James.''
* ''Activating Context - shift from sedentary, face to face therapy, to one of movement and side by side, where patient and therapist can view the virtual environment together.'' 
* ''three phase protocol -  pre platform, platform exposure and post platform reconsolidation''
* ''Break through potential?''

=== [[wikipedia:Embodied_cognition|Embodied cognition]] and recovery impact ===

* ''Mind body interaction with the environment''
** ''Fear agnostic actions''
** ''boosting divergent thinking and linguistic shifts''
* ''Modulating stress responses (Osman et al. 2016)''
* ''Bypassing avoidance (Boska et al. 2025)''

== What are the effects of immersive therapy? (500-550wds) ==

* ''Reductions in symptom severity enhanced emotional engagement and disruption of maladaptive avoidance patterns''
* ''create presence and facilitate fear extinction and memory reconsolidation''
* ''cognitive gains in divergent thinking and sustained attention (Lopes and Vermetten)''

=== What does the VR evidence show? ===

* ''Clinical efficiacy - meta analysis of 444 veterans - pooled mean difference in pre-post comparison - use Felemben 2026 efficacy study data here'' 
* ''comparison to standard PTSD care''
* ''non-exposure stabilisation - use the Ukraine study of non-exposure 360 degree VR producing rapid mood improvements and reductions in anxiety and depression (Kukharuk, 2025)''
* ''Multi sensory benefits''

=== What does the 3MDR evidence show? ===

* ''showing effective for complex, treatment resistance cases''
* ''assists in breakthrough from failed standard treatments''
* ''lingustic progress''
* ''acceptability of treatment - significant difference in drop out rates'' 

=== What are the limitations? ===
''Wellness vs disease models - prioritise post traumatic growth&amp; optimism (Niles et al, 2023)''

* ''Methodological [[wikipedia:Heterogeneity_(disambiguation)|heterogeneity]] - major variations in session structure, hardaare and processes followed''
* ''difficult to draw definitive conclusions''
* ''sample size constraints''
* ''lack of long term data''
* ''structural barriers and cost of material and equipment''
* ''technical side effects - e.g motion or cyber sickness''
* ''generalisability of outcomes - predominately white, military male populations - may not be directly transferable to diverse civilian groups or gender spectrums.'' 

=== Ukraine War: an applied example. ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Scenario: The Hotspots of War'''

Andriy* used to be a baker from Kyiv and is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces. Like thousands of his fellow soldiers, he had no prior military training and is now struggling with the crushing weight of hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible and his mind is in a constant state of combat readiness, even the quietest room can pose a threat.

Andriy has begun his third week of treatment at the Veterans Mental Health and Rehabilitation Centre in Kyiv. During the Pre-platform Preparation phase, he worked closely with his therapist to identify what the Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR) manual calls a ‘hotspot’. He has selected seven specific, painful memories, each represented by photographs.

[[File:US Army 53481 Virtual Tech Makes Recovery a Reality at Walter Reed.jpg|US_Army_53481_Virtual_Tech_Makes_Recovery_a_Reality_at_Walter_Reed]]

'''Figure 4.''' A military veteran views a digital scene while harnessed to a platform

Now, Andriy steps onto the 3MDR platform. Instead of sitting, he is harnessed to a treadmill, with his therapist standing by his side as a partner, both are facing a large panoramic screen. As Andriy begins to walk at a steady walking pace, his self-selected warm-up music, this one a familiar song from his last front line deployment, begins to play. This is deliberate as it is intended to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025).

A virtual, digital tunnel appears, and at its end, the first of his hotspot images grows until it fills his field of vision. As he physically approaches the memory, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025):

1.	What do you '''SEE''' in the picture?
2.	What does the picture '''TELL''' you?
3.	What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW?

When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is digitally placed onto the screen as an affective label. Immediately after he reads the label aloud, an oscillating red ball begins to move across the image. Andriy must call out the numbers appearing on the ball while maintaining focus on his emotional state. This dual-attention task is designed to tax his working memory, competing for limited cognitive resources and reducing the vividness and emotional intensity of the trauma.

By the end of the 60-minute session, as he transitions to his cool-down music, Andriy feels a profound shift. Through the mechanisms of embodied cognition, he has physically walked toward what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety. He finishes the session with a sense of moving forward, having transformed a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative

*''Andriy is a fictional name used for this Wiki scenario and given to one of the 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries'' (Kukharuk et al., 2025). 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}


== Conclusion ==

* ''PTSD involves disrupted emotional processing''
* ''immersive therapy provides an opportunity to approach vs avoid trauma''
* ''a number of psychological mechanisims can contribute towards the desired change''
* ''evidence is beginning to support positive effects, but sample sizes, timeframes and different methods mean understanding WHY is difficult. If we don't know WHY, risk false generalisations and opportunity cost of expensive treatment programs etc''
* ''immersion techniques are simply the tool being used, not the psychological mechanism of change''

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}}
[[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] '''Take home message:''' Fill in this text as I finish the chapter - this is a place holder box for simple take home message.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== See also ==
[[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)]] (Wikiversity)

[[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety]] (Wikiversity)

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias]] (Wikiversity Book Chapter)

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking]] (Wikiversity Book Chapter)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}
Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., &amp; Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within ptsd clusters and moral injury subtypes. Military psychology, 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904

Bothe, T., Jacob, J., Kröger, C., &amp; Walker, J. (2020). How expensive are post-traumatic stress disorders? Estimating incremental health care and economic costs on anonymised claims data. Eur J Health Econ, 21(6), 917-930. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10198-020-01184-x

Davis, L. L., Schein, J., Cloutier, M., Gagnon-Sanschagrin, P., Maitland, J., Urganus, A., Guerin, A., Lefebvre, P., &amp; Houle, C. R. (2022). The economic burden of posttraumatic stress disorder in the united states from a societal perspective. The Journal of clinical psychiatry, 83(3), 21m14116. Retrieved 2022/04//, from http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/35485933
https://www.psychiatrist.com/read-pdf/40672
https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.21m14116 

de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., &amp; Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for ptsd with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803

Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. Journal of Rational-Emotive &amp; Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 44(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7

Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., &amp; Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive vr therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in ukraine. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097

López-Ojeda, W., &amp; Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for ptsd. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 34(1), A4-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244

Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., Jesus, B. J. d., Roberge, M. C., &amp; Falk, T. H. (2025, 30 Sept.-2 Oct. 2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. 2025 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX), 

Magnussen, A., &amp; Dey, T. (2025). The economic burden of ptsd in veterans: Why cost of illness studies matter. https://www.bdo.com.au/en-au/insights/advisory/economics/the-economic-burden-of-ptsd-in-veterans-why-cost-of-illness-studies-matter 

Montgomery-Marks, P., Bandyopadhyay, S., Weisman, C. B., &amp; Bose, T. (2025). Economic burden of ptsd in the uk: A systematic review and economic analysis. BMJ Open, 15(7), e084394. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2024-084394

Osman, A., Paczynski, M., &amp; Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. Military psychology, 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128

Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., &amp; McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. Military psychology, 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081

van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., &amp; Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, Volume 9 - 2018. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176

van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., &amp; De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe ptsd? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417

Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., &amp; Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and clinical psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl1), S122. https://doi.org/DOI:10.5152/pcp.2025.241028

Westphal, M., Aldao, A., &amp; Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157

Wiederhold, B. K., &amp; Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930
}}

== External links ==
'''Web:''' National Center for PTSD (USA) https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp

'''Web:''' Australian Government Health advice - PTSD https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd

'''Web:''' Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide: Final Report&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report

'''Podcast:''' Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c

'''Video:''' 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans with PTSD https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo

'''Video:''' VR Exposure for Combat PTSD with EMDR Integration https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc

'''Final Report:''' Randomised control trial of 3MDR for treatment of resistant PTSD in military veterans&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf

== Key points ==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:

* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:

# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:

* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

*

== Figures ==
[[File:Thought_bubble.svg|right|thumb|157x157px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

== Learning features ==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}

; Scenarios

* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}

; Feature boxes

* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

; Embedded links

* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[wikipedia:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[wikipedia:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

; Tables

* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
!
!Known to self
!Not known to self
|-
|'''Known to others'''
|Open area
|Blind spot
|-
|'''Not known to others'''
|Hidden area
|Unknown
|}

; Quizzes

* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==

* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?}}

== See also ==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[wikipedia:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses}}

== References ==
This section lists the cited references in [[wikipedia:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted}}

== External links ==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:

* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]]
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      <text bytes="34367" sha1="oyybrlrolt8pige7a2pvrfaw275yyh6" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment - &lt;br&gt;How does it work and what are the effects?}}
__TOC__
== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}[[Image:Crystal Clear app help index.svg|left|50px]]
''' Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): What does it really cost society?'''

[[File:Post-traumatic stress disorder world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 1:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]


•	PTSD is estimated to have had a total excess economic burden in the USA of more than US$232 billion in 2018 (Davis et al., 2022). (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $433 billion).

•	PTSDs 2020-21 societal burden in the UK was estimated at over $£40 billion, with 92.4% of these costs to society being indirect versus direct clinical costs (Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025) (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $77 billion).

•	In Australia, the 2025 annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was $112,172 (Magnusson &amp; Dey, 2025).

•	Individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidity complications having a 3x cost effect on individuals with PTSD (Bothe et al., 2020).

Figure 1 caption highlights the 2024 global impact of PTSD, with the Wikimedia Commons picture also displaying some, albeit dated (2004) but informative distribution data.{{Figure|Figure 1: The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.[1]}}{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a significant public health concern that can develop after severe or life-threatening trauma, with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Its emotional impact is shaped largely by emotional dysregulation, in which individuals struggle to manage intense adverse feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017). These can trigger a destructive cycle of cognitive and behavioural avoidance as individuals attempt to reduce overwhelming distress. However, avoidance can strengthen fear networks and prevent the adaptive processing of traumatic memories. As a result, maladaptive stress responses like hypervigilance may persist, increasing psychological vulnerabilities that limit social adaptation, personal wellness, and the possibility of long-term recovery (Efremov, 2025).

=== '''Chapter learning feature: Predict the outcome''' ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
Andriy*, a soldier with PTSD encounters a violent, trauma-related image. His emotional system predicts: '''TRAUMA CUE''' - '''DANGER''' - '''DISTRESS''' - '''AVOID'''  

However, in an emerging immersive PTSD treatment, Andriy instead walks towards the image, while remaining in a controlled and safe environment.

What might happen to Andriy when the expected danger does not occur?

'''A.''' His fear response becomes stronger.

'''B.''' His memory cannot change once it has been formed.

'''C.''' The mismatch between expected danger and safety may create an opportunity for new emotional learning.

'''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play?

''Keep your answer and thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment''.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

PTSD often leaves individuals caught between a desire for relief and powerful emotional responses that can drive avoidance, in turn becoming a core barrier to recovery  (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Emerging immersive interventions such as [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] (VRET) and Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), address this barrier by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025). van Gelderen et al. (2018) suggest that these technologies foster presence, or the illusion of being there, which can increase engagement and support emotional processing . For example, by physically walking toward trauma-related images, patients perform [[wikipedia:Fear|Fear]] Antagonistic Actions  (de Haart et al., 2026). de Haart et al. (2026), propose that this approach to behaviour maximises the mismatch between expected threat and actual safety, allowing traumatic memories to be reconsolidated in a less distressing form and ultimately promoting psychological recovery.

* A fictional name assigned for the learning scenario. 

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''[[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]]

* Why is emotional processing important in PTSD?
* How might immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? 
* How do virtual reality (VR) and 3MDR translate psychological mechanisms into treatment?
* What does the research evidence tell us about immersive treatment effects and limitations?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}


== Why is emotional processing important in [[wikipedia:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|PTSD]]? (500-550wds) ==

=== Understanding PTSD and emotions ===
[[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.]]
''(Felemban et. al, 2026; López-Ojeda, W., &amp; Hurley, R. A. 2022;'' 

* ''PTSD and the cycle of avoidance''
* cognitive avoidance
* intrusive memories
* avoidance, hyper arousal, negative emotional challenges and changes

=== Why treatment can be difficult ===

* ''barriers in traditional treatment'' 
* ''failure rates in response to treatment -'' ''up to 39.2% of patients fail to respond and military drop out rates are estimated between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026)'' 
* ''difficulties in engaging with emotional processing for fear extinction''
* Emotion regulation - not just what sufferes of PTSD may lack, but maybe also something that can change through treatment.

=== Why avoidance matters ===

* ''Therapy is trying to disrupt the process of trauma-distress, avoidance, short-term relief, reduced opportunity for learning, persistence of symptoms.''
&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;
{Type the question here...
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ The correct answer.
- Wrong or misleading answer.
- Wrong or misleading answer.
- Wrong or misleading answer.
&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/quiz&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;
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== How might immersive therapies influence emotional processes? (700 words) ==

* ''Section introduction''
** ''Introduce concepts such as multisensory presence and engagement''
** ''embodied cognition, divergent thinking, body states''

* Lopez, Vermetten &amp; Van Gelderen

=== What is immersive therapy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&amp;oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;? ===

* ''the nature of immersive interventions (Felemban et. al, 2026; López-Ojeda, W., &amp; Hurley, R. A. 2022; Weiderhold et al, 2024)''
** ''maybe room to introduce or reference some UC PhD work by Ravi here or draw on his experience and research''
** ''Virtual reality exposure therapy'' 
** ''3MDR''
** ''mechanisms of change - presence, embodiment, side-by-side, activating''
** ''prediction error - re-consolidation of traumatic memory (Vermetten et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018)''

=== Emotional processing and PTSD ===

* ''[[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|Transdiagnostic]] emotion dsyregulation - Elkit &amp; Dahl, 2025;''
** ''loose ability to modulate emotions - guilt, fear, shame''
** ''reduction in coping strategies - individuals trapped in states of high combat readiness''
* ''Memory network activation''
** ''Activation of brains salience and central executive networks''
** ''use of cues - photographs, music,''
** ''trauma retrival''
[[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|right|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025).]]

=== Avoidance and emotional confrontation ===

* ''Bypassing avoidance cycle''
** ''activating side by side partnerships''
* ''Fear agnostic actions (de Haart, 2026: Van Geldere et al., 2018)''
** ''walking towards trauma, not away''
** ''3MDR introduces the physical movement''
** ''Approach behaviour - dissolving a natural tendency to pull away from distress''

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Moving from emotional avoidance to emotional processing.''' 

People with PTSD may avoid thoughts, memories and situations that trigger distress. Psychology theory suggests that emotion regulation shapes how individuals respond to their environment (Trejo et al., 2015). In Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), the act of physically walking toward a virtual trauma stimulus may serve as a physical counterpoint to emotional avoidance. In turn, this can create a prediction error that could help update traumatic memories with experiences of safety (de Haart et al., 2026). Of consequence, is that an individuals emotional regulation may also improve throughout treatment, regardless of the PTSD outcomes: a trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD (including childhood sexual trauma) found that intensive trauma treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities despite severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Fear [[wikipedia:Extinction_(psychology)|extinction]] and inhibitory learning ===

* ''Create safe associations''
* ''inhibitory learning - suppress fear response''
* ''Maximise prediction errors''
* ''consolidate extinction learning via increasing [[wikipedia:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain derived neurotropic factor]] (BNDF)''

=== [[wikipedia:Memory_consolidation|Memory reconsolidation]] ===

* ''[[wikipedia:Lability|Labile]] or [[wikipedia:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory''
** ''introducing safe or contextual information - reconsolidate memory''
* ''Taxing working memory''
** ''dual attention tasks''
* ''Linguistic shifts''
** ''[[wikipedia:Affect_labeling|Affective labelling]]'' 
** ''[[wikipedia:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] - shift from past tense to present tense''
** ''increased ability to articulate emotional states''

== How do VR and 3MDR translate psychological mechanisms into treatment? (600-650 wds) ==

* ''Introduction''
** ''Facilitating psychological change''
** ''Emotional processing theory and inhibitory learning''
** ''Highly controlled environments''
** ''Overcoming treatment barriers - depending on how I write paragraph above in why treatment can be difficult''
*** ''Cognitive and behavioural barriers''
*** ''failure rates - new information - maybe a bit more on military angle?''
** ''Enhancing memory accessibility''
*** ''precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks''
*** ''patient selected cues''

=== [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] ===

* ''Reconstructing trauma - safe and regulated context''
** ''controlled, graded and personal''
* ''bypassing imagination challenges - amnesia, struggling to engage with visualisation techniques of standard treatments''
* ''Clinical efficacy''
* ''(Macey, 2026; Felemban, 2026, van Gelderen)''

=== Presence and emotional activation ===

* ''Illusion of being there - user experience presence (Kukharuk et al. 2025)''
* ''multisensory - visual, auditory, haptic, movement, scent (Lopes et al. 2025)''
* ''Psychological habitation - virtual transfer of emotions and stimuli previously avoided to a safe space or trauma reminder (Kukharuk et al. 2025)''
* Links between emotion regulation as an antecedent to [[wikipedia:Optimism|optimisim]] (Trejo et al. 2015)
** affect illusion and predictive values
** broaden and build a upward spiral of emotion

=== 3MDR ===

* ''(The Vermetten 2025 reading has an excellent flow chat to use if I can figure out how to get it embedded. the journal article is Creative Commons4.0 - need to ask James.''
* ''Activating Context - shift from sedentary, face to face therapy, to one of movement and side by side, where patient and therapist can view the virtual environment together.'' 
* ''three phase protocol -  pre platform, platform exposure and post platform reconsolidation''
* ''Break through potential?''

=== [[wikipedia:Embodied_cognition|Embodied cognition]] and recovery impact ===

* ''Mind body interaction with the environment''
** ''Fear agnostic actions''
** ''boosting divergent thinking and linguistic shifts''
* ''Modulating stress responses (Osman et al. 2016)''
* ''Bypassing avoidance (Boska et al. 2025)''

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which of the following is an expected outcome of immersive therapy ?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}

- Patients are at risk because of an uncontrolled environment.
- The environments represent traditional face-to-face treatments.
- Failure and dropout rates are higher than traditional PTSD treatment.
+ Patients often broaden and build an upward spiral of emotion and optimism.
&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

== What are the effects of immersive therapy? (500-550wds) ==

* ''Reductions in symptom severity enhanced emotional engagement and disruption of maladaptive avoidance patterns''
* ''create presence and facilitate fear extinction and memory reconsolidation''
* ''cognitive gains in divergent thinking and sustained attention (Lopes and Vermetten)''

=== What does the VR evidence show? ===

* ''Clinical efficiacy - meta analysis of 444 veterans - pooled mean difference in pre-post comparison - use Felemben 2026 efficacy study data here'' 
* ''comparison to standard PTSD care''
* ''non-exposure stabilisation - use the Ukraine study of non-exposure 360 degree VR producing rapid mood improvements and reductions in anxiety and depression (Kukharuk, 2025)''
* ''Multi sensory benefits''

=== What does the 3MDR evidence show? ===

* ''showing effective for complex, treatment resistance cases''
* ''assists in breakthrough from failed standard treatments''
* ''lingustic progress''
* ''acceptability of treatment - significant difference in drop out rates'' 

=== What are the limitations? ===
''Wellness vs disease models - prioritise post traumatic growth&amp; optimism (Niles et al, 2023)''

* ''Methodological [[wikipedia:Heterogeneity_(disambiguation)|heterogeneity]] - major variations in session structure, hardaare and processes followed''
* ''difficult to draw definitive conclusions''
* ''sample size constraints''
* ''lack of long term data''
* ''structural barriers and cost of material and equipment''
* ''technical side effects - e.g motion or cyber sickness''
* ''generalisability of outcomes - predominately white, military male populations - may not be directly transferable to diverse civilian groups or gender spectrums.'' 

=== Ukraine War: an applied example. ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Scenario: The Hotspots of War'''

Andriy* used to be a baker from Kyiv and is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces. Like thousands of his fellow soldiers, he had no prior military training and is now struggling with the crushing weight of hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible and his mind is in a constant state of combat readiness, even the quietest room can pose a threat.

Andriy has begun his third week of treatment at the Veterans Mental Health and Rehabilitation Centre in Kyiv. During the Pre-platform Preparation phase, he worked closely with his therapist to identify what the Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR) manual calls a ‘hotspot’. He has selected seven specific, painful memories, each represented by photographs.

[[File:US Army 53481 Virtual Tech Makes Recovery a Reality at Walter Reed.jpg|US_Army_53481_Virtual_Tech_Makes_Recovery_a_Reality_at_Walter_Reed]]

'''Figure 4.''' A military veteran views a digital scene while harnessed to a platform

Now, Andriy steps onto the 3MDR platform. Instead of sitting, he is harnessed to a treadmill, with his therapist standing by his side as a partner, both are facing a large panoramic screen. As Andriy begins to walk at a steady walking pace, his self-selected warm-up music, this one a familiar song from his last front line deployment, begins to play. This is deliberate as it is intended to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025).

A virtual, digital tunnel appears, and at its end, the first of his hotspot images grows until it fills his field of vision. As he physically approaches the memory, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025):

1.	What do you '''SEE''' in the picture?
2.	What does the picture '''TELL''' you?
3.	What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW?

When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is digitally placed onto the screen as an affective label. Immediately after he reads the label aloud, an oscillating red ball begins to move across the image. Andriy must call out the numbers appearing on the ball while maintaining focus on his emotional state. This dual-attention task is designed to tax his working memory, competing for limited cognitive resources and reducing the vividness and emotional intensity of the trauma.

By the end of the 60-minute session, as he transitions to his cool-down music, Andriy feels a profound shift. Through the mechanisms of embodied cognition, he has physically walked toward what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety. He finishes the session with a sense of moving forward, having transformed a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative

*''Andriy is a fictional name used for this Wiki scenario and given to one of the 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries'' (Kukharuk et al., 2025). 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}


== Conclusion ==

* ''PTSD involves disrupted emotional processing''
* ''immersive therapy provides an opportunity to approach vs avoid trauma''
* ''a number of psychological mechanisims can contribute towards the desired change''
* ''evidence is beginning to support positive effects, but sample sizes, timeframes and different methods mean understanding WHY is difficult. If we don't know WHY, risk false generalisations and opportunity cost of expensive treatment programs etc''
* ''immersion techniques are simply the tool being used, not the psychological mechanism of change''

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}}
[[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] '''Take home message:''' Fill in this text as I finish the chapter - this is a place holder box for simple take home message.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== See also ==
[[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)]] (Wikiversity)

[[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety]] (Wikiversity)

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias]] (Wikiversity Book Chapter)

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking]] (Wikiversity Book Chapter)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}
Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., &amp; Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within ptsd clusters and moral injury subtypes. Military psychology, 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904

Bothe, T., Jacob, J., Kröger, C., &amp; Walker, J. (2020). How expensive are post-traumatic stress disorders? Estimating incremental health care and economic costs on anonymised claims data. Eur J Health Econ, 21(6), 917-930. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10198-020-01184-x

Davis, L. L., Schein, J., Cloutier, M., Gagnon-Sanschagrin, P., Maitland, J., Urganus, A., Guerin, A., Lefebvre, P., &amp; Houle, C. R. (2022). The economic burden of posttraumatic stress disorder in the united states from a societal perspective. The Journal of clinical psychiatry, 83(3), 21m14116. Retrieved 2022/04//, from http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/35485933
https://www.psychiatrist.com/read-pdf/40672
https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.21m14116 

de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., &amp; Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for ptsd with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803

Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. Journal of Rational-Emotive &amp; Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 44(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7

Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., &amp; Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive vr therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in ukraine. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097

López-Ojeda, W., &amp; Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for ptsd. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 34(1), A4-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244

Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., Jesus, B. J. d., Roberge, M. C., &amp; Falk, T. H. (2025, 30 Sept.-2 Oct. 2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. 2025 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX), 

Magnussen, A., &amp; Dey, T. (2025). The economic burden of ptsd in veterans: Why cost of illness studies matter. https://www.bdo.com.au/en-au/insights/advisory/economics/the-economic-burden-of-ptsd-in-veterans-why-cost-of-illness-studies-matter 

Montgomery-Marks, P., Bandyopadhyay, S., Weisman, C. B., &amp; Bose, T. (2025). Economic burden of ptsd in the uk: A systematic review and economic analysis. BMJ Open, 15(7), e084394. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2024-084394

Osman, A., Paczynski, M., &amp; Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. Military psychology, 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128

Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., &amp; McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. Military psychology, 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081

van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., &amp; Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, Volume 9 - 2018. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176

van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., &amp; De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe ptsd? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417

Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., &amp; Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and clinical psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl1), S122. https://doi.org/DOI:10.5152/pcp.2025.241028

Westphal, M., Aldao, A., &amp; Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157

Wiederhold, B. K., &amp; Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930
}}

== External links ==
'''Web:''' National Center for PTSD (USA) https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp

'''Web:''' Australian Government Health advice - PTSD https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd

'''Web:''' Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide: Final Report&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report

'''Podcast:''' Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c

'''Video:''' 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans with PTSD https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo

'''Video:''' VR Exposure for Combat PTSD with EMDR Integration https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc

'''Final Report:''' Randomised control trial of 3MDR for treatment of resistant PTSD in military veterans&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf

== Key points ==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:

* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:

# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:

* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

*

== Figures ==
[[File:Thought_bubble.svg|right|thumb|157x157px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

== Learning features ==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}

; Scenarios

* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}

; Feature boxes

* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

; Embedded links

* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[wikipedia:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[wikipedia:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

; Tables

* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
!
!Known to self
!Not known to self
|-
|'''Known to others'''
|Open area
|Blind spot
|-
|'''Not known to others'''
|Hidden area
|Unknown
|}

; Quizzes

* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==

* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?}}

== See also ==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[wikipedia:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses}}

== References ==
This section lists the cited references in [[wikipedia:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted}}

== External links ==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:

* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]]
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__TOC__
== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}[[Image:Crystal Clear app help index.svg|left|50px]]
''' Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): What does it really cost society?'''

[[File:Post-traumatic stress disorder world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|alt=|thumb|271x271px|'''Figure 1:''' The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/post-traumatic-stress-disorder|title=Post-traumatic stress disorder|website=www.who.int|language=en|access-date=2026-08-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]


•	PTSD is estimated to have had a total excess economic burden in the USA of more than US$232 billion in 2018 (Davis et al., 2022). (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $433 billion).

•	PTSDs 2020-21 societal burden in the UK was estimated at over $£40 billion, with 92.4% of these costs to society being indirect versus direct clinical costs (Montgomery-Marks et al., 2025) (In 2026, this would equate to approximately AUD $77 billion).

•	In Australia, the 2025 annual cost of PTSD per military veteran was $112,172 (Magnusson &amp; Dey, 2025).

•	Individual healthcare costs surge by 142% in the year following a PTSD diagnosis, with comorbidity complications having a 3x cost effect on individuals with PTSD (Bothe et al., 2020).

Figure 1 caption highlights the 2024 global impact of PTSD, with the Wikimedia Commons picture also displaying some, albeit dated (2004) but informative distribution data.{{Figure|Figure 1: The 2024 World Health Organisation estimates 3.9% of the world population has had post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) at some stage in their lives.[1]}}{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a significant public health concern that can develop after severe or life-threatening trauma, with sub-communities such as military personnel having an increased likelihood of representation (Boska et al., 2025). Its emotional impact is shaped largely by emotional dysregulation, in which individuals struggle to manage intense adverse feelings such as guilt, fear or shame (Westphal et al., 2017). These can trigger a destructive cycle of cognitive and behavioural avoidance as individuals attempt to reduce overwhelming distress. However, avoidance can strengthen fear networks and prevent the adaptive processing of traumatic memories. As a result, maladaptive stress responses like hypervigilance may persist, increasing psychological vulnerabilities that limit social adaptation, personal wellness, and the possibility of long-term recovery (Efremov, 2025).

=== '''Chapter learning feature: Predict the outcome''' ===
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Andriy*, a soldier with PTSD encounters a violent, trauma-related image. His emotional system predicts: '''TRAUMA CUE''' - '''DANGER''' - '''DISTRESS''' - '''AVOID'''  

However, in an emerging immersive PTSD treatment, Andriy instead walks towards the image, while remaining in a controlled and safe environment.

What might happen to Andriy when the expected danger does not occur?

'''A.''' His fear response becomes stronger.

'''B.''' His memory cannot change once it has been formed.

'''C.''' The mismatch between expected danger and safety may create an opportunity for new emotional learning.

'''Think about it:''' If approaching rather than avoiding trauma can create new learning, what role might emotion regulation, fear extinction, prediction error and memory reconsolidation play?

''Keep your answer and thoughts in mind as you read the chapter below and explore the evidence for these mechanisms, and their role in immersive PTSD treatment''.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

PTSD often leaves individuals caught between a desire for relief and powerful emotional responses that can drive avoidance, in turn becoming a core barrier to recovery  (de Haart et al., 2026; van Gelderen et al., 2018). Emerging immersive interventions such as [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] (VRET) and Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), address this barrier by creating controlled environments in which trauma cues can be safely approached rather than avoided (van Gelderen et al., 2018; Wiederhold &amp; Wiederhold, 2025). van Gelderen et al. (2018) suggest that these technologies foster presence, or the illusion of being there, which can increase engagement and support emotional processing . For example, by physically walking toward trauma-related images, patients perform [[wikipedia:Fear|Fear]] Antagonistic Actions  (de Haart et al., 2026). de Haart et al. (2026), propose that this approach to behaviour maximises the mismatch between expected threat and actual safety, allowing traumatic memories to be reconsolidated in a less distressing form and ultimately promoting psychological recovery.

* A fictional name assigned for the learning scenario. 

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'''Focus questions'''[[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]]

* Why is emotional processing important in PTSD?
* How might immersive therapies influence the emotional processes underlying PTSD? 
* How do virtual reality (VR) and 3MDR translate psychological mechanisms into treatment?
* What does the research evidence tell us about immersive treatment effects and limitations?
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== Why is emotional processing important in [[wikipedia:Post-traumatic_stress_disorder|PTSD]]? (500-550wds) ==

=== Understanding PTSD and emotions ===
[[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.]]
''(Felemban et. al, 2026; López-Ojeda, W., &amp; Hurley, R. A. 2022;'' 

* ''PTSD and the cycle of avoidance''
* cognitive avoidance
* intrusive memories
* avoidance, hyper arousal, negative emotional challenges and changes

=== Why treatment can be difficult ===

* ''barriers in traditional treatment'' 
* ''failure rates in response to treatment -'' ''up to 39.2% of patients fail to respond and military drop out rates are estimated between 16-48% (de Haart et al., 2026)'' 
* ''difficulties in engaging with emotional processing for fear extinction''
* Emotion regulation - not just what sufferes of PTSD may lack, but maybe also something that can change through treatment.

=== Why avoidance matters ===

* ''Therapy is trying to disrupt the process of trauma-distress, avoidance, short-term relief, reduced opportunity for learning, persistence of symptoms.''
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- Wrong or misleading answer.
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== How might immersive therapies influence emotional processes? (700 words) ==

* ''Section introduction''
** ''Introduce concepts such as multisensory presence and engagement''
** ''embodied cognition, divergent thinking, body states''

* Lopez, Vermetten &amp; Van Gelderen

=== What is immersive therapy&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2026-06-01|title=Immersion therapy|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immersion_therapy&amp;oldid=1357152847|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;? ===

* ''the nature of immersive interventions (Felemban et. al, 2026; López-Ojeda, W., &amp; Hurley, R. A. 2022; Weiderhold et al, 2024)''
** ''maybe room to introduce or reference some UC PhD work by Ravi here or draw on his experience and research''
** ''Virtual reality exposure therapy'' 
** ''3MDR''
** ''mechanisms of change - presence, embodiment, side-by-side, activating''
** ''prediction error - re-consolidation of traumatic memory (Vermetten et al., 2025; van Gelderen et al., 2018)''

=== Emotional processing and PTSD ===

* ''[[wikipedia:Transdiagnostic_process|Transdiagnostic]] emotion dsyregulation - Elkit &amp; Dahl, 2025;''
** ''loose ability to modulate emotions - guilt, fear, shame''
** ''reduction in coping strategies - individuals trapped in states of high combat readiness''
* ''Memory network activation''
** ''Activation of brains salience and central executive networks''
** ''use of cues - photographs, music,''
** ''trauma retrival''
[[File:Avoidance and Processing Cycles.png|right|500x500px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Highlights the typical flow of an avoidance cycle and the anticipated positive responses generated via immersive therapies. Based on concepts introduced in journal articles by Lopez-Ojeda et al. (2022), Felemban et al. (2026), and Vermetten et. al. (2025).]]

=== Avoidance and emotional confrontation ===

* ''Bypassing avoidance cycle''
** ''activating side by side partnerships''
* ''Fear agnostic actions (de Haart, 2026: Van Geldere et al., 2018)''
** ''walking towards trauma, not away''
** ''3MDR introduces the physical movement''
** ''Approach behaviour - dissolving a natural tendency to pull away from distress''

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Moving from emotional avoidance to emotional processing.''' 

People with PTSD may avoid thoughts, memories and situations that trigger distress. Psychology theory suggests that emotion regulation shapes how individuals respond to their environment (Trejo et al., 2015). In Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR), the act of physically walking toward a virtual trauma stimulus may serve as a physical counterpoint to emotional avoidance. In turn, this can create a prediction error that could help update traumatic memories with experiences of safety (de Haart et al., 2026). Of consequence, is that an individuals emotional regulation may also improve throughout treatment, regardless of the PTSD outcomes: a trial of 62 adults with severe PTSD (including childhood sexual trauma) found that intensive trauma treatment improved emotion-regulation abilities despite severe baseline difficulties (van Toorenburg et al., 2020). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Fear [[wikipedia:Extinction_(psychology)|extinction]] and inhibitory learning ===

* ''Create safe associations''
* ''inhibitory learning - suppress fear response''
* ''Maximise prediction errors''
* ''consolidate extinction learning via increasing [[wikipedia:Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor|brain derived neurotropic factor]] (BNDF)''

=== [[wikipedia:Memory_consolidation|Memory reconsolidation]] ===

* ''[[wikipedia:Lability|Labile]] or [[wikipedia:Malleability_of_intelligence|malleable]] state of memory''
** ''introducing safe or contextual information - reconsolidate memory''
* ''Taxing working memory''
** ''dual attention tasks''
* ''Linguistic shifts''
** ''[[wikipedia:Affect_labeling|Affective labelling]]'' 
** ''[[wikipedia:Marker_(linguistics)|linguistic markers]] - shift from past tense to present tense''
** ''increased ability to articulate emotional states''

== How do VR and 3MDR translate psychological mechanisms into treatment? (600-650 wds) ==

* ''Introduction''
** ''Facilitating psychological change''
** ''Emotional processing theory and inhibitory learning''
** ''Highly controlled environments''
** ''Overcoming treatment barriers - depending on how I write paragraph above in why treatment can be difficult''
*** ''Cognitive and behavioural barriers''
*** ''failure rates - new information - maybe a bit more on military angle?''
** ''Enhancing memory accessibility''
*** ''precise retrieval of traumatic memory networks''
*** ''patient selected cues''

=== [[wikipedia:Virtual_reality_therapy|Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy]] ===

* ''Reconstructing trauma - safe and regulated context''
** ''controlled, graded and personal''
* ''bypassing imagination challenges - amnesia, struggling to engage with visualisation techniques of standard treatments''
* ''Clinical efficacy''
* ''(Macey, 2026; Felemban, 2026, van Gelderen)''

=== Presence and emotional activation ===

* ''Illusion of being there - user experience presence (Kukharuk et al. 2025)''
* ''multisensory - visual, auditory, haptic, movement, scent (Lopes et al. 2025)''
* ''Psychological habitation - virtual transfer of emotions and stimuli previously avoided to a safe space or trauma reminder (Kukharuk et al. 2025)''
* Links between emotion regulation as an antecedent to [[wikipedia:Optimism|optimisim]] (Trejo et al. 2015)
** affect illusion and predictive values
** broaden and build a upward spiral of emotion

=== 3MDR ===

* ''(The Vermetten 2025 reading has an excellent flow chat to use if I can figure out how to get it embedded. the journal article is Creative Commons4.0 - need to ask James.''
* ''Activating Context - shift from sedentary, face to face therapy, to one of movement and side by side, where patient and therapist can view the virtual environment together.'' 
* ''three phase protocol -  pre platform, platform exposure and post platform reconsolidation''
* ''Break through potential?''

=== [[wikipedia:Embodied_cognition|Embodied cognition]] and recovery impact ===

* ''Mind body interaction with the environment''
** ''Fear agnostic actions''
** ''boosting divergent thinking and linguistic shifts''
* ''Modulating stress responses (Osman et al. 2016)''
* ''Bypassing avoidance (Boska et al. 2025)''

{{Robelbox|theme=12|title=Quiz}}
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which of the following is an expected outcome of immersive therapy ?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}


- Patients are at risk because of an uncontrolled environment.
- The environments represent traditional face-to-face treatments.
- Failure and dropout rates are higher than traditional PTSD treatment.
+ Patients often broaden and build an upward spiral of emotion and optimism.
&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}


== What are the effects of immersive therapy? (500-550wds) ==

* ''Reductions in symptom severity enhanced emotional engagement and disruption of maladaptive avoidance patterns''
* ''create presence and facilitate fear extinction and memory reconsolidation''
* ''cognitive gains in divergent thinking and sustained attention (Lopes and Vermetten)''

=== What does the VR evidence show? ===

* ''Clinical efficiacy - meta analysis of 444 veterans - pooled mean difference in pre-post comparison - use Felemben 2026 efficacy study data here'' 
* ''comparison to standard PTSD care''
* ''non-exposure stabilisation - use the Ukraine study of non-exposure 360 degree VR producing rapid mood improvements and reductions in anxiety and depression (Kukharuk, 2025)''
* ''Multi sensory benefits''

=== What does the 3MDR evidence show? ===

* ''showing effective for complex, treatment resistance cases''
* ''assists in breakthrough from failed standard treatments''
* ''lingustic progress''
* ''acceptability of treatment - significant difference in drop out rates'' 

=== What are the limitations? ===
''Wellness vs disease models - prioritise post traumatic growth&amp; optimism (Niles et al, 2023)''

* ''Methodological [[wikipedia:Heterogeneity_(disambiguation)|heterogeneity]] - major variations in session structure, hardaare and processes followed''
* ''difficult to draw definitive conclusions''
* ''sample size constraints''
* ''lack of long term data''
* ''structural barriers and cost of material and equipment''
* ''technical side effects - e.g motion or cyber sickness''
* ''generalisability of outcomes - predominately white, military male populations - may not be directly transferable to diverse civilian groups or gender spectrums.'' 

=== Ukraine War: an applied example. ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}'''Scenario: The Hotspots of War'''

Andriy* used to be a baker from Kyiv and is now a volunteer in the Ukrainian Armed Forces. Like thousands of his fellow soldiers, he had no prior military training and is now struggling with the crushing weight of hyper-vigilance, anxiety, and depression (Kukharuk et al., 2025). Traditional ‘talk’ therapy feels impossible and his mind is in a constant state of combat readiness, even the quietest room can pose a threat.

Andriy has begun his third week of treatment at the Veterans Mental Health and Rehabilitation Centre in Kyiv. During the Pre-platform Preparation phase, he worked closely with his therapist to identify what the Multi-Modular Motion Assisted Memory Desensitisation and Reconsolidation (3MDR) manual calls a ‘hotspot’. He has selected seven specific, painful memories, each represented by photographs.

[[File:US Army 53481 Virtual Tech Makes Recovery a Reality at Walter Reed.jpg|US_Army_53481_Virtual_Tech_Makes_Recovery_a_Reality_at_Walter_Reed]]

'''Figure 4.''' A military veteran views a digital scene while harnessed to a platform

Now, Andriy steps onto the 3MDR platform. Instead of sitting, he is harnessed to a treadmill, with his therapist standing by his side as a partner, both are facing a large panoramic screen. As Andriy begins to walk at a steady walking pace, his self-selected warm-up music, this one a familiar song from his last front line deployment, begins to play. This is deliberate as it is intended to keep him in touch with his traumatic memory network (Vermetten et al., 2025).

A virtual, digital tunnel appears, and at its end, the first of his hotspot images grows until it fills his field of vision. As he physically approaches the memory, his therapist asks three structured questions (Vermetten et al., 2025):

1.	What do you '''SEE''' in the picture?
2.	What does the picture '''TELL''' you?
3.	What do you '''FEEL''' in your body NOW?

When Andriy identifies a surge of shame, the word '''GUILT''' is digitally placed onto the screen as an affective label. Immediately after he reads the label aloud, an oscillating red ball begins to move across the image. Andriy must call out the numbers appearing on the ball while maintaining focus on his emotional state. This dual-attention task is designed to tax his working memory, competing for limited cognitive resources and reducing the vividness and emotional intensity of the trauma.

By the end of the 60-minute session, as he transitions to his cool-down music, Andriy feels a profound shift. Through the mechanisms of embodied cognition, he has physically walked toward what he used to avoid, creating a mismatch between his expectation of threat and his current safety. He finishes the session with a sense of moving forward, having transformed a rigid, stuck memory into a manageable narrative

*''Andriy is a fictional name used for this Wiki scenario and given to one of the 69 male Ukrainian veterans who participated in a 2023 Randomised Controlled Trial in Kyiv. Many were demobilised after one year because of mental or neurological injuries'' (Kukharuk et al., 2025). 

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== Conclusion ==

* ''PTSD involves disrupted emotional processing''
* ''immersive therapy provides an opportunity to approach vs avoid trauma''
* ''a number of psychological mechanisims can contribute towards the desired change''
* ''evidence is beginning to support positive effects, but sample sizes, timeframes and different methods mean understanding WHY is difficult. If we don't know WHY, risk false generalisations and opportunity cost of expensive treatment programs etc''
* ''immersion techniques are simply the tool being used, not the psychological mechanism of change''

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}}
[[File:Nuvola apps kuser.svg|Nuvola apps kuser|left|20px]] '''Take home message:''' Fill in this text as I finish the chapter - this is a place holder box for simple take home message.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== See also ==
[[Evidence-based assessment/Posttraumatic stress disorder (disorder portfolio)]] (Wikiversity)

[[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Emotion/Anxiety]] (Wikiversity)

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Phobias]] (Wikiversity Book Chapter)

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Sense hacking]] (Wikiversity Book Chapter)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}
Boska, R. L., Bishop, T. M., Capron, D. W., Paxton Willing, M. M., &amp; Ashrafioun, L. (2025). Difficulties with emotion regulation within ptsd clusters and moral injury subtypes. Military psychology, 37(2), 159-167. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2322904

Bothe, T., Jacob, J., Kröger, C., &amp; Walker, J. (2020). How expensive are post-traumatic stress disorders? Estimating incremental health care and economic costs on anonymised claims data. Eur J Health Econ, 21(6), 917-930. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10198-020-01184-x

Davis, L. L., Schein, J., Cloutier, M., Gagnon-Sanschagrin, P., Maitland, J., Urganus, A., Guerin, A., Lefebvre, P., &amp; Houle, C. R. (2022). The economic burden of posttraumatic stress disorder in the united states from a societal perspective. The Journal of clinical psychiatry, 83(3), 21m14116. Retrieved 2022/04//, from http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/35485933
https://www.psychiatrist.com/read-pdf/40672
https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.21m14116 

de Haart, R., Daniels, J. K., Timmerman, M. E., Cath, D. C., &amp; Lommen, M. J. J. (2026). Augmenting virtual reality exposure for ptsd with physical activity: Study protocol of a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 17(1), 2605803. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2605803

Efremov, A. (2025). Age-specific mental health profiles of combat veterans: Post-traumatic stress disorder and related disorders. Journal of Rational-Emotive &amp; Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 44(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-025-00637-7

Kukharuk, O., Tkalich, K., Kamash, N., &amp; Georgiou, O. (2025). Effectiveness of immersive vr therapy in reducing stress-associated symptoms in ukraine. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 16(1), 2488097. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2025.2488097

López-Ojeda, W., &amp; Hurley, R. A. (2022). Extended reality technologies: Expanding therapeutic approaches for ptsd. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 34(1), A4-5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21100244

Lopes, M. K. S., Perreault, L., Jesus, B. J. d., Roberge, M. C., &amp; Falk, T. H. (2025, 30 Sept.-2 Oct. 2025). Subjective and objective evaluation of the benefits of multisensory virtual nature immersion for patients with post-traumatic stress disorder. 2025 17th International Conference on Quality of Multimedia Experience (QoMEX), 

Magnussen, A., &amp; Dey, T. (2025). The economic burden of ptsd in veterans: Why cost of illness studies matter. https://www.bdo.com.au/en-au/insights/advisory/economics/the-economic-burden-of-ptsd-in-veterans-why-cost-of-illness-studies-matter 

Montgomery-Marks, P., Bandyopadhyay, S., Weisman, C. B., &amp; Bose, T. (2025). Economic burden of ptsd in the uk: A systematic review and economic analysis. BMJ Open, 15(7), e084394. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2024-084394

Osman, A., Paczynski, M., &amp; Jha, A. P. (2016). Affective expectations influence neural responses to stressful images in soldiers. Military psychology, 29(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000128

Trejo, B. C., Richard, E. M., van Driel, M., &amp; McDonald, D. P. (2015). Cross-cultural competence: The role of emotion regulation ability and optimism. Military psychology, 27(5), 276-286. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000081

van Gelderen, M. J., Nijdam, M. J., &amp; Vermetten, E. (2018). An innovative framework for delivering psychotherapy to patients with treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: Rationale for interactive motion-assisted therapy. Frontiers in Psychiatry, Volume 9 - 2018. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00176

van Toorenburg, M. M., Sanches, S. A., Linders, B., Rozendaal, L., Voorendonk, E. M., Van Minnen, A., &amp; De Jongh, A. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties affect outcome of intensive trauma-focused treatment of patients with severe ptsd? European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1724417. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1724417

Vermetten, E., Burback, L., Sevigny, P. R., Nijdam, M. J., Winkler, O., Espejo, E., Sessoms, P., Bright, K., Roy, M. J., &amp; Brémault-Phillips, S. (2025). Brief manual for multi-modal motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation therapy for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry and clinical psychopharmacology, 35(Suppl1), S122. https://doi.org/DOI:10.5152/pcp.2025.241028

Westphal, M., Aldao, A., &amp; Jackson, C. (2017). Emotion dysregulation in comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders: A narrative review. Military Psychology, 29(3), 216-233. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000157

Wiederhold, B. K., &amp; Wiederhold, M. D. (2025). Virtual reality therapy combined with physiological monitoring provides effective treatment, with objective metrics, for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 22(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17434440.2025.2454930
}}

== External links ==
'''Web:''' National Center for PTSD (USA) https://www.ptsd.va.gov/index.asp

'''Web:''' Australian Government Health advice - PTSD https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd

'''Web:''' Australian Royal Commission into Defence and Veteran Suicide: Final Report&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://defenceveteransuicide.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/final-report

'''Podcast:''' Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)https://shows.acast.com/5c3353e484e2e79370e1d135/5c3353ef84e2e79370e1d13c

'''Video:''' 3MDR: Virtual reality treatment for veterans with PTSD https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bD43R_oa6qo

'''Video:''' VR Exposure for Combat PTSD with EMDR Integration https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jL2bKmniMTc

'''Final Report:''' Randomised control trial of 3MDR for treatment of resistant PTSD in military veterans&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://www.ncmh.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Cardiff-3MDR-Study-Final-Report-with-cover-21.5.20.pdf

== Key points ==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:

* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:

# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:

* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

*

== Figures ==
[[File:Thought_bubble.svg|right|thumb|157x157px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

== Learning features ==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}

; Scenarios

* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}

; Feature boxes

* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

; Embedded links

* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[wikipedia:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[wikipedia:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

; Tables

* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
!
!Known to self
!Not known to self
|-
|'''Known to others'''
|Open area
|Blind spot
|-
|'''Not known to others'''
|Hidden area
|Unknown
|}

; Quizzes

* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==

* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[User talk:StretchBeyond#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?}}

== See also ==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[wikipedia:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses}}

== References ==
This section lists the cited references in [[wikipedia:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted}}

== External links ==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:

* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Trauma]]
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}}

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
[[File:ChatGPT Image Aug 18, 2026, 10 10 45 PM.png|left|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Image depicting sexual arousal between a female and male]]

&quot;As John Gray once said &quot;men are from mars and women are from venus.&quot;{{fact}}

Think, Emma and Daniel have been dating for several months. They are attracted to each other, but their sexual desire emerge differently. Daniel is often aroused by Emma at the simple sight of her. 

Early in the relationship, Daniel was finding that it was taking longer for Emma to be sexually interested in him and thought that Emma was less attracted to him. Emma explains that she is attracted to him, but her arousal tends to build in response to how he treats her.  {{RoundBoxBottom}}__TOC__''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic: Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help.''
*Summarise what is sexual arousal and the purpose researchers believe it serves
*Explain why studying sexual arousal patterns is important, then explain the issues that have arisen that warrant such understanding.
*Explain the purpose this chapter will serve for readers - what the takeaway message is, and summarise my response to patterns of sexual arousal between men and women. 
Proposed start for overview: 

* Between 1938 to 1954, Alfred Kinsey produced two reports detailing how biological and social factors influence variations in human sexual desire and activity. The reports were designed to establish an empirical foundation to assist future clinicians, educators, and legal authorities concerning what humans actually experience during sexual activities, which was lacking before and during Kinsey's time. 
* Suggestions for why understanding sexual arousal in males and females is important: 
** understand causes of real world problems:
*** Sexual Dysfunction, High Risk Sexual Behaviour (Benson, 2003).
** Means to explore basic questions about the nature of sexual arousal and how its different components are related to each other (Benson, 2003).
** Develop more accurate and inclusive models of human motivation and behaviour.
** Informing and guiding therapies for various sexual disorders, answering theoretical and physiological questions about huamn sexual response patterns, providing diagnostic information regarding legally and clinically significant sexual attractions (e.g. attraction to minors and sexual disorders) (Katz et al., 2023).
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
'''Focus questions'''
* What is sexual arousal?
* Why do males and females need to be sexually aroused?
* What factors influence sexual arousal in males and females? 
* Why is understanding sexual arousal important? {{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Concept of sex ==
* Sex, in the context of human biology, generally refers to the fundamental categories of human species that are, in the broad sense, concerned with a combination of various biological traits that are unique to a subcategory of human species.
* There are currently two recognised sexes in humans which are assigned at birth, males and females.
* Females refer to humans which are biologically organised for the production and function of an ova, whereas males refer to humans organised for the production and function of sperm (Stévant et al., 2018; Ivan et al., 2022).
[[File:Girl with a Pearl Earring.jpg|thumb|Figure 2. Painting of a Female - Some people have found that it radiates an intense and captivating intimacy.]]

== Concept of sexual arousal ==
* Sexual arousal refers to the mental and physical response cultivated by subjective stimulation that prepares the body for reproductive behaviour and supports subjective feelings of desire (Calabrò et al., 2019, p. 1).

*Sexual arousal is believed to serve as a motivational system for sexual behaviour which are likely to be shaped by learned associations, language, and social meanings rather than being determined solely by biological reproductive mechanisms (Roche &amp; Barnes-Holmes, 2002).
*2 fundamental sources of sexual arousal: Mental and physical elements. - Mental aspect is not believed to be overly dependent on physical elements. 
**physical - physiological traits that can cause arousal
**mental - thoughts that can cause arousal. 
*Human adults can learn new sexual arousal cues by conditioning (T. Klucken ''et al.''Neural activations of the acquisition of conditioned sexual arousal: effects of contingency awareness and sex) - software and hardware develop through many years of personal experiences.

== Significance of sexual arousal in humans ==

*
*
*

== Sexual arousal in males ==
[[File:Tor-Arne Moen Natural selection.jpg|thumb|Figure 3. Male veiwing visual stimulus]]
*In males, greater solitary desire predicted stronger genital sensations, whereas higher masturbation frequency was associated with lower reported genital sensations (Sánchez-Pérez et al., 2026).
*Bisexual-identified men are not a uniform group. On average, bisexual men showed arousal to both male and female stimuli, supporting the existence of bisexual arousal but many tend to show stronger arousal to one sex than the other especially when they knowingly lean towards one sex than the other.
*Bisexual men display significantly greater variation in arousal patterns than heterosexual or homosexual men (Slettevold et al., 2019). 

== Sexual arousal in females ==
[[File:Potrait painting.jpg|thumb|Figure 4. Shy female|250x250px]]
*Sexual arousal in females serves as a coordinated psychophysiological response that prepares the body for sexual activity. Important component of human sexual functioning and reproductive processes (Lake Polan et al., 2003; Adebisi &amp; Carlson, 2024).
*More frequent masturbation was linked to stronger genital responses and higher subjective sexual arousal and the rewarding quality of orgasm was associated with stronger genital sensations (Sánchez-Pérez et al., 2026).
*Heterosexual women showed greater genital arousal to images of erect penises than to images of aroused vulvas - demonstrates that sexual arousal is strongly influenced by both the gender of a sexual stimulus and visible signs of sexual readiness (Spape et al., 2014).
*Sexual desire fluctuates substantially in both men and women. Men and women experience remarkably similar short term fluctuations and similarly influenced by emotional and relationship factors (Harris et al., 2023).

== Value of understanding sexual arousal ==

*
*
*

{{Robelbox|title=Test Yourself!|theme=12}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which of the following best describes the labia minora in the context of the fundamental sources of sexual arousal?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ A physical source, representing a physiological trait capable of causing arousal through tactile and sensory patterns.
- An independent motivational system that is entirely unliked from both physical and mental elements. 
- A conditioned mental source, relies on software and hardware changes via personal experience. 

{According to research examining how visual stimuli and vible signs of sexual readiness affect psychophysiological responses, which of the following fings was demonstrated regarding heterosexual females:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- They exhibit no measurable change in genital response when viewing cisual sexual cues. 
- The experience identical short-term fluctuations  in sexual desire exclusively driven by biological reproductive mechanisms. 
+ They show greater genital arousal to images of erect penises than to images of aroused vulvas. 
- They display higher subjective sexual arousal only when sexual desire remians entirely constant over time. 
&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

== Conclusion ==

*
*
*

==See also==

* [[wikipedia:Sexual_arousal|Sexual arousal]] (Wikipedia).
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Sexual motivation and hormones|Sexual motivation and hormones: What role do hormones play in sexual motivation and sexual arousal]] (Book Chapter, 2016).

==References==
Adebisi, O. Y., &amp; Carlson, K. (2024). Female sexual interest and arousal disorder. In ''StatPearls''. StatPearls Publishing.

Calabrò, R. S., Cacciola, A., Bruschetta, D., Milardi, D., Quattrini, F., Sciarrone, F., Rosa, G., Bramanti, P., &amp; Anastasi, G. (2019). Neuroanatomy and function of human sexual behavior: A neglected or unknown issue? ''Brain and Behavior'', ''9''(12). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.1389&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Ivan, S., Daniela, O., &amp; Jaroslava, B. D. (2022). Sex differences matter: Males and females are equal but not the same. ''Physiology &amp; Behavior'', ''259''(Volume 259), 114038. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2022.114038&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Lake Polan, M., Desmond, J. E., Banner, L. L., Pryor, M. R., McCallum, S. W., Atlas, S. W., Glover, G. H., &amp; Arnow, B. A. (2003). Female sexual arousal: A behavioral analysis. ''Fertility and Sterility'', ''80''(6), 1480–1487. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/s0015-0282(03)02210-6&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Roche, B., &amp; Barnes-Holmes, D. (2002). Human sexual arousal: A modern behavioral approach. ''The Behavior Analyst Today'', ''3''(2), 145–154. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/h0099973&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Slettevold, E., Holmes, L., Gruia, D., Nyssen, C. P., Watts-Overall, T. M., &amp; Rieger, G. (2019). Bisexual men with bisexual and monosexual genital arousal patterns. ''Biological Psychology'', ''148'', 107763. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2019.107763&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Spape, J., Timmers, A. D., Yoon, S., Ponseti, J., &amp; Chivers, M. L. (2014). Gender-specific genital and subjective sexual arousal to prepotent sexual features in heterosexual women and men. ''Biological Psychology'', ''102'', 1–9. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2014.07.008&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Stévant, I., Papaioannou, M. D., &amp; Nef, S. (2018). A brief history of sex determination. ''Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology'', ''468'', 3–10. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2018.04.004&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Sánchez-Pérez, G. M., Granados, R., Mangas, P., Cervilla, O., &amp; Sierra, J. C. (2026). Validation of masturbation parameters: A laboratory study measuring psychophysiological and subjective sexual arousal. ''International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology'', ''26''(1), 100662. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijchp.2025.100662&lt;/nowiki&gt;

==External links==

* [https://www.webmd.com/sex/features/sex-drive-how-do-men-women-compare Sex Drive: How do Men and Women Compare?] (Webmd.com). 
* [https://open.spotify.com/episode/41K95dG0MnHux15rtwywMl?si=A4zCgSxSS9KB10REgbA_dg Women's sexual health: desire, arousal, and orgasms, navigating pre-menopause, and enhancing satisfaction] (Spotify.com).
* [https://open.spotify.com/episode/2plfCfD98Now1GMjadaKKq?si=XnkE8OvuSrSfJ-v-NQ9K-w Episode 16: What we get wrong about men's sexual desire] (Spotify.com). 

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sexual motivation]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Gender]]</text>
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      <id>2824255</id>
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}}

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
[[File:ChatGPT Image Aug 18, 2026, 10 10 45 PM.png|left|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Image depicting sexual arousal between a female and male]]
Think, Emma and Daniel have been dating for several months. They are attracted to each other, but their sexual desire emerge differently. Daniel is often aroused by Emma at the simple sight of her. 

Early in the relationship, Daniel was finding that it was taking longer for Emma to be sexually interested in him and thought that Emma was less attracted to him. Emma explains that she is attracted to him, but her arousal tends to build in response to how he treats her.   

{{RoundBoxBottom}}__TOC__''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic: Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help.''
*Summarise what is sexual arousal and the purpose researchers believe it serves
*Explain why studying sexual arousal patterns is important, then explain the issues that have arisen that warrant such understanding.
*Explain the purpose this chapter will serve for readers - what the takeaway message is, and summarise my response to patterns of sexual arousal between men and women. 
Proposed start for overview: 

* Between 1938 to 1954, Alfred Kinsey produced two reports detailing how biological and social factors influence variations in human sexual desire and activity. The reports were designed to establish an empirical foundation to assist future clinicians, educators, and legal authorities concerning what humans actually experience during sexual activities, which was lacking before and during Kinsey's time. 
* Suggestions for why understanding sexual arousal in males and females is important: 
** understand causes of real world problems:
*** Sexual Dysfunction, High Risk Sexual Behaviour (Benson, 2003).
** Means to explore basic questions about the nature of sexual arousal and how its different components are related to each other (Benson, 2003).
** Develop more accurate and inclusive models of human motivation and behaviour.
** Informing and guiding therapies for various sexual disorders, answering theoretical and physiological questions about huamn sexual response patterns, providing diagnostic information regarding legally and clinically significant sexual attractions (e.g. attraction to minors and sexual disorders) (Katz et al., 2023).
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
'''Focus questions'''
* What is sexual arousal?
* Why do males and females need to be sexually aroused?
* What factors influence sexual arousal in males and females? 
* Why is understanding sexual arousal important? {{RoundBoxBottom}}
== Concept of sex ==
* Sex, in the context of human biology, generally refers to the fundamental categories of human species that are, in the broad sense, concerned with a combination of various biological traits that are unique to a subcategory of human species.
* There are currently two recognised sexes in humans which are assigned at birth, males and females.
* Females refer to humans which are biologically organised for the production and function of an ova, whereas males refer to humans organised for the production and function of sperm (Stévant et al., 2018; Ivan et al., 2022).
[[File:Girl with a Pearl Earring.jpg|thumb|Figure 2. Painting of a Female - Some people have found that it radiates an intense and captivating intimacy.]]

== Concept of sexual arousal ==
* Sexual arousal refers to the mental and physical response cultivated by subjective stimulation that prepares the body for reproductive behaviour and supports subjective feelings of desire (Calabrò et al., 2019, p. 1).

*Sexual arousal is believed to serve as a motivational system for sexual behaviour which are likely to be shaped by learned associations, language, and social meanings rather than being determined solely by biological reproductive mechanisms (Roche &amp; Barnes-Holmes, 2002).
*2 fundamental sources of sexual arousal: Mental and physical elements. - Mental aspect is not believed to be overly dependent on physical elements. 
**physical - physiological traits that can cause arousal
**mental - thoughts that can cause arousal. 
*Human adults can learn new sexual arousal cues by conditioning (T. Klucken ''et al.''Neural activations of the acquisition of conditioned sexual arousal: effects of contingency awareness and sex) - software and hardware develop through many years of personal experiences.

== Significance of sexual arousal in humans ==

*
*
*

== Sexual arousal in males ==
[[File:Tor-Arne Moen Natural selection.jpg|thumb|Figure 3. Male veiwing visual stimulus]]
*In males, greater solitary desire predicted stronger genital sensations, whereas higher masturbation frequency was associated with lower reported genital sensations (Sánchez-Pérez et al., 2026).
*Bisexual-identified men are not a uniform group. On average, bisexual men showed arousal to both male and female stimuli, supporting the existence of bisexual arousal but many tend to show stronger arousal to one sex than the other especially when they knowingly lean towards one sex than the other.
*Bisexual men display significantly greater variation in arousal patterns than heterosexual or homosexual men (Slettevold et al., 2019). 

== Sexual arousal in females ==
[[File:Potrait painting.jpg|thumb|Figure 4. Shy female|250x250px]]
*Sexual arousal in females serves as a coordinated psychophysiological response that prepares the body for sexual activity. Important component of human sexual functioning and reproductive processes (Lake Polan et al., 2003; Adebisi &amp; Carlson, 2024).
*More frequent masturbation was linked to stronger genital responses and higher subjective sexual arousal and the rewarding quality of orgasm was associated with stronger genital sensations (Sánchez-Pérez et al., 2026).
*Heterosexual women showed greater genital arousal to images of erect penises than to images of aroused vulvas - demonstrates that sexual arousal is strongly influenced by both the gender of a sexual stimulus and visible signs of sexual readiness (Spape et al., 2014).
*Sexual desire fluctuates substantially in both men and women. Men and women experience remarkably similar short term fluctuations and similarly influenced by emotional and relationship factors (Harris et al., 2023).

== Value of understanding sexual arousal ==

*
*
*

{{Robelbox|title=Test Yourself!|theme=12}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which of the following best describes the labia minora in the context of the fundamental sources of sexual arousal?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ A physical source, representing a physiological trait capable of causing arousal through tactile and sensory patterns.
- An independent motivational system that is entirely unliked from both physical and mental elements. 
- A conditioned mental source, relies on software and hardware changes via personal experience. 

{According to research examining how visual stimuli and vible signs of sexual readiness affect psychophysiological responses, which of the following fings was demonstrated regarding heterosexual females:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- They exhibit no measurable change in genital response when viewing cisual sexual cues. 
- The experience identical short-term fluctuations  in sexual desire exclusively driven by biological reproductive mechanisms. 
+ They show greater genital arousal to images of erect penises than to images of aroused vulvas. 
- They display higher subjective sexual arousal only when sexual desire remians entirely constant over time. 
&lt;/quiz&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

== Conclusion ==

*
*
*

==See also==

* [[wikipedia:Sexual_arousal|Sexual arousal]] (Wikipedia).
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Sexual motivation and hormones|Sexual motivation and hormones: What role do hormones play in sexual motivation and sexual arousal]] (Book Chapter, 2016).

==References==
Adebisi, O. Y., &amp; Carlson, K. (2024). Female sexual interest and arousal disorder. In ''StatPearls''. StatPearls Publishing.

Calabrò, R. S., Cacciola, A., Bruschetta, D., Milardi, D., Quattrini, F., Sciarrone, F., Rosa, G., Bramanti, P., &amp; Anastasi, G. (2019). Neuroanatomy and function of human sexual behavior: A neglected or unknown issue? ''Brain and Behavior'', ''9''(12). &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.1389&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Ivan, S., Daniela, O., &amp; Jaroslava, B. D. (2022). Sex differences matter: Males and females are equal but not the same. ''Physiology &amp; Behavior'', ''259''(Volume 259), 114038. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2022.114038&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Lake Polan, M., Desmond, J. E., Banner, L. L., Pryor, M. R., McCallum, S. W., Atlas, S. W., Glover, G. H., &amp; Arnow, B. A. (2003). Female sexual arousal: A behavioral analysis. ''Fertility and Sterility'', ''80''(6), 1480–1487. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/s0015-0282(03)02210-6&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Roche, B., &amp; Barnes-Holmes, D. (2002). Human sexual arousal: A modern behavioral approach. ''The Behavior Analyst Today'', ''3''(2), 145–154. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1037/h0099973&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Slettevold, E., Holmes, L., Gruia, D., Nyssen, C. P., Watts-Overall, T. M., &amp; Rieger, G. (2019). Bisexual men with bisexual and monosexual genital arousal patterns. ''Biological Psychology'', ''148'', 107763. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2019.107763&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Spape, J., Timmers, A. D., Yoon, S., Ponseti, J., &amp; Chivers, M. L. (2014). Gender-specific genital and subjective sexual arousal to prepotent sexual features in heterosexual women and men. ''Biological Psychology'', ''102'', 1–9. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2014.07.008&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Stévant, I., Papaioannou, M. D., &amp; Nef, S. (2018). A brief history of sex determination. ''Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology'', ''468'', 3–10. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2018.04.004&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Sánchez-Pérez, G. M., Granados, R., Mangas, P., Cervilla, O., &amp; Sierra, J. C. (2026). Validation of masturbation parameters: A laboratory study measuring psychophysiological and subjective sexual arousal. ''International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology'', ''26''(1), 100662. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijchp.2025.100662&lt;/nowiki&gt;

==External links==

* [https://www.webmd.com/sex/features/sex-drive-how-do-men-women-compare Sex Drive: How do Men and Women Compare?] (Webmd.com). 
* [https://open.spotify.com/episode/41K95dG0MnHux15rtwywMl?si=A4zCgSxSS9KB10REgbA_dg Women's sexual health: desire, arousal, and orgasms, navigating pre-menopause, and enhancing satisfaction] (Spotify.com).
* [https://open.spotify.com/episode/2plfCfD98Now1GMjadaKKq?si=XnkE8OvuSrSfJ-v-NQ9K-w Episode 16: What we get wrong about men's sexual desire] (Spotify.com). 

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sexual motivation]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Gender]]</text>
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&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Perfectionism]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]]</text>
      <sha1>5ehbvnb6xalpbmwxrnqhfrjw3g5ng5g</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2823951</id>
      <parentid>2823950</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T00:45:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3222012</username>
        <id>2968463</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>2823951</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9712" sha1="r8wyl5eep1wz8m8kplgy6xs1xpqjciz" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Perfectionism and procrastination. 

}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Perfectionism]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]]</text>
      <sha1>r8wyl5eep1wz8m8kplgy6xs1xpqjciz</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2823952</id>
      <parentid>2823951</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T00:47:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3222012</username>
        <id>2968463</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>2823952</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9794" sha1="1rhfbyfk4yxikvi5jfcn1m7ormrrx33" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Perfectionism and procrastination. 

}}What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it?&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Perfectionism]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]]</text>
      <sha1>1rhfbyfk4yxikvi5jfcn1m7ormrrx33</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824091</id>
      <parentid>2823952</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T04:32:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3222012</username>
        <id>2968463</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>2824091</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9794" sha1="c8i8lphnxc51w1gykyca0j4amv9ohck" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Perfectionism and procrastination. 
What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Perfectionism]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]]</text>
      <sha1>c8i8lphnxc51w1gykyca0j4amv9ohck</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824120</id>
      <parentid>2824091</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T05:31:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3222012</username>
        <id>2968463</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>2824120</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9796" sha1="0cu7uyv122salwodfpmytoltlbkmswh" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Perfectionism and procrastination.&lt;br&gt;What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Perfectionism]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]]</text>
      <sha1>0cu7uyv122salwodfpmytoltlbkmswh</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824129</id>
      <parentid>2824120</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T05:38:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3222012</username>
        <id>2968463</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>2824129</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9795" sha1="0fzl35ctcmjvtbwidpqmu9xszfibfid" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Perfectionism and procrastination&lt;br&gt;What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Perfectionism]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]]</text>
      <sha1>0fzl35ctcmjvtbwidpqmu9xszfibfid</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824153</id>
      <parentid>2824129</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T06:43:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3222012</username>
        <id>2968463</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Overview */ add the focus questions</comment>
      <origin>2824153</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9564" sha1="8bkesdaytvfzz7ixnwohga9dh04av93" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Perfectionism and procrastination&lt;br&gt;What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}
'''Focus questions'''
What is the nature of perfectioniism annd procrastination?
What is the link between perfectionism and procrastination, and why does it exist?
What dimensions of perfectionism predict (contribute to) procrastination?
How can we reduce procrastination and the negative effects of perfectionism?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Perfectionism]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]]</text>
      <sha1>8bkesdaytvfzz7ixnwohga9dh04av93</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824155</id>
      <parentid>2824153</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T06:46:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3222012</username>
        <id>2968463</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add the focus questions</comment>
      <origin>2824155</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9868" sha1="rodsm8lg5hwsugcu5acqjom0yyc82zd" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Perfectionism and procrastination&lt;br&gt;What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

* What is the nature of perfectioniism annd procrastination?
* What is the link between perfectionism and procrastination, and why does it exist?
* What dimensions of perfectionism predict (contribute to) procrastination?
* How can we reduce procrastination and the negative effects of perfectionism?


The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}
'''Focus questions'''
What is the nature of perfectioniism annd procrastination?
What is the link between perfectionism and procrastination, and why does it exist?
What dimensions of perfectionism predict (contribute to) procrastination?
How can we reduce procrastination and the negative effects of perfectionism?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Perfectionism]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]]</text>
      <sha1>rodsm8lg5hwsugcu5acqjom0yyc82zd</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824192</id>
      <parentid>2824155</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T07:59:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3222012</username>
        <id>2968463</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2824192</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9985" sha1="0bt67847yi0c6x3fmeuijrcl3ea85og" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Perfectionism and procrastination&lt;br&gt;What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}
'''Focus questions'''
What is the nature of perfectioniism annd procrastination?
What is the link between perfectionism and procrastination, and why does it exist?
What dimensions of perfectionism predict (contribute to) procrastination?
How can we reduce procrastination and the negative effects of perfectionism?
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f9f9f9; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; padding: 10px; width: 100%;&quot;
! Focus questions
|-
|
* What is the nature of perfectioniism annd procrastination?
* What is the link between perfectionism and procrastination, and why does it exist?
* What dimensions of perfectionism predict (contribute to) procrastination?
* How can we reduce procrastination and the negative effects of perfectionism?
|}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Perfectionism]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]]</text>
      <sha1>0bt67847yi0c6x3fmeuijrcl3ea85og</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824195</id>
      <parentid>2824192</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T08:02:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3222012</username>
        <id>2968463</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Overview */</comment>
      <origin>2824195</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9547" sha1="3h7k7hwk35nplhyun6w4c3d33s1jokq" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Perfectionism and procrastination&lt;br&gt;What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}
'''Focus questions'''
What is the nature of perfectioniism annd procrastination?
What is the link between perfectionism and procrastination, and why does it exist?
What dimensions of perfectionism predict (contribute to) procrastination?
How can we reduce procrastination and the negative effects of perfectionism?
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Perfectionism]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]]</text>
      <sha1>3h7k7hwk35nplhyun6w4c3d33s1jokq</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824215</id>
      <parentid>2824195</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T08:52:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3222012</username>
        <id>2968463</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Focus questions added</comment>
      <origin>2824215</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9624" sha1="ss0qxaq1x1rn2i8ssli8x1xu1t75qk6" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Perfectionism and procrastination&lt;br&gt;What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions''' [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]]


* What is the nature of perfectioniism annd procrastination?
* What is the link between perfectionism and procrastination, and why does it    exist?
* What dimensions of perfectionism predict (contribute to) procrastination?
* How can we reduce procrastination and the negative effects of perfectionism?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Perfectionism]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]]</text>
      <sha1>ss0qxaq1x1rn2i8ssli8x1xu1t75qk6</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824242</id>
      <parentid>2824215</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T09:20:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3222012</username>
        <id>2968463</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added an image</comment>
      <origin>2824242</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9692" sha1="eire4mhic9joctd2omf91cjogg8fkfe" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Perfectionism and procrastination&lt;br&gt;What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:The procrastinating student - panoramio.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Waiting for the perfect moment]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=9&quot; to another number

The procrastinating student - panoramio.jpg

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:The procrastinating student - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Waiting for the perfect moment]]
The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions''' [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]]


* What is the nature of perfectioniism annd procrastination?
* What is the link between perfectionism and procrastination, and why does it    exist?
* What dimensions of perfectionism predict (contribute to) procrastination?
* How can we reduce procrastination and the negative effects of perfectionism?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Perfectionism]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]]</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824244</id>
      <parentid>2824242</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T09:21:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3222012</username>
        <id>2968463</id>
      </contributor>
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&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:The procrastinating student - panoramio.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Waiting for the perfect moment]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=9&quot; to another number

The procrastinating student - panoramio.jpg

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions''' [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]]


* What is the nature of perfectioniism annd procrastination?
* What is the link between perfectionism and procrastination, and why does it    exist?
* What dimensions of perfectionism predict (contribute to) procrastination?
* How can we reduce procrastination and the negative effects of perfectionism?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Perfectionism]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]]</text>
      <sha1>b9w7bv4whzghnbbksxs0tuw4p58p8c3</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824276</id>
      <parentid>2824244</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T10:42:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3222012</username>
        <id>2968463</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Headings */ added the main headings and subheadings</comment>
      <origin>2824276</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="10451" sha1="bf1xi751fdt1xjul904epvvzqxdzg7f" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Perfectionism and procrastination&lt;br&gt;What is the role of perfectionism in procrastination and what can be done about it?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
[[File:The procrastinating student - panoramio.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Waiting for the perfect moment]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=9&quot; to another number

The procrastinating student - panoramio.jpg

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions''' [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|left|20px|]]


* What is the nature of perfectioniism annd procrastination?
* What is the link between perfectionism and procrastination, and why does it    exist?
* What dimensions of perfectionism predict (contribute to) procrastination?
* How can we reduce procrastination and the negative effects of perfectionism?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Perfectionism and Procrastination ==

* Perfectionism: definition and key chararcteristics
** main demensions: perfectionistics strivings and perfectionictics concerns
* Procrastination: defenition and key characteristics

== How perfectionism relates to procrastination ==

* Perfectionistic concerns: their contribution to procrastination 
** evidence
** underlying mechanisms and mediating factors ( fear of failure, concern over mistakes, self-critical evaluation, avoidance)

== A motivational perspective on perfectionism and procrastination ==

* Relevant motiventional theories
* Motivational mechanism
* Comparison: which theory best account for the link between perfectionism and procrastination?

== Approaches to adressing perfectionism-related procrastination ==

* Psychological interventions
* Self-help strategies
* Evidence for effectivness

Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Perfectionism]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]]</text>
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      <text bytes="10161" sha1="szbpitxle0rgu542tw8s17d8ca9rwsp" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}[[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]]

Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. Her boyfriend surprises her by proposing during the celebration, making it the best day of her life. 

For next several days, Grace feels unusually confident, happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. 

People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 

💡 What is happening to Grace? Why her positive emotions become so intense?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Positive emotions are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated in terms of magnitude, context, and duration. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feels good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladapative, and how it can affect psychological functioning.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}🔎 Let's explore:

1️⃣  What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how it can be distinguished from healthy positive emotions?

2️⃣  What psychological and biological factors contribute to positive emotion dysregulation?

3️⃣  How does positive emotion dysregulation manifest in thoughts, motivation, and behaviour?

4️⃣  How can positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded [[Positive emotions|links]]
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
__TOC__
*

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]]</text>
      <sha1>szbpitxle0rgu542tw8s17d8ca9rwsp</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
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      <parentid>2824064</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T03:21:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>P U3270518</username>
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      <text bytes="10159" sha1="46jlezgi0lwn4hqusqcoa5mz6wwmh0y" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}[[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]]

Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. Her boyfriend surprises her by proposing during the celebration, making it the best day of her life. 

For next several days, Grace feels unusually confident, happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. 

People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 

💡 What is happening to Grace? Why her positive emotions become so intense?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Positive emotions are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated in terms of magnitude, context, and duration. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}🔎 Let's explore:

1️⃣  What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how it can be distinguished from healthy positive emotions?

2️⃣  What psychological and biological factors contribute to positive emotion dysregulation?

3️⃣  How does positive emotion dysregulation manifest in thoughts, motivation, and behaviour?

4️⃣  How can positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded [[Positive emotions|links]]
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
__TOC__
*

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]]</text>
      <sha1>46jlezgi0lwn4hqusqcoa5mz6wwmh0y</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
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        <id>3106535</id>
      </contributor>
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      <text bytes="10618" sha1="2nqhzegqtiwldbb7tyfjkcicn72sc17" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}[[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]]

Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. Her boyfriend surprises her by proposing during the celebration, making it the best day of her life. 

For next several days, Grace feels unusually confident, happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. 

People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 

💡 What is happening to Grace? Why her positive emotions become so intense?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Positive emotions are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated in terms of magnitude, context, and duration. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}🔎 Let's explore:

1️⃣  What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how it can be distinguished from healthy positive emotions?

2️⃣  What psychological and biological factors contribute to positive emotion dysregulation?

3️⃣  How does positive emotion dysregulation manifest in thoughts, motivation, and behaviour?

4️⃣  How can positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Understanding Positive Emotion Dysregulation==


Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded [[Positive emotions|links]]
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
__TOC__
*

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]]</text>
      <sha1>2nqhzegqtiwldbb7tyfjkcicn72sc17</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824098</id>
      <parentid>2824092</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T04:49:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>P U3270518</username>
        <id>3106535</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2824098</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="10415" sha1="cb817wthp1ufvsg4fxog0pddvsevmai" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}[[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]]

Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. Her boyfriend surprises her by proposing during the celebration, making it the best day of her life. 

For next several days, Grace feels unusually confident, happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. 

People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 

💡 What is happening to Grace? Why her positive emotions become so intense?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Positive emotions are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated in terms of magnitude, context, and duration. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}🔎 Let's explore:

1️⃣  What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how it can be distinguished from healthy positive emotions?

2️⃣  What psychological and biological factors contribute to positive emotion dysregulation?

3️⃣  How does positive emotion dysregulation manifest in thoughts, motivation, and behaviour?

4️⃣  How can positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Understanding Positive Emotion Dysregulation==


Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded [[Positive emotions|links]]
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also ==
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
__TOC__
*

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]]</text>
      <sha1>cb817wthp1ufvsg4fxog0pddvsevmai</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824105</id>
      <parentid>2824098</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T04:57:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>P U3270518</username>
        <id>3106535</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also * change</comment>
      <origin>2824105</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="10544" sha1="6gunjx2ednrslu14hiigpgl1t678xf5" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}[[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]]

Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. Her boyfriend surprises her by proposing during the celebration, making it the best day of her life. 

For next several days, Grace feels unusually confident, happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. 

People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 

💡 What is happening to Grace? Why her positive emotions become so intense?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Positive emotions are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated in terms of magnitude, context, and duration. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}🔎 Let's explore:

1️⃣  What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how it can be distinguished from healthy positive emotions?

2️⃣  What psychological and biological factors contribute to positive emotion dysregulation?

3️⃣  How does positive emotion dysregulation manifest in thoughts, motivation, and behaviour?

4️⃣  How can positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Understanding Positive Emotion Dysregulation==


Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded [[Positive emotions|links]]
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also ==
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016)
*[[Happiness/Positive thinking|Happiness and Positive thinking]] (Wikiversity)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020)
*[[Positive psychology]] (Wikiversity)

Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
__TOC__
*

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]]</text>
      <sha1>6gunjx2ednrslu14hiigpgl1t678xf5</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824122</id>
      <parentid>2824105</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T05:32:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>P U3270518</username>
        <id>3106535</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <origin>2824122</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="10208" sha1="d1m1crkplq7iok70hxpygsisf68tlzt" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}[[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]]

Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. Her boyfriend surprises her by proposing during the celebration, making it the best day of her life. 

For next several days, Grace feels unusually confident, happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. 

People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 

💡 What is happening to Grace? Why her positive emotions become so intense?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Positive emotions are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated in terms of magnitude, context, and duration. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}🔎 Let's explore:

1️⃣  What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how it can be distinguished from healthy positive emotions?

2️⃣  What psychological and biological factors contribute to positive emotion dysregulation?

3️⃣  How does positive emotion dysregulation manifest in thoughts, motivation, and behaviour?

4️⃣  How can positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Understanding Positive Emotion Dysregulation==


Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded [[Positive emotions|links]]
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also ==
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016)
*[[Happiness/Positive thinking|Happiness and Positive thinking]] (Wikiversity)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020)
*[[Positive psychology]] (Wikiversity)

Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ioI-LJChCJE Emotion Dysregulation] (Youtube.com)
* [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/everyday-resilience/202404/emotional-well-being-5-healthy-practices-for-regulation Emotional Wellbeing] (Psychology Today)
* __TOC__[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyfzIQH6YKI Positive Emotions with Barbara Fredrickson] (Youtube.com)
* [https://sk.sagepub.com/ency/edvol/the-sage-encyclopedia-of-lifespan-human-development/chpt/reward-sensitivity Reward Sensitivity] (sk.sagepub.com)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]]</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824128</id>
      <parentid>2824122</parentid>
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      <contributor>
        <username>P U3270518</username>
        <id>3106535</id>
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      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
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      <text bytes="9631" sha1="ay9iomdw6gtsbixkx5ep46dhprj2e25" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}[[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]]

Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. Her boyfriend surprises her by proposing during the celebration, making it the best day of her life. 

For next several days, Grace feels unusually confident, happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. 

People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 

💡 What is happening to Grace? Why her positive emotions become so intense?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Positive emotions are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated in terms of magnitude, context, and duration. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}🔎 Let's explore:

1️⃣  What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how it can be distinguished from healthy positive emotions?

2️⃣  What psychological and biological factors contribute to positive emotion dysregulation?

3️⃣  How does positive emotion dysregulation manifest in thoughts, motivation, and behaviour?

4️⃣  How can positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Understanding Positive Emotion Dysregulation==


Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded [[Positive emotions|links]]
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also ==
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016)
*[[Happiness/Positive thinking|Happiness and Positive thinking]] (Wikiversity)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020)
*[[Positive psychology]] (Wikiversity)

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ioI-LJChCJE Emotion Dysregulation] (Youtube.com)
* [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/everyday-resilience/202404/emotional-well-being-5-healthy-practices-for-regulation Emotional Wellbeing] (Psychology Today)
* __TOC__[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyfzIQH6YKI Positive Emotions with Barbara Fredrickson] (Youtube.com)
* [https://sk.sagepub.com/ency/edvol/the-sage-encyclopedia-of-lifespan-human-development/chpt/reward-sensitivity Reward Sensitivity] (sk.sagepub.com)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]]</text>
      <sha1>ay9iomdw6gtsbixkx5ep46dhprj2e25</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824134</id>
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      <text bytes="9706" sha1="q8nserg7z7wyi8tr51puclhkyyjv6kn" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}[[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]]

Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. Her boyfriend surprises her by proposing during the celebration, making it the best day of her life. 

For next several days, Grace feels unusually confident, happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. 

People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 

💡 What is happening to Grace? Why her positive emotions become so intense?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Positive emotions are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated in terms of magnitude, context, and duration. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}🔎 Let's explore:

1️⃣  What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how it can be distinguished from healthy positive emotions?

2️⃣  What psychological and biological factors contribute to positive emotion dysregulation?

3️⃣  How does positive emotion dysregulation manifest in thoughts, motivation, and behaviour?

4️⃣  How can positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Understanding Positive Emotion Dysregulation==


Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded [[Positive emotions|links]]
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also ==
*[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional Dysregulation]] (Wikipedia)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016)
*[[Happiness/Positive thinking|Happiness and Positive thinking]] (Wikiversity)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020)
*[[Positive psychology]] (Wikiversity)

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ioI-LJChCJE Emotion Dysregulation] (Youtube.com)
* [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/everyday-resilience/202404/emotional-well-being-5-healthy-practices-for-regulation Emotional Wellbeing] (Psychology Today)
* __TOC__[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyfzIQH6YKI Positive Emotions with Barbara Fredrickson] (Youtube.com)
* [https://sk.sagepub.com/ency/edvol/the-sage-encyclopedia-of-lifespan-human-development/chpt/reward-sensitivity Reward Sensitivity] (sk.sagepub.com)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]]</text>
      <sha1>q8nserg7z7wyi8tr51puclhkyyjv6kn</sha1>
    </revision>
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      <text bytes="9706" sha1="mj3pxiogx0ryagik4byg79zg3qn0cy5" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}[[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]]

Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. Her boyfriend surprises her by proposing during the celebration, making it the best day of her life. 

For next several days, Grace feels unusually confident, happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. 

People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 

💡 What is happening to Grace? Why her positive emotions become so intense?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Positive emotions are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated in terms of magnitude, context, and duration. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}🔎 Let's explore:

1️⃣  What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how it can be distinguished from healthy positive emotions?

2️⃣  What psychological and biological factors contribute to positive emotion dysregulation?

3️⃣  How does positive emotion dysregulation manifest in thoughts, motivation, and behaviour?

4️⃣  How can positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Understanding Positive Emotion Dysregulation==


Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded [[Positive emotions|links]]
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also ==
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016)
*[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional Dysregulation]] (Wikipedia)
*[[Happiness/Positive thinking|Happiness and Positive thinking]] (Wikiversity)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020)
*[[Positive psychology]] (Wikiversity)

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ioI-LJChCJE Emotion Dysregulation] (Youtube.com)
* [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/everyday-resilience/202404/emotional-well-being-5-healthy-practices-for-regulation Emotional Wellbeing] (Psychology Today)
* __TOC__[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyfzIQH6YKI Positive Emotions with Barbara Fredrickson] (Youtube.com)
* [https://sk.sagepub.com/ency/edvol/the-sage-encyclopedia-of-lifespan-human-development/chpt/reward-sensitivity Reward Sensitivity] (sk.sagepub.com)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive emotion]]</text>
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==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}[[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]]


Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. Her boyfriend surprises her by proposing during the celebration, making it the best day of her life. 

For next several days, Grace feels unusually confident, happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. 

People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 

💡 What is happening to Grace? Why her positive emotions become so intense?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Positive emotions are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated in terms of magnitude, context, and duration. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}🔎 Let's explore:

1️⃣  What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how it can be distinguished from healthy positive emotions?

2️⃣  What psychological and biological factors contribute to positive emotion dysregulation?

3️⃣  How does positive emotion dysregulation manifest in thoughts, motivation, and behaviour?

4️⃣  How can positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Understanding Positive Emotion Dysregulation==


Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded [[Positive emotions|links]]
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also ==
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016)
*[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional Dysregulation]] (Wikipedia)
*[[Happiness/Positive thinking|Happiness and Positive thinking]] (Wikiversity)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020)
*[[Positive psychology]] (Wikiversity)

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ioI-LJChCJE Emotion Dysregulation] (Youtube.com)
* [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/everyday-resilience/202404/emotional-well-being-5-healthy-practices-for-regulation Emotional Wellbeing] (Psychology Today)
* __TOC__[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyfzIQH6YKI Positive Emotions with Barbara Fredrickson] (Youtube.com)
* [https://sk.sagepub.com/ency/edvol/the-sage-encyclopedia-of-lifespan-human-development/chpt/reward-sensitivity Reward Sensitivity] (sk.sagepub.com)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
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==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}[[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]]

Scenario

Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. Her boyfriend surprises her by proposing during the celebration, making it the best day of her life. 

For next several days, Grace feels unusually confident, happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. 

People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 

💡 What is happening to Grace? Why her positive emotions become so intense?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Positive emotions are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated in terms of magnitude, context, and duration. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}🔎 Let's explore:

1️⃣  What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how it can be distinguished from healthy positive emotions?

2️⃣  What psychological and biological factors contribute to positive emotion dysregulation?

3️⃣  How does positive emotion dysregulation manifest in thoughts, motivation, and behaviour?

4️⃣  How can positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Understanding Positive Emotion Dysregulation==


Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded [[Positive emotions|links]]
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also ==
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016)
*[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional Dysregulation]] (Wikipedia)
*[[Happiness/Positive thinking|Happiness and Positive thinking]] (Wikiversity)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020)
*[[Positive psychology]] (Wikiversity)

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ioI-LJChCJE Emotion Dysregulation] (Youtube.com)
* [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/everyday-resilience/202404/emotional-well-being-5-healthy-practices-for-regulation Emotional Wellbeing] (Psychology Today)
* __TOC__[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyfzIQH6YKI Positive Emotions with Barbara Fredrickson] (Youtube.com)
* [https://sk.sagepub.com/ency/edvol/the-sage-encyclopedia-of-lifespan-human-development/chpt/reward-sensitivity Reward Sensitivity] (sk.sagepub.com)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
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      <text bytes="9722" sha1="mgakicf37f6a7vts1bqic473qmncw4x" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}[[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]]

'''Scenario'''

Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. Her boyfriend surprises her by proposing during the celebration, making it the best day of her life. 

For next several days, Grace feels unusually confident, happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. 

People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 

💡 What is happening to Grace? Why her positive emotions become so intense?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Positive emotions are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated in terms of magnitude, context, and duration. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}🔎 Let's explore:

1️⃣  What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how it can be distinguished from healthy positive emotions?

2️⃣  What psychological and biological factors contribute to positive emotion dysregulation?

3️⃣  How does positive emotion dysregulation manifest in thoughts, motivation, and behaviour?

4️⃣  How can positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Understanding Positive Emotion Dysregulation==


Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded [[Positive emotions|links]]
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also ==
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016)
*[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional Dysregulation]] (Wikipedia)
*[[Happiness/Positive thinking|Happiness and Positive thinking]] (Wikiversity)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020)
*[[Positive psychology]] (Wikiversity)

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ioI-LJChCJE Emotion Dysregulation] (Youtube.com)
* [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/everyday-resilience/202404/emotional-well-being-5-healthy-practices-for-regulation Emotional Wellbeing] (Psychology Today)
* __TOC__[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyfzIQH6YKI Positive Emotions with Barbara Fredrickson] (Youtube.com)
* [https://sk.sagepub.com/ency/edvol/the-sage-encyclopedia-of-lifespan-human-development/chpt/reward-sensitivity Reward Sensitivity] (sk.sagepub.com)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
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      <text bytes="9725" sha1="g4gn5golxmjgoilbfaqtumugvbtkynh" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}[[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]]

'''Scenario'''

Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. Her boyfriend surprises her by proposing during the celebration, making it the best day of her life. 

For next several days, Grace feels unusually confident, happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. 

People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 

💡 What is happening to Grace? Why her positive emotions become so intense?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Positive emotions are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated in terms of magnitude, context, and duration. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}🔎 Let's explore:

1️⃣  What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how it can be distinguished from healthy positive emotions?

2️⃣  What psychological and biological factors contribute to positive emotion dysregulation?

3️⃣  How does positive emotion dysregulation manifest in thoughts, motivation, and behaviour?

4️⃣  How can positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Positive Emotion: From Benefit to Dysregulation==


Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded [[Positive emotions|links]]
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also ==
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016)
*[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional Dysregulation]] (Wikipedia)
*[[Happiness/Positive thinking|Happiness and Positive thinking]] (Wikiversity)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020)
*[[Positive psychology]] (Wikiversity)

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ioI-LJChCJE Emotion Dysregulation] (Youtube.com)
* [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/everyday-resilience/202404/emotional-well-being-5-healthy-practices-for-regulation Emotional Wellbeing] (Psychology Today)
* __TOC__[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyfzIQH6YKI Positive Emotions with Barbara Fredrickson] (Youtube.com)
* [https://sk.sagepub.com/ency/edvol/the-sage-encyclopedia-of-lifespan-human-development/chpt/reward-sensitivity Reward Sensitivity] (sk.sagepub.com)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
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      <sha1>g4gn5golxmjgoilbfaqtumugvbtkynh</sha1>
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==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}[[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]]

'''Scenario'''

Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. Her boyfriend surprises her by proposing during the celebration, making it the best day of her life. 

For next several days, Grace feels unusually confident, happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. 

People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 

💡 What is happening to Grace? Why her positive emotions become so intense?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Positive emotions are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated in terms of magnitude, context, and duration. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}🔎 Let's explore:

1️⃣  What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how it can be distinguished from healthy positive emotions?

2️⃣  What psychological and biological factors contribute to positive emotion dysregulation?

3️⃣  How does positive emotion dysregulation manifest in thoughts, motivation, and behaviour?

4️⃣  How can positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Positive emotion: From benefit to dysregulation==

== Mechanisms underlying positive emotion dysregulation ==

== Manifestation of positive emotion dysregulation ==

== When positive emotions affect psychological functioning ==


Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded [[Positive emotions|links]]
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also ==
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016)
*[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional Dysregulation]] (Wikipedia)
*[[Happiness/Positive thinking|Happiness and Positive thinking]] (Wikiversity)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020)
*[[Positive psychology]] (Wikiversity)

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ioI-LJChCJE Emotion Dysregulation] (Youtube.com)
* [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/everyday-resilience/202404/emotional-well-being-5-healthy-practices-for-regulation Emotional Wellbeing] (Psychology Today)
* __TOC__[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyfzIQH6YKI Positive Emotions with Barbara Fredrickson] (Youtube.com)
* [https://sk.sagepub.com/ency/edvol/the-sage-encyclopedia-of-lifespan-human-development/chpt/reward-sensitivity Reward Sensitivity] (sk.sagepub.com)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
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      <text bytes="9594" sha1="hy83zxaen64w86jr7siz9ztf5ayl6vo" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning ? }}__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}[[File:Woman in red sweater with hand in air.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Grace experiencing happiness and excitement following several positive life events.]]

'''Scenario'''

Grace is a university student who feels that she has just won the lottery of her life. First, she receives a PhD offer from her dream university. Shortly afterwards, she learns that she has been awarded a scholarship to support her studies. Overwhelmed with happiness, Grace invites her boyfriend over to celebrate. Her boyfriend surprises her by proposing during the celebration, making it the best day of her life. 

For next several days, Grace feels unusually confident, happy and energised (see Figure 1). She sleeps very little because she believes there is too much to accomplish. She purchases an expensive laptop, makes an impulsive travel booking and commits to several university projects despite having a full schedule. 

People close to Grace begin to wonder if something is not right. Her close friends tried to slow her down, but she dismissed them. From Grace's perspective, she is just happy, motivated and confident as pieces of her life are finally coming together in a positive way. 

💡 What is happening to Grace? Why her positive emotions become so intense?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Positive emotions are a normal and important part of human life. It includes a variety of feelings such as joy, interest, love, contentment, gratitude, awe, and amusement (Campos et al., 2013). These emotions play an important role in expanding people's thoughts and possible actions to help them build lasting psychological and social resources (Fredickson, 2001). However, positive emotions might not always be beneficial if they are inadequately regulated in terms of magnitude, context, and duration. A review by Gruber et al. (2020) on positive emotion disturbance suggests that extremely strong or prolonged positive emotional states can sometimes interfere with adaptive functioning. Positive emotion dysregulation helps to explain how positive emotional states can feel initially feel good but can sometimes contribute to harmful thoughts and behaviour. This chapter will explore how positive emotions can shift from being adaptive to maladaptive, and how it can affect psychological functioning.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}🔎 Let's explore:

1️⃣  What is positive emotion dysregulation, and how it can be distinguished from healthy positive emotions?

2️⃣  What psychological and biological factors contribute to positive emotion dysregulation?

3️⃣  How does positive emotion dysregulation manifest in thoughts, motivation, and behaviour?

4️⃣  How can positive emotion dysregulation affect psychological functioning and wellbeing? 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Positive emotion: From benefit to dysregulation==

== Mechanisms underlying positive emotion dysregulation ==

== Manifestation of positive emotion dysregulation ==

== When positive emotions affect psychological functioning ==


==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded [[Positive emotions|links]]
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also ==
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016)
*[[wikipedia:Emotional_dysregulation|Emotional Dysregulation]] (Wikipedia)
*[[Happiness/Positive thinking|Happiness and Positive thinking]] (Wikiversity)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Positive emotion|Positive emotion]] (Book chapter, 2020)
*[[Positive psychology]] (Wikiversity)

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ioI-LJChCJE Emotion Dysregulation] (Youtube.com)
* [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/everyday-resilience/202404/emotional-well-being-5-healthy-practices-for-regulation Emotional Wellbeing] (Psychology Today)
* __TOC__[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyfzIQH6YKI Positive Emotions with Barbara Fredrickson] (Youtube.com)
* [https://sk.sagepub.com/ency/edvol/the-sage-encyclopedia-of-lifespan-human-development/chpt/reward-sensitivity Reward Sensitivity] (sk.sagepub.com)

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
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== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]]

Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. Being a swimmer is the first thing Ash thinks of when she’s asked to describe herself and she’s eager to succeed in the upcoming competition. Ash wakes up at 4:00am every morning to swim four kilometres (Figure 1). Her friend Riley is always surprised by how Ash wakes up so early and swims so much. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this a struggle?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Your self-concept is your understanding of who you are and how you feel about yourself. This includes a complex system of the attitudes, beliefs and judgements you hold about yourself. Self-concept guides you in answering the question “who am I?” (Wehrle &amp; Fasbender, 2018). But its importance extends beyond answering that question. Self-concept influences how you think, feel and behave. Consider self-concept an internal compass which motivates and guides your choices, relationships and understanding of the world.  

For Ash in our case study, being a swimmer and succeeding in the upcoming swimming competition are core to her self-concept. This guides and motivates her behaviour of swimming early every morning.  

This chapter explores how our understanding of ourselves influences what we’re motivated to do and examines how what we repeatedly do subsequently shapes our self-concept. By understanding how and why we perceive ourselves the way we do, and the impacts of our self-concepts, we can better understand our behaviours, foster positive self-concept and embrace the motivational properties of self-concept.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

*What is self-concept? 
*What are the key theories of self-concept? 
*How does self-concept influence motivation? 
*How does motivation influence self-concept?
*How can our understanding of self-concept be used to improve motivation and wellbeing?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Understanding self-concept ==
The self is central to humanhood and the scientific understanding of human behaviour. Thus, the question of “what makes me, me?” has been theorised about throughout history and is important to understand. This section details the core theories and properties of self-concept which will be referred to throughout the chapter.  

Self-concept is a cognitive framework which is unique to, but encompasses, many of the popularly used “self-” constructs – [[self-esteem]] (perceived value of yourself), [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] (perceived task capability), [[w:Self-image|self-image]] (description of yourself). See the linked pages for details on each of these separate constructs. 

==== William James ====
James (1892) proposed the self consists of two parts: “I”, the subjective thinker and “knower”, and “me” the material, social and “known” self. This philosophical framework laid the basis for the development of further empirical theories of self-concept and catapulted psychological identity research.  

==== The looking-glass self ====
Cooley (1902) framed the individual as a social being, theorising that self-concept is a reflection of the responses and evaluations of individuals within one’s environment. Self-concept is developed through the imagined judgement of others, and individuals become the people others say they are (Siljanovska &amp; Stojcevska, 2018). 

==== Rogers’ self-theory ====
Rogers (1959), a humanist psychologist, proposed self-concept is a dynamic, organised system which consists of three parts: the real self (how you see yourself), ideal self (who you would like to be), and self-worth (how much you value yourself). He proposed that individuals behave in accordance with their self-concept, a stepping stone toward the contemporary understanding of how self-beliefs influence motivation (Ismail &amp; Tekke, 2015; Yousefi &amp; Kiani, 2014).  

==== The multidimensional self-concept model ====
Shavelson et al. (1992) were critical of the lack of theoretical and methodological rigor supporting studies of self-concept. They built upon previous theories, suggesting self-concept is the perception of oneself shaped by experience and evaluations, but proposed self-concept is organised, multifaceted and hierarchical (Marsh &amp; Shavelson, 2010). An individual’s self-concept is comprised of academic, social, emotional and physical dimensions which each divide into further subsets of increasing specificity and are closer related to actual behaviour (see Figure 2 - '''''TBC'''''). This original model was later refined by developing and analysing the Self Description Questionnaire and produced a model which captures the correlations between each aspect of self-concept (see Figure 2; Marsh &amp; Shavelson, 1985). This hierarchical model predicts behaviour and feelings more accurately than previous general theories (cite studies). 

==== Properties of self-concept   ====
Although these theories each approach self-concept differently, several common properties emerge across them. Self-concept appears to be a multifaceted, hierarchical, socially developed, and dynamic system of self-knowledge (Figure 2.). These properties are particularly important as they assist us in understanding the motivational effects of self-concept.  

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+'''Figure 2.''' Summary table of properties and their significance for motivation
|'''Property''' 
|'''Theory''' 
|'''Significance for motivation''' 
|-
|Multifaceted 

|James, Rogers, Multidimensional model 
|Different aspects of the self motivate different behaviours 
|-
|Hierarchical  
|Multidimensional model 
|General and specific domains influence each other and different behaviours 
|-
|Socially developed 
|The looking glass self 
|Social feedback influences which behaviours are pursued  
|-
|Dynamic 
|Rogers, Multidimensional model 
|Self-concept changes with experience 
|-
|Evaluative 
|Rogers 
|Perceived self-worth affects responses to success/failure 
|-
|Descriptive  
|Rogers, Multidimensional model 
|Identity beliefs influence goals and expectations 
|}

== Key points ==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:

* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

== Figures ==
[[File:Thought_bubble.svg|right|thumb|157x157px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

== Learning features ==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}

; Scenarios

* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}

; Feature boxes

* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

; Embedded links

* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[wikipedia:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[wikipedia:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

; Tables

* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1'''

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g.,

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
!
!Known to self
!Not known to self
|-
|'''Known to others'''
|Open area
|Blind spot
|-
|'''Not known to others'''
|Hidden area
|Unknown
|}

; Quizzes

* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==

* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?}}

== See also ==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[wikipedia:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[wikipedia:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses}}

== References ==
This section lists the cited references in [[wikipedia:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.}}{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted}}

== External links ==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[wikipedia:Letter case#Sentence_casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:

* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-concept]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]]

Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. Being a swimmer is the first thing Ash thinks of when she’s asked to describe herself and she’s eager to succeed in the upcoming competition. Ash wakes up at 4:00am every morning to swim four kilometres (Figure 1). Her friend Riley is always surprised by how Ash wakes up so early and swims so much. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this a struggle?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Your self-concept is your understanding of who you are and how you feel about yourself. This includes a complex system of the attitudes, beliefs and judgements you hold about yourself. Self-concept guides you in answering the question “who am I?” (Wehrle &amp; Fasbender, 2018). But its importance extends beyond answering that question. Self-concept influences how you think, feel and behave. Consider self-concept an internal compass which motivates and guides your choices, relationships and understanding of the world.  

For Ash in our case study, being a swimmer and succeeding in the upcoming swimming competition are core to her self-concept. This guides and motivates her behaviour of swimming early every morning.  

This chapter explores how our understanding of ourselves influences what we’re motivated to do and examines how what we repeatedly do subsequently shapes our self-concept. By understanding how and why we perceive ourselves the way we do, and the impacts of our self-concepts, we can better understand our behaviours, foster positive self-concept and embrace the motivational properties of self-concept.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

*What is self-concept? 
*What are the key theories of self-concept? 
*How does self-concept influence motivation? 
*How does motivation influence self-concept?
*How can our understanding of self-concept be used to improve motivation and wellbeing?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Understanding self-concept ==
The self is central to humanhood and the scientific understanding of human behaviour. Thus, the question of “what makes me, me?” has been theorised about throughout history and is important to understand. This section details the core theories and properties of self-concept which will be referred to throughout the chapter.  

Self-concept is a cognitive framework which is unique to, but encompasses, many of the popularly used “self-” constructs – [[self-esteem]] (perceived value of yourself), [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] (perceived task capability), [[w:Self-image|self-image]] (description of yourself). See the linked pages for details on each of these separate constructs. 

==== William James ====
James (1892) proposed the self consists of two parts: “I”, the subjective thinker and “knower”, and “me” the material, social and “known” self. This philosophical framework laid the basis for the development of further empirical theories of self-concept and catapulted psychological identity research.  

==== The looking-glass self ====
Cooley (1902) framed the individual as a social being, theorising that self-concept is a reflection of the responses and evaluations of individuals within one’s environment. Self-concept is developed through the imagined judgement of others, and individuals become the people others say they are (Siljanovska &amp; Stojcevska, 2018). 

==== Rogers’ self-theory ====
Rogers (1959), a humanist psychologist, proposed self-concept is a dynamic, organised system which consists of three parts: the real self (how you see yourself), ideal self (who you would like to be), and self-worth (how much you value yourself). He proposed that individuals behave in accordance with their self-concept, a stepping stone toward the contemporary understanding of how self-beliefs influence motivation (Ismail &amp; Tekke, 2015; Yousefi &amp; Kiani, 2014).  

==== The multidimensional self-concept model ====
Shavelson et al. (1992) were critical of the lack of theoretical and methodological rigor supporting studies of self-concept. They built upon previous theories, suggesting self-concept is the perception of oneself shaped by experience and evaluations, but proposed self-concept is organised, multifaceted and hierarchical (Marsh &amp; Shavelson, 2010). An individual’s self-concept is comprised of academic, social, emotional and physical dimensions which each divide into further subsets of increasing specificity and are closer related to actual behaviour (see Figure 2 - '''''TBC'''''). This original model was later refined by developing and analysing the Self Description Questionnaire and produced a model which captures the correlations between each aspect of self-concept (see Figure 2; Marsh &amp; Shavelson, 1985). This hierarchical model predicts behaviour and feelings more accurately than previous general theories (cite studies). 

==== Properties of self-concept   ====
Although these theories each approach self-concept differently, several common properties emerge across them. Self-concept appears to be a multifaceted, hierarchical, socially developed, and dynamic system of self-knowledge (Figure 2.). These properties are particularly important as they assist us in understanding the motivational effects of self-concept.  

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+'''Figure 2.''' Summary table of properties and their significance for motivation
|'''Property''' 
|'''Theory''' 
|'''Significance for motivation''' 
|-
|Multifaceted 

|James, Rogers, Multidimensional model 
|Different aspects of the self motivate different behaviours 
|-
|Hierarchical  
|Multidimensional model 
|General and specific domains influence each other and different behaviours 
|-
|Socially developed 
|The looking glass self 
|Social feedback influences which behaviours are pursued  
|-
|Dynamic 
|Rogers, Multidimensional model 
|Self-concept changes with experience 
|-
|Evaluative 
|Rogers 
|Perceived self-worth affects responses to success/failure 
|-
|Descriptive  
|Rogers, Multidimensional model 
|Identity beliefs influence goals and expectations 
|}

== Key points ==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:

* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

== Figures ==
[[File:Thought_bubble.svg|right|thumb|157x157px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

== Learning features ==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}

; Scenarios

* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}

; Feature boxes

* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

; Embedded links

* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[wikipedia:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[wikipedia:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

; Tables

* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1'''

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g.,

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
!
!Known to self
!Not known to self
|-
|'''Known to others'''
|Open area
|Blind spot
|-
|'''Not known to others'''
|Hidden area
|Unknown
|}

; Quizzes

* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==

* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?}}

== See also ==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014)
== References ==
This section lists the cited references in [[wikipedia:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.}}{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/social-sciences-and-humanities/self-concept-psychology Self-concept (psychology)] (EBSCO)
* [https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1986-98550-003 On motivation and the self-concept] (APA PsycNet)
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-concept]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]]

Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. Being a swimmer is the first thing Ash thinks of when she’s asked to describe herself and she’s eager to succeed in the upcoming competition. Ash wakes up at 4:00am every morning to swim four kilometres (Figure 1). Her friend Riley is always surprised by how Ash wakes up so early and swims so much. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this a struggle?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Your self-concept is your understanding of who you are and how you feel about yourself. This includes a complex system of the attitudes, beliefs and judgements you hold about yourself. Self-concept guides you in answering the question “who am I?” (Wehrle &amp; Fasbender, 2018). But its importance extends beyond answering that question. Self-concept influences how you think, feel and behave. Consider self-concept an internal compass which motivates and guides your choices, relationships and understanding of the world.  

For Ash in our case study, being a swimmer and succeeding in the upcoming swimming competition are core to her self-concept. This guides and motivates her behaviour of swimming early every morning.  

This chapter explores how our understanding of ourselves influences what we’re motivated to do and examines how what we repeatedly do subsequently shapes our self-concept. By understanding how and why we perceive ourselves the way we do, and the impacts of our self-concepts, we can better understand our behaviours, foster positive self-concept and embrace the motivational properties of self-concept.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

*What is self-concept? 
*What are the key theories of self-concept? 
*How does self-concept influence motivation? 
*How does motivation influence self-concept?
*How can our understanding of self-concept be used to improve motivation and wellbeing?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Understanding self-concept ==
The self is central to humanhood and the scientific understanding of human behaviour. Thus, the question of “what makes me, me?” has been theorised about throughout history and is important to understand. This section details the core theories and properties of self-concept which will be referred to throughout the chapter.  

Self-concept is a cognitive framework which is unique to, but encompasses, many of the popularly used “self-” constructs – [[self-esteem]] (perceived value of yourself), [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] (perceived task capability), [[w:Self-image|self-image]] (description of yourself). See the linked pages for details on each of these separate constructs. 

==== William James ====
James (1892) proposed the self consists of two parts: “I”, the subjective thinker and “knower”, and “me” the material, social and “known” self. This philosophical framework laid the basis for the development of further empirical theories of self-concept and catapulted psychological identity research.  

==== The looking-glass self ====
Cooley (1902) framed the individual as a social being, theorising that self-concept is a reflection of the responses and evaluations of individuals within one’s environment. Self-concept is developed through the imagined judgement of others, and individuals become the people others say they are (Siljanovska &amp; Stojcevska, 2018). 

==== Rogers’ self-theory ====
Rogers (1959), a humanist psychologist, proposed self-concept is a dynamic, organised system which consists of three parts: the real self (how you see yourself), ideal self (who you would like to be), and self-worth (how much you value yourself). He proposed that individuals behave in accordance with their self-concept, a stepping stone toward the contemporary understanding of how self-beliefs influence motivation (Ismail &amp; Tekke, 2015; Yousefi &amp; Kiani, 2014).  

==== The multidimensional self-concept model ====
Shavelson et al. (1992) were critical of the lack of theoretical and methodological rigor supporting studies of self-concept. They built upon previous theories, suggesting self-concept is the perception of oneself shaped by experience and evaluations, but proposed self-concept is organised, multifaceted and hierarchical (Marsh &amp; Shavelson, 2010). An individual’s self-concept is comprised of academic, social, emotional and physical dimensions which each divide into further subsets of increasing specificity and are closer related to actual behaviour (see Figure 2 - '''''TBC'''''). This original model was later refined by developing and analysing the Self Description Questionnaire and produced a model which captures the correlations between each aspect of self-concept (see Figure 2; Marsh &amp; Shavelson, 1985). This hierarchical model predicts behaviour and feelings more accurately than previous general theories (cite studies). 

==== Properties of self-concept   ====
Although these theories each approach self-concept differently, several common properties emerge across them. Self-concept appears to be a multifaceted, hierarchical, socially developed, and dynamic system of self-knowledge (Figure 2.). These properties are particularly important as they assist us in understanding the motivational effects of self-concept.  

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+'''Figure 2.''' Summary table of properties and their significance for motivation
|'''Property''' 
|'''Theory''' 
|'''Significance for motivation''' 
|-
|Multifaceted 

|James, Rogers, Multidimensional model 
|Different aspects of the self motivate different behaviours 
|-
|Hierarchical  
|Multidimensional model 
|General and specific domains influence each other and different behaviours 
|-
|Socially developed 
|The looking glass self 
|Social feedback influences which behaviours are pursued  
|-
|Dynamic 
|Rogers, Multidimensional model 
|Self-concept changes with experience 
|-
|Evaluative 
|Rogers 
|Perceived self-worth affects responses to success/failure 
|-
|Descriptive  
|Rogers, Multidimensional model 
|Identity beliefs influence goals and expectations 
|}

== The influence of self-concept on motivation ==

=== How does self-concept direct goals? ===

=== What is the role of perceived competence in the effect of self-concept on motivation? ===

=== How can self-concept undermine motivation? ===

== The influence of motivation on self-concept ==

=== How does achievement shape self-concept? ===

=== How does internalising motivation shape self-concept? ===

== Self-concept-based interventions ==

=== Academic ===

=== Physical ===

=== Wellbeing ===

== Key points ==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:

* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

== Figures ==
[[File:Thought_bubble.svg|right|thumb|157x157px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

== Learning features ==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}

; Scenarios

* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}

; Feature boxes

* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

; Embedded links

* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[wikipedia:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[wikipedia:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

; Tables

* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1'''

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g.,

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
!
!Known to self
!Not known to self
|-
|'''Known to others'''
|Open area
|Blind spot
|-
|'''Not known to others'''
|Hidden area
|Unknown
|}

; Quizzes

* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==

* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?}}

== See also ==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014)
== References ==
This section lists the cited references in [[wikipedia:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.}}{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/social-sciences-and-humanities/self-concept-psychology Self-concept (psychology)] (EBSCO)
* [https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1986-98550-003 On motivation and the self-concept] (APA PsycNet)
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-concept]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]]

Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. Being a swimmer is the first thing Ash thinks of when she’s asked to describe herself and she’s eager to succeed in the upcoming competition. Ash wakes up at 4:00am every morning to swim four kilometres (Figure 1). Her friend Riley is always surprised by how Ash wakes up so early and swims so much. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this a struggle?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Your self-concept is your understanding of who you are and how you feel about yourself. This includes a complex system of the attitudes, beliefs and judgements you hold about yourself. Self-concept guides you in answering the question “who am I?” (Wehrle &amp; Fasbender, 2018). But its importance extends beyond answering that question. Self-concept influences how you think, feel and behave. Consider self-concept an internal compass which motivates and guides your choices, relationships and understanding of the world.  

For Ash in our case study, being a swimmer and succeeding in the upcoming swimming competition are core to her self-concept. This guides and motivates her behaviour of swimming early every morning.  

This chapter explores how our understanding of ourselves influences what we’re motivated to do and examines how what we repeatedly do subsequently shapes our self-concept. By understanding how and why we perceive ourselves the way we do, and the impacts of our self-concepts, we can better understand our behaviours, foster positive self-concept and embrace the motivational properties of self-concept.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

*What is self-concept? 
*What are the key theories of self-concept? 
*How does self-concept influence motivation? 
*How does motivation influence self-concept?
*How can our understanding of self-concept be used to improve motivation and wellbeing?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Understanding self-concept ==
The self is central to humanhood and the scientific understanding of human behaviour. Thus, the question of “what makes me, me?” has been theorised about throughout history and is important to understand. This section details the core theories and properties of self-concept which will be referred to throughout the chapter.  

Self-concept is a cognitive framework which is unique to, but encompasses, many of the popularly used “self-” constructs – [[self-esteem]] (perceived value of yourself), [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] (perceived task capability), [[w:Self-image|self-image]] (description of yourself). See the linked pages for details on each of these separate constructs. 

==== William James ====
James (1892) proposed the self consists of two parts: “I”, the subjective thinker and “knower”, and “me” the material, social and “known” self. This philosophical framework laid the basis for the development of further empirical theories of self-concept and catapulted psychological identity research.  

==== The looking-glass self ====
Cooley (1902) framed the individual as a social being, theorising that self-concept is a reflection of the responses and evaluations of individuals within one’s environment. Self-concept is developed through the imagined judgement of others, and individuals become the people others say they are (Siljanovska &amp; Stojcevska, 2018). 

==== Rogers’ self-theory ====
Rogers (1959), a humanist psychologist, proposed self-concept is a dynamic, organised system which consists of three parts: the real self (how you see yourself), ideal self (who you would like to be), and self-worth (how much you value yourself). He proposed that individuals behave in accordance with their self-concept, a stepping stone toward the contemporary understanding of how self-beliefs influence motivation (Ismail &amp; Tekke, 2015; Yousefi &amp; Kiani, 2014).  

==== The multidimensional self-concept model ====
Shavelson et al. (1992) were critical of the lack of theoretical and methodological rigor supporting studies of self-concept. They built upon previous theories, suggesting self-concept is the perception of oneself shaped by experience and evaluations, but proposed self-concept is organised, multifaceted and hierarchical (Marsh &amp; Shavelson, 2010). An individual’s self-concept is comprised of academic, social, emotional and physical dimensions which each divide into further subsets of increasing specificity and are closer related to actual behaviour (see Figure 2 - '''''TBC'''''). This original model was later refined by developing and analysing the Self Description Questionnaire and produced a model which captures the correlations between each aspect of self-concept (see Figure 2; Marsh &amp; Shavelson, 1985). This hierarchical model predicts behaviour and feelings more accurately than previous general theories (cite studies). 

==== Properties of self-concept   ====
Although these theories each approach self-concept differently, several common properties emerge across them. Self-concept appears to be a multifaceted, hierarchical, socially developed, and dynamic system of self-knowledge (Table 1.). These properties are particularly important as they assist us in understanding the motivational effects of self-concept.  

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+'''Table 1.''' Summary table of properties and their significance for motivation
|'''Property''' 
|'''Theory''' 
|'''Significance for motivation''' 
|-
|Multifaceted 

|James, Rogers, Multidimensional model 
|Different aspects of the self motivate different behaviours 
|-
|Hierarchical  
|Multidimensional model 
|General and specific domains influence each other and different behaviours 
|-
|Socially developed 
|The looking glass self 
|Social feedback influences which behaviours are pursued  
|-
|Dynamic 
|Rogers, Multidimensional model 
|Self-concept changes with experience 
|-
|Evaluative 
|Rogers 
|Perceived self-worth affects responses to success/failure 
|-
|Descriptive  
|Rogers, Multidimensional model 
|Identity beliefs influence goals and expectations 
|}

== The influence of self-concept on motivation ==

=== How does self-concept direct goals? ===

=== What is the role of perceived competence in the effect of self-concept on motivation? ===

=== How can self-concept undermine motivation? ===

== The influence of motivation on self-concept ==

=== How does achievement shape self-concept? ===

=== How does internalising motivation shape self-concept? ===

== Self-concept-based interventions ==

=== Academic ===

=== Physical ===

=== Wellbeing ===

== Key points ==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:

* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

== Figures ==
[[File:Thought_bubble.svg|right|thumb|157x157px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

== Learning features ==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}

; Scenarios

* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}

; Feature boxes

* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

; Embedded links

* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[wikipedia:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[wikipedia:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

; Tables

* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1'''

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g.,

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
!
!Known to self
!Not known to self
|-
|'''Known to others'''
|Open area
|Blind spot
|-
|'''Not known to others'''
|Hidden area
|Unknown
|}

; Quizzes

* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==

* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?}}

== See also ==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014)
== References ==
This section lists the cited references in [[wikipedia:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.}}{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/social-sciences-and-humanities/self-concept-psychology Self-concept (psychology)] (EBSCO)
* [https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1986-98550-003 On motivation and the self-concept] (APA PsycNet)
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-concept]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]]

Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. Being a swimmer is the first thing Ash thinks of when she’s asked to describe herself and she’s eager to succeed in the upcoming competition. Ash wakes up at 4:00am every morning to swim four kilometres (Figure 1). Her friend Riley is always surprised by how Ash wakes up so early and swims so much. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this a struggle?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Your self-concept is your understanding of who you are and how you feel about yourself. This includes a complex system of the attitudes, beliefs and judgements you hold about yourself. Self-concept guides you in answering the question “who am I?” (Wehrle &amp; Fasbender, 2018). But its importance extends beyond answering that question. Self-concept influences how you think, feel and behave. Consider self-concept an internal compass which motivates and guides your choices, relationships and understanding of the world.  

For Ash in our case study, being a swimmer and succeeding in the upcoming swimming competition are core to her self-concept. This guides and motivates her behaviour of swimming early every morning.  

This chapter explores how our understanding of ourselves influences what we’re motivated to do and examines how what we repeatedly do subsequently shapes our self-concept. By understanding how and why we perceive ourselves the way we do, and the impacts of our self-concepts, we can better understand our behaviours, foster positive self-concept and embrace the motivational properties of self-concept.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

*What is self-concept? 
*What are the key theories of self-concept? 
*How does self-concept influence motivation? 
*How does motivation influence self-concept?
*How can our understanding of self-concept be used to improve motivation and wellbeing?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Understanding self-concept ==
The self is central to humanhood and the scientific understanding of human behaviour. Thus, the question of “what makes me, me?” has been theorised about throughout history and is important to understand. This section details the core theories and properties of self-concept which will be referred to throughout the chapter.  

Self-concept is a cognitive framework which is unique to, but encompasses, many of the popularly used “self-” constructs – [[self-esteem]] (perceived value of yourself), [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] (perceived task capability), [[w:Self-image|self-image]] (description of yourself). See the linked pages for details on each of these separate constructs. 

==== William James ====
James (1892) proposed the self consists of two parts: “I”, the subjective thinker and “knower”, and “me” the material, social and “known” self. This philosophical framework laid the basis for the development of further empirical theories of self-concept and catapulted psychological identity research.  

==== The looking-glass self ====
Cooley (1902) framed the individual as a social being, theorising that self-concept is a reflection of the responses and evaluations of individuals within one’s environment. Self-concept is developed through the imagined judgement of others, and individuals become the people others say they are (Siljanovska &amp; Stojcevska, 2018). 

==== Rogers’ self-theory ====
Rogers (1959), a humanist psychologist, proposed self-concept is a dynamic, organised system which consists of three parts: the real self (how you see yourself), ideal self (who you would like to be), and self-worth (how much you value yourself). He proposed that individuals behave in accordance with their self-concept, a stepping stone toward the contemporary understanding of how self-beliefs influence motivation (Ismail &amp; Tekke, 2015; Yousefi &amp; Kiani, 2014).  

==== The multidimensional self-concept model ====
Shavelson et al. (1992) were critical of the lack of theoretical and methodological rigor supporting studies of self-concept. They built upon previous theories, suggesting self-concept is the perception of oneself shaped by experience and evaluations, but proposed self-concept is organised, multifaceted and hierarchical (Marsh &amp; Shavelson, 2010). An individual’s self-concept is comprised of academic, social, emotional and physical dimensions which each divide into further subsets of increasing specificity and are closer related to actual behaviour (see Figure 2 - '''''TBC'''''). This original model was later refined by developing and analysing the Self Description Questionnaire and produced a model which captures the correlations between each aspect of self-concept (see Figure 2; Marsh &amp; Shavelson, 1985). This hierarchical model predicts behaviour and feelings more accurately than previous general theories (cite studies). 

==== Properties of self-concept   ====
Although these theories each approach self-concept differently, several common properties emerge across them. Self-concept appears to be a multifaceted, hierarchical, socially developed, and dynamic system of self-knowledge (Table 1). These properties are particularly important as they assist us in understanding the motivational effects of self-concept.

'''Table 1.''' Summary table of self-concept properties and their significance for motivation.

{|
|+
|'''Property''' 
|'''Theory''' 
|'''Significance for motivation''' 
|-
|Multifaceted 

|James, Rogers, Multidimensional model 
|Different aspects of the self motivate different behaviours 
|-
|Hierarchical  
|Multidimensional model 
|General and specific domains influence each other and different behaviours 
|-
|Socially developed 
|The looking glass self 
|Social feedback influences which behaviours are pursued  
|-
|Dynamic 
|Rogers, Multidimensional model 
|Self-concept changes with experience 
|-
|Evaluative 
|Rogers 
|Perceived self-worth affects responses to success/failure 
|-
|Descriptive  
|Rogers, Multidimensional model 
|Identity beliefs influence goals and expectations 
|}

== The influence of self-concept on motivation ==

=== How does self-concept direct goals? ===

=== What is the role of perceived competence in the effect of self-concept on motivation? ===

=== How can self-concept undermine motivation? ===

== The influence of motivation on self-concept ==

=== How does achievement shape self-concept? ===

=== How does internalising motivation shape self-concept? ===

== Self-concept-based interventions ==

=== Academic ===

=== Physical ===

=== Wellbeing ===

== Key points ==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:

* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

== Figures ==
[[File:Thought_bubble.svg|right|thumb|157x157px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

== Learning features ==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}

; Scenarios

* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}

; Feature boxes

* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

; Embedded links

* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[wikipedia:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[wikipedia:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

; Tables

* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1'''

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g.,

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
!
!Known to self
!Not known to self
|-
|'''Known to others'''
|Open area
|Blind spot
|-
|'''Not known to others'''
|Hidden area
|Unknown
|}

; Quizzes

* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==

* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?}}

== See also ==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014)
== References ==
This section lists the cited references in [[wikipedia:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.}}{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/social-sciences-and-humanities/self-concept-psychology Self-concept (psychology)] (EBSCO)
* [https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1986-98550-003 On motivation and the self-concept] (APA PsycNet)
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-concept]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]]

Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. Being a swimmer is the first thing Ash thinks of when she’s asked to describe herself and she’s eager to succeed in the upcoming competition. Ash wakes up at 4:00am every morning to swim four kilometres (Figure 1). Her friend Riley is always surprised by how Ash wakes up so early and swims so much. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this a struggle?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Your self-concept is your understanding of who you are and how you feel about yourself. This includes a complex system of the attitudes, beliefs and judgements you hold about yourself. Self-concept guides you in answering the question “who am I?” (Wehrle &amp; Fasbender, 2018). But its importance extends beyond answering that question. Self-concept influences how you think, feel and behave. Consider self-concept an internal compass which motivates and guides your choices, relationships and understanding of the world.  

For Ash in our case study, being a swimmer and succeeding in the upcoming swimming competition are core to her self-concept. This guides and motivates her behaviour of swimming early every morning.  

This chapter explores how our understanding of ourselves influences what we’re motivated to do and examines how what we repeatedly do subsequently shapes our self-concept. By understanding how and why we perceive ourselves the way we do, and the impacts of our self-concepts, we can better understand our behaviours, foster positive self-concept and embrace the motivational properties of self-concept.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

*What is self-concept? 
*What are the key theories of self-concept? 
*How does self-concept influence motivation? 
*How does motivation influence self-concept?
*How can our understanding of self-concept be used to improve motivation and wellbeing?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Understanding self-concept ==
The self is central to humanhood and the scientific understanding of human behaviour. Thus, the question of “what makes me, me?” has been theorised about throughout history and is important to understand. This section details the core theories and properties of self-concept which will be referred to throughout the chapter.  

Self-concept is a cognitive framework which is unique to, but encompasses, many of the popularly used “self-” constructs – [[self-esteem]] (perceived value of yourself), [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] (perceived task capability), [[w:Self-image|self-image]] (description of yourself). See the linked pages for details on each of these separate constructs. 

==== William James ====
James (1892) proposed the self consists of two parts: “I”, the subjective thinker and “knower”, and “me” the material, social and “known” self. This philosophical framework laid the basis for the development of further empirical theories of self-concept and catapulted psychological identity research.  

==== The looking-glass self ====
Cooley (1902) framed the individual as a social being, theorising that self-concept is a reflection of the responses and evaluations of individuals within one’s environment. Self-concept is developed through the imagined judgement of others, and individuals become the people others say they are (Siljanovska &amp; Stojcevska, 2018). 

==== Rogers’ self-theory ====
Rogers (1959), a humanist psychologist, proposed self-concept is a dynamic, organised system which consists of three parts: the real self (how you see yourself), ideal self (who you would like to be), and self-worth (how much you value yourself). He proposed that individuals behave in accordance with their self-concept, a stepping stone toward the contemporary understanding of how self-beliefs influence motivation (Ismail &amp; Tekke, 2015; Yousefi &amp; Kiani, 2014).  

==== The multidimensional self-concept model ====
Shavelson et al. (1992) were critical of the lack of theoretical and methodological rigor supporting studies of self-concept. They built upon previous theories, suggesting self-concept is the perception of oneself shaped by experience and evaluations, but proposed self-concept is organised, multifaceted and hierarchical (Marsh &amp; Shavelson, 2010). An individual’s self-concept is comprised of academic, social, emotional and physical dimensions which each divide into further subsets of increasing specificity and are closer related to actual behaviour (see Figure 2 - '''''TBC'''''). This original model was later refined by developing and analysing the Self Description Questionnaire and produced a model which captures the correlations between each aspect of self-concept (see Figure 2; Marsh &amp; Shavelson, 1985). This hierarchical model predicts behaviour and feelings more accurately than previous general theories (cite studies). 

==== Properties of self-concept   ====
Although these theories each approach self-concept differently, several common properties emerge across them. Self-concept appears to be a multifaceted, hierarchical, socially developed, and dynamic system of self-knowledge (Table 1). These properties are particularly important as they assist us in understanding the motivational effects of self-concept. 

'''Table 1.''' Summary table of self-concept properties and their significance for motivation.

{|
|+
|'''Property''' 
|'''Theory''' 
|'''Significance for motivation''' 
|-
|Multifaceted 

|James, Rogers, Multidimensional model 
|Different aspects of the self motivate different behaviours 
|-
|Hierarchical  
|Multidimensional model 
|General and specific domains influence each other and different behaviours 
|-
|Socially developed 
|The looking glass self 
|Social feedback influences which behaviours are pursued  
|-
|Dynamic 
|Rogers, Multidimensional model 
|Self-concept changes with experience 
|-
|Evaluative 
|Rogers 
|Perceived self-worth affects responses to success/failure 
|-
|Descriptive  
|Rogers, Multidimensional model 
|Identity beliefs influence goals and expectations 
|}

== The influence of self-concept on motivation ==

=== How does self-concept direct goals? ===

=== What is the role of perceived competence in the effect of self-concept on motivation? ===

=== How can self-concept undermine motivation? ===

== The influence of motivation on self-concept ==

=== How does achievement shape self-concept? ===

=== How does internalising motivation shape self-concept? ===

== Self-concept-based interventions ==

=== Academic ===

=== Physical ===

=== Wellbeing ===

== Key points ==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:

* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

== Figures ==
[[File:Thought_bubble.svg|right|thumb|157x157px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

== Learning features ==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}

; Scenarios

* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}

; Feature boxes

* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

; Embedded links

* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[wikipedia:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[wikipedia:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

; Tables

* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1'''

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g.,

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
!
!Known to self
!Not known to self
|-
|'''Known to others'''
|Open area
|Blind spot
|-
|'''Not known to others'''
|Hidden area
|Unknown
|}

; Quizzes

* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==

* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?}}

== See also ==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014)
== References ==
This section lists the cited references in [[wikipedia:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.}}{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/social-sciences-and-humanities/self-concept-psychology Self-concept (psychology)] (EBSCO)
* [https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1986-98550-003 On motivation and the self-concept] (APA PsycNet)
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-concept]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]]

Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. Being a swimmer is the first thing Ash thinks of when she’s asked to describe herself and she’s eager to succeed in the upcoming competition. Ash wakes up at 4:00am every morning to swim four kilometres (Figure 1). Her friend Riley is always surprised by how Ash wakes up so early and swims so much. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this a struggle?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Your self-concept is your understanding of who you are and how you feel about yourself. This includes a complex system of the attitudes, beliefs and judgements you hold about yourself. Self-concept guides you in answering the question “who am I?” (Wehrle &amp; Fasbender, 2018). But its importance extends beyond answering that question. Self-concept influences how you think, feel and behave. Consider self-concept an internal compass which motivates and guides your choices, relationships and understanding of the world.  

For Ash in our case study, being a swimmer and succeeding in the upcoming swimming competition are core to her self-concept. This guides and motivates her behaviour of swimming early every morning.  

This chapter explores how our understanding of ourselves influences what we’re motivated to do and examines how what we repeatedly do subsequently shapes our self-concept. By understanding how and why we perceive ourselves the way we do, and the impacts of our self-concepts, we can better understand our behaviours, foster positive self-concept and embrace the motivational properties of self-concept.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

*What is self-concept? 
*What are the key theories of self-concept? 
*How does self-concept influence motivation? 
*How does motivation influence self-concept?
*How can our understanding of self-concept be used to improve motivation and wellbeing?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Understanding self-concept ==
The self is central to humanhood and the scientific understanding of human behaviour. Thus, the question of “what makes me, me?” has been theorised about throughout history and is important to understand. This section details the core theories and properties of self-concept which will be referred to throughout the chapter.  

Self-concept is a cognitive framework which is unique to, but encompasses, many of the popularly used “self-” constructs – [[self-esteem]] (perceived value of yourself), [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] (perceived task capability), [[w:Self-image|self-image]] (description of yourself). See the linked pages for details on each of these separate constructs. 

==== William James ====
James (1892) proposed the self consists of two parts: “I”, the subjective thinker and “knower”, and “me” the material, social and “known” self. This philosophical framework laid the basis for the development of further empirical theories of self-concept and catapulted psychological identity research.  

==== The looking-glass self ====
Cooley (1902) framed the individual as a social being, theorising that self-concept is a reflection of the responses and evaluations of individuals within one’s environment. Self-concept is developed through the imagined judgement of others, and individuals become the people others say they are (Siljanovska &amp; Stojcevska, 2018). 

==== Rogers’ self-theory ====
Rogers (1959), a humanist psychologist, proposed self-concept is a dynamic, organised system which consists of three parts: the real self (how you see yourself), ideal self (who you would like to be), and self-worth (how much you value yourself). He proposed that individuals behave in accordance with their self-concept, a stepping stone toward the contemporary understanding of how self-beliefs influence motivation (Ismail &amp; Tekke, 2015; Yousefi &amp; Kiani, 2014).  

==== The multidimensional self-concept model ====
[[File:Multidimensional model of self-concept diagram.png|thumb|349x349px|'''Figure 2.''' The hierarchical multidimensional model of self-concept (Shavelson, 1985).]]
Shavelson et al. (1992) were critical of the lack of theoretical and methodological rigor supporting studies of self-concept. They built upon previous theories, suggesting self-concept is the perception of oneself shaped by experience and evaluations, but proposed self-concept is organised, multifaceted and hierarchical (Marsh &amp; Shavelson, 2010). An individual’s self-concept is comprised of academic, social, emotional and physical dimensions which each divide into further subsets of increasing specificity and are closer related to actual behaviour (see Figure 2). This original model was later refined by developing and analysing the Self Description Questionnaire and produced a model which captures the correlations between each aspect of self-concept (see Figure 2; Marsh &amp; Shavelson, 1985). This hierarchical model predicts behaviour and feelings more accurately than previous general theories (cite studies).  

==== Properties of self-concept   ====
Although these theories each approach self-concept differently, several common properties emerge across them. Self-concept appears to be a multifaceted, hierarchical, socially developed, and dynamic system of self-knowledge (Table 1). These properties are particularly important as they assist us in understanding the motivational effects of self-concept. 

'''Table 1.''' Summary table of self-concept properties and their significance for motivation.

{|
|+
|'''Property''' 
|'''Theory''' 
|'''Significance for motivation''' 
|-
|Multifaceted 

|James, Rogers, Multidimensional model 
|Different aspects of the self motivate different behaviours 
|-
|Hierarchical  
|Multidimensional model 
|General and specific domains influence each other and different behaviours 
|-
|Socially developed 
|The looking glass self 
|Social feedback influences which behaviours are pursued  
|-
|Dynamic 
|Rogers, Multidimensional model 
|Self-concept changes with experience 
|-
|Evaluative 
|Rogers 
|Perceived self-worth affects responses to success/failure 
|-
|Descriptive  
|Rogers, Multidimensional model 
|Identity beliefs influence goals and expectations 
|}

== The influence of self-concept on motivation ==

=== How does self-concept direct goals? ===

=== What is the role of perceived competence in the effect of self-concept on motivation? ===

=== How can self-concept undermine motivation? ===

== The influence of motivation on self-concept ==

=== How does achievement shape self-concept? ===

=== How does internalising motivation shape self-concept? ===

== Self-concept-based interventions ==

=== Academic ===

=== Physical ===

=== Wellbeing ===

== Key points ==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:

* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

== Figures ==
[[File:Thought_bubble.svg|right|thumb|157x157px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

== Learning features ==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}

; Scenarios

* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}

; Feature boxes

* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

; Embedded links

* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[wikipedia:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[wikipedia:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

; Tables

* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1'''

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g.,

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
!
!Known to self
!Not known to self
|-
|'''Known to others'''
|Open area
|Blind spot
|-
|'''Not known to others'''
|Hidden area
|Unknown
|}

; Quizzes

* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==

* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?}}

== See also ==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014)
== References ==
This section lists the cited references in [[wikipedia:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.}}{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/social-sciences-and-humanities/self-concept-psychology Self-concept (psychology)] (EBSCO)
* [https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1986-98550-003 On motivation and the self-concept] (APA PsycNet)
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-concept]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Sinclair Swimming.JPG|right|thumb|180px|'''Figure 1'''. Ash is a competitive swimmer and swims daily.]]

Ash is a swimmer training for a national competition. Being a swimmer is the first thing Ash thinks of when she’s asked to describe herself and she’s eager to succeed in the upcoming competition. Ash wakes up at 4:00am every morning to swim four kilometres (Figure 1). Her friend Riley is always surprised by how Ash wakes up so early and swims so much. Why is Ash able to do this when many would find this a struggle?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Your self-concept is your understanding of who you are and how you feel about yourself. This includes a complex system of the attitudes, beliefs and judgements you hold about yourself. Self-concept guides you in answering the question “who am I?” (Wehrle &amp; Fasbender, 2018). But its importance extends beyond answering that question. Self-concept influences how you think, feel and behave. Consider self-concept an internal compass which motivates and guides your choices, relationships and understanding of the world.  

For Ash in our case study, being a swimmer and succeeding in the upcoming swimming competition are core to her self-concept. This guides and motivates her behaviour of swimming early every morning.  

This chapter explores how our understanding of ourselves influences what we’re motivated to do and examines how what we repeatedly do subsequently shapes our self-concept. By understanding how and why we perceive ourselves the way we do, and the impacts of our self-concepts, we can better understand our behaviours, foster positive self-concept and embrace the motivational properties of self-concept.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

*What is self-concept? 
*What are the key theories of self-concept? 
*How does self-concept influence motivation? 
*How does motivation influence self-concept?
*How can our understanding of self-concept be used to improve motivation and wellbeing?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Understanding self-concept ==
The self is central to humanhood and the scientific understanding of human behaviour. Thus, the question of “what makes me, me?” has been theorised about throughout history and is important to understand. This section details the core theories and properties of self-concept which will be referred to throughout the chapter.  

Self-concept is a cognitive framework which is unique to, but encompasses, many of the popularly used “self-” constructs – [[self-esteem]] (perceived value of yourself), [[w:Self-efficacy|self-efficacy]] (perceived task capability), [[w:Self-image|self-image]] (description of yourself). See the linked pages for details on each of these separate constructs. 

==== William James ====
James (1892) proposed the self consists of two parts: “I”, the subjective thinker and “knower”, and “me” the material, social and “known” self. This philosophical framework laid the basis for the development of further empirical theories of self-concept and catapulted psychological identity research.  

==== The looking-glass self ====
Cooley (1902) framed the individual as a social being, theorising that self-concept is a reflection of the responses and evaluations of individuals within one’s environment. Self-concept is developed through the imagined judgement of others, and individuals become the people others say they are (Siljanovska &amp; Stojcevska, 2018). 

==== Rogers’ self-theory ====
Rogers (1959), a humanist psychologist, proposed self-concept is a dynamic, organised system which consists of three parts: the real self (how you see yourself), ideal self (who you would like to be), and self-worth (how much you value yourself). He proposed that individuals behave in accordance with their self-concept, a stepping stone toward the contemporary understanding of how self-beliefs influence motivation (Ismail &amp; Tekke, 2015; Yousefi &amp; Kiani, 2014).  

==== The multidimensional self-concept model ====
[[File:Multidimensional model of self-concept diagram.png|thumb|349x349px|'''Figure 2.''' The hierarchical multidimensional model of self-concept (Shavelson, 1985).]]
Shavelson et al. (1992) were critical of the lack of theoretical and methodological rigor supporting studies of self-concept. They built upon previous theories, suggesting self-concept is the perception of oneself shaped by experience and evaluations, but proposed self-concept is organised, multifaceted and hierarchical (Marsh &amp; Shavelson, 2010). An individual’s self-concept is comprised of academic, social, emotional and physical dimensions which each divide into further subsets of increasing specificity and are closer related to actual behaviour (see Figure 2). This original model was later refined by developing and analysing the Self Description Questionnaire and produced a model which captures the correlations between each aspect of self-concept (see Figure 2; Marsh &amp; Shavelson, 1985). This hierarchical model predicts behaviour and feelings more accurately than previous general theories (cite studies).  

==== Properties of self-concept   ====
Although these theories each approach self-concept differently, several common properties emerge across them. Self-concept appears to be a multifaceted, hierarchical, socially developed, and dynamic system of self-knowledge (Table 1). These properties are particularly important as they assist us in understanding the motivational effects of self-concept. 

'''Table 1.''' Summary table of self-concept properties and their significance for motivation.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
!Property
!Theory
!Significance for motivation
|-
|'''Multifaceted'''
|James, Rogers, Multidimensional model
|Different aspects of the self motivate different behaviours
|-
|'''Hierarchical  '''
|Multidimensional model
|General and specific domains influence each other and different behaviours
|-
|'''Socially developed'''
|The looking glass self
|Social feedback influences which behaviours are pursued  
|-
|'''Dynamic'''
|Rogers, Multidimensional model
|Self-concept changes with experience
|-
|'''Evaluative'''
|Rogers
|Perceived self-worth affects responses to success/failure
|-
|'''Descriptive  '''
|Rogers, Multidimensional model
|Identity beliefs influence goals and expectations
|}

== The influence of self-concept on motivation ==

=== How does self-concept direct goals? ===

=== What is the role of perceived competence in the effect of self-concept on motivation? ===

=== How can self-concept undermine motivation? ===

== The influence of motivation on self-concept ==

=== How does achievement shape self-concept? ===

=== How does internalising motivation shape self-concept? ===

== Self-concept-based interventions ==

=== Academic ===

=== Physical ===

=== Wellbeing ===

== Key points ==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:

* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

== Figures ==
[[File:Thought_bubble.svg|right|thumb|157x157px|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[c:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

== Learning features ==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}

; Scenarios

* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}

; Feature boxes

* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

; Embedded links

* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[wikipedia:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[wikipedia:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}

; Tables

* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1'''

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g.,

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
!
!Known to self
!Not known to self
|-
|'''Known to others'''
|Open area
|Blind spot
|-
|'''Not known to others'''
|Hidden area
|Unknown
|}

; Quizzes

* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==

* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?}}

== See also ==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Self-concept clarity|Self-concept clarity]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Self-efficacy and motivation|Self-efficacy and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014)
== References ==
This section lists the cited references in [[wikipedia:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[wikipedia:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.}}{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/social-sciences-and-humanities/self-concept-psychology Self-concept (psychology)] (EBSCO)
* [https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1986-98550-003 On motivation and the self-concept] (APA PsycNet)
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-concept]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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      <text bytes="3204" sha1="a9wqu4hryk7ni6qkavnvf9r3lpv2dwa" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi, my name is [https://www.linkedin.com/in/pepper-white/ Pepper]. I am a third-year Bachelor of Science in Psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am passionate about preventative mental health care and supporting those in need. This passion motivates me in my studies and at work.  

=== Work experience ===
* '''Mental Health Educator''' with [https://mieact.org.au/ Mental Illness Education ACT]. In this role,  I facilitate discussions about [[Stress (psychological)|stress]], [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/mental-health/depression?gad_source=1&amp;gad_campaignid=21934835275&amp;gbraid=0AAAAADuibRbKbycJc05RErZ8UMCld1aGB&amp;gclid=Cj0KCQjwkOvTBhDgARIsAKUNyRuK4CGO5WdRCpr1RDshuiDIlyi_ZwRe8ZFfvAygSGrvK0TbjFm7VtYaAkf8EALw_wcB depression], and [[wikipedia:Help-seeking|help-seeking]] with ACT school students. 

* '''Student Advocate''' in the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/content/myuc/home/support/student-advocacy-and-src/student-advocacy.html Student Advocacy Office] at the University of Canberra. In this role, I help my peer university students navigate university policies and procedures. 

=== Hobbies ===
* [[wikipedia:Oil_painting|Oil painting]]
* Figure drawing
* Running
* Playing water polo with the [https://www.revolutionise.com.au/dragonswp/home/ Gungahlin Dragons Water Polo Club]
* Travelling

== Book chapter ==
The book chapter I am writing is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-concept and motivation|Self-concept and motivation]]. The chapter navigates the question &quot;How does self-concept relate to motivation?&quot; I chose this topic to explore due to my fascination with how the perception of oneself can influence one's behaviour.

== Social contributions ==

# I engaged with conversations in a [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=804001 discussion post] on Canvas about topics of interest within motivation and emotion. My goal with this post was to take inititative by being an early contributor to help build a sense of comfort and normality amongst the group. I also hope by posting some topics of interest, others may feel inspired by these focus areas, thus helping them choose their book chapter topic. 
# In familiarising myself with Wikiversity, I read the Spirituality and resilience 2025 book chapter. I noticed the writing required edits for readability, so I [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FSpirituality_and_resilience&amp;diff=2824208&amp;oldid=2774009 edited the first two paragraphs] of the overview. I fixed spelling, grammar, and wording issues. This is an important fix to help capture the reader’s attention and demonstrate credibility when the audience begins reading. 
# I went through the topics others have chosen and the topic “Empathy and jury decision-making&quot; caught my attention. I [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AMotivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmpathy_and_jury_decision-making#Exploring_empathy_within_similar_contexts commented] on this book chapter with some additional ideas from my own passion about researching empathy to support this students’ topic development.   </text>
      <sha1>a9wqu4hryk7ni6qkavnvf9r3lpv2dwa</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Need to love and be loved</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>331052</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2823987</id>
      <parentid>2821620</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T01:45:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3280499</username>
        <id>3106560</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added subtitle</comment>
      <origin>2823987</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9705" sha1="krkwb1cvwp5u9ld9aweipq401bamscz" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Need To Love and Be Loved:&lt;br&gt;How does the desire to give and receive love influence motivation?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Love]]</text>
      <sha1>krkwb1cvwp5u9ld9aweipq401bamscz</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>331068</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2824023</id>
      <parentid>2822736</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T02:05:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Flickstar888</username>
        <id>3106813</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Figures */</comment>
      <origin>2824023</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9265" sha1="c2wsjgla9q7pz5xdns4d5zmzjlruj7u" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Envy in the workplace:&lt;br&gt;What role does envy play in workplace behaviour?}}
__TOC__
==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Organisational psychology]]</text>
      <sha1>c2wsjgla9q7pz5xdns4d5zmzjlruj7u</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Apocalyptic fear</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>331072</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2824036</id>
      <parentid>2821665</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T02:19:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LazPulch</username>
        <id>3105917</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>heading and subheading plans</comment>
      <origin>2824036</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9320" sha1="tva8tj4rbu5nsjzqlkphek2h7vsvqg4" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Apocalyptic Fear:&lt;br&gt;What is apocalyptic fear, what are its consequences, and how can it be dealt with?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

*What is Apocalyptic Fear?
*What are the consequences of Apocalyptic Fear on an individual, society and politics?
*What can be done to manage Apocalyptic Fear?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is Apocalyptic Fear?==

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Psychological Theories ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Who is susceptible? ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Prevalence of Apocalyptic Fear in Pop Culture ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Consequences of Apocalyptic Fear==

=== The Individual ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Society and Culture ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Politics ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

==Managing Apocalyptic Fear==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Does it actually need to be treated or managed?

=== Strategies ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Media Literacy ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>tva8tj4rbu5nsjzqlkphek2h7vsvqg4</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824079</id>
      <parentid>2824036</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T03:45:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LazPulch</username>
        <id>3105917</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Case Study 1</comment>
      <origin>2824079</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="9954" sha1="9ny4phb5ooh2f4oneaflvpuv02lrzt4" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Apocalyptic Fear:&lt;br&gt;What is apocalyptic fear, what are its consequences, and how can it be dealt with?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}In the next 30 seconds, I want you to try list 5 end-of-the-world movies. 

...Was that easier than you expected? Have you noticed that film, TV and pop culture gravitate towards producing media of dead. The end of the world, the (very un-natural) natural disaster, a zombie apocalypse or artificial intelligence (AI) taking over the world! Audience love doomsday media. 

Why do we love the consume objectively terrifying stories exploring mass destruction and the end of existence as we know it? 

Apocalyptic fear is more common than you'd this and a quick review of today's media landscape is evidence of that. 

This book chapter is going to follow the case study of Evan, a (describe Evan in line with findings relating to who is susceptible to apocalyptic fear).

It's 2023, and Evan has just watched &quot;Leave the World Behind&quot;, a modern day psychological, apocalyptic thriller regarding a mass cyber attack on the United States (US). Throughout this chapter we will evaluate Evan's own experience of Apocalyptic Fear informed by the movie, psychological theories underpinning this phenomenon, its consequences and how it can be managed. 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

*What is Apocalyptic Fear?
*What are the consequences of Apocalyptic Fear on an individual, society and politics?
*What can be done to manage Apocalyptic Fear?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is Apocalyptic Fear?==

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Psychological Theories ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Who is susceptible? ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Prevalence of Apocalyptic Fear in Pop Culture ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Consequences of Apocalyptic Fear==

=== The Individual ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Society and Culture ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Politics ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

==Managing Apocalyptic Fear==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Does it actually need to be treated or managed?

=== Strategies ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Media Literacy ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>9ny4phb5ooh2f4oneaflvpuv02lrzt4</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824081</id>
      <parentid>2824079</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T03:53:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LazPulch</username>
        <id>3105917</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>wiki links to case study 1</comment>
      <origin>2824081</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="10072" sha1="rjccer0pvy4wpscaeghh74pl9t4frpd" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Apocalyptic Fear:&lt;br&gt;What is apocalyptic fear, what are its consequences, and how can it be dealt with?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}In the next 30 seconds, I want you to try list 5 end-of-the-world movies. 

...Was that easier than you expected? Have you noticed that film, TV and pop culture gravitate towards producing media of dead. The end of the world, the (very un-natural) natural disaster, a zombie apocalypse or [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence artificial intelligence] (AI) taking over the world! Audience love doomsday media. 

Why do we love the consume objectively terrifying stories exploring mass destruction and the end of existence as we know it? 

Apocalyptic fear is more common than you'd this and a quick review of today's media landscape is evidence of that. 

This book chapter is going to follow the case study of Evan, a (describe Evan in line with findings relating to who is susceptible to apocalyptic fear).

It's 2023, and Evan has just watched [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leave_the_World_Behind_(film) &quot;Leave the World Behind&quot;], a modern day psychological, apocalyptic thriller regarding a mass cyber attack on the United States (US). Throughout this chapter we will evaluate Evan's own experience of Apocalyptic Fear informed by the movie, psychological theories underpinning this phenomenon, its consequences and how it can be managed. 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

*What is Apocalyptic Fear?
*What are the consequences of Apocalyptic Fear on an individual, society and politics?
*What can be done to manage Apocalyptic Fear?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is Apocalyptic Fear?==

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Psychological Theories ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Who is susceptible? ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Prevalence of Apocalyptic Fear in Pop Culture ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Consequences of Apocalyptic Fear==

=== The Individual ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Society and Culture ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Politics ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

==Managing Apocalyptic Fear==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Does it actually need to be treated or managed?

=== Strategies ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Media Literacy ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>rjccer0pvy4wpscaeghh74pl9t4frpd</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824084</id>
      <parentid>2824081</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T04:06:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LazPulch</username>
        <id>3105917</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Figure 1</comment>
      <origin>2824084</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="10204" sha1="9tr26cjz6ajlep41t9we3auyx6q0owj" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Apocalyptic Fear:&lt;br&gt;What is apocalyptic fear, what are its consequences, and how can it be dealt with?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[File:F5 tornado Elie Manitoba 2007.jpg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 1'''. Natural Disaster are commonly featured in apocalyptic films]]

In the next 30 seconds, I want you to try list 5 end-of-the-world movies. 

...Was that easier than you expected? Have you noticed that film, TV and pop culture gravitate towards producing media of dead. The end of the world, the (very un-natural) natural disaster, a zombie apocalypse or [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence artificial intelligence] (AI) taking over the world! Audience love doomsday media. 

Why do we love the consume objectively terrifying stories exploring mass destruction and the end of existence as we know it? 

Apocalyptic fear is more common than you'd this and a quick review of today's media landscape is evidence of that. 

This book chapter is going to follow the case study of Evan, a (describe Evan in line with findings relating to who is susceptible to apocalyptic fear).

It's 2023, and Evan has just watched [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leave_the_World_Behind_(film) &quot;Leave the World Behind&quot;], a modern day psychological, apocalyptic thriller regarding a mass cyber attack on the United States (US). Throughout this chapter we will evaluate Evan's own experience of Apocalyptic Fear informed by the movie, psychological theories underpinning this phenomenon, its consequences and how it can be managed. 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

*What is Apocalyptic Fear?
*What are the consequences of Apocalyptic Fear on an individual, society and politics?
*What can be done to manage Apocalyptic Fear?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is Apocalyptic Fear?==

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Psychological Theories ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Who is susceptible? ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Prevalence of Apocalyptic Fear in Pop Culture ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Consequences of Apocalyptic Fear==

=== The Individual ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Society and Culture ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Politics ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

==Managing Apocalyptic Fear==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Does it actually need to be treated or managed?

=== Strategies ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Media Literacy ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[File:F5 tornado Elie Manitoba 2007.jpg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 1'''. Natural Disaster are commonly featured in apocalyptic films]]

In the next 30 seconds, I want you to try list 5 end-of-the-world movies. 

...Was that easier than you expected? Have you noticed that film, TV and pop culture gravitate towards producing media of dead. The end of the world, the (very un-natural) natural disaster, a zombie apocalypse or [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence artificial intelligence] (AI) taking over the world! Audience love doomsday media. 

Why do we love the consume objectively terrifying stories exploring mass destruction and the end of existence as we know it? 

Apocalyptic fear is more common than you'd this and a quick review of today's media landscape is evidence of that. 

This book chapter is going to follow the case study of Evan, a (describe Evan in line with findings relating to who is susceptible to apocalyptic fear).

It's 2023, and Evan has just watched [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leave_the_World_Behind_(film) &quot;Leave the World Behind&quot;], a modern day psychological, apocalyptic thriller regarding a mass cyber attack on the United States (US). Throughout this chapter we will evaluate Evan's own experience of Apocalyptic Fear informed by the movie, psychological theories underpinning this phenomenon, its consequences and how it can be managed. 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
'''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help

* Write a brief overview of what Apocalyptic Fear is recorded under different terminology in the literature (Apocalyptic Fear, apocalyptic thinking, apocalypticism, exestential fear).

* What is Apocalyptic fear? 
* Psychological theories that underpin the fear.
* Consequences: How it manifests itself in an individuals behaviour (e.g. prepping behaviour, out-group hate
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

*What is Apocalyptic Fear?
*What are the consequences of Apocalyptic Fear on an individual, society and politics?
*What can be done to manage Apocalyptic Fear?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is Apocalyptic Fear?==

* How Apocalyptic Fear is referred to in the literature.
* XXX
* XXX

=== Psychological Theories ===

* Instinct theory of motivation 
* Social Dominance Orientation / Darwinism.
* Terror Management Theory
* Theory of Planned Behaviour

=== Who is susceptible? ===

* Study: Piazza, J (2025.) Christian Nationalisits more likely to hold apocalyptic views)
* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Prevalence of Apocalyptic Fear in Pop Culture ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Consequences of Apocalyptic Fear==

=== The Individual ===

* Reinforces outgrip hate. 
* XXX
* XXX

=== Society and Culture ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Politics ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

==Managing Apocalyptic Fear==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Does it actually need to be treated or managed?

=== Strategies ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Media Literacy ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[File:F5 tornado Elie Manitoba 2007.jpg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 1'''. Natural Disaster are commonly featured in apocalyptic films]]

In the next 30 seconds, I want you to try list 5 end-of-the-world movies. 

...Was that easier than you expected? Have you noticed that film, TV and pop culture gravitate towards producing media of dead. The end of the world, the (very un-natural) natural disaster, a zombie apocalypse or [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence artificial intelligence] (AI) taking over the world! Audience love doomsday media. 

Why do we love the consume objectively terrifying stories exploring mass destruction and the end of existence as we know it? 

Apocalyptic fear is more common than you'd this and a quick review of today's media landscape is evidence of that. 

This book chapter is going to follow the case study of Evan, a (describe Evan in line with findings relating to who is susceptible to apocalyptic fear).

It's 2023, and Evan has just watched [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leave_the_World_Behind_(film) &quot;Leave the World Behind&quot;], a modern day psychological, apocalyptic thriller regarding a mass cyber attack on the United States (US). Throughout this chapter we will evaluate Evan's own experience of Apocalyptic Fear informed by the movie, psychological theories underpinning this phenomenon, its consequences and how it can be managed. 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
'''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help

* Write a brief overview of what Apocalyptic Fear is recorded under different terminology in the literature (Apocalyptic Fear, apocalyptic thinking, apocalypticism, exestential fear).

* What is Apocalyptic fear? 
* Psychological theories that underpin the fear.
* Consequences: How it manifests itself in an individuals behaviour (e.g. prepping behaviour, out-group hate
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

*What is Apocalyptic Fear?
*What are the consequences of Apocalyptic Fear on an individual, society and politics?
*What can be done to manage Apocalyptic Fear?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is Apocalyptic Fear?==

* Introductory section before breaking into sub-sections: How Apocalyptic Fear is referred to in the literature.
* XXX
* XXX

=== Psychological Theories ===

* Instinct theory of motivation 
* Social Dominance Orientation / Darwinism.
* Terror Management Theory
* Theory of Planned Behaviour

=== Who is susceptible? ===

* Study: Piazza, J (2025.) Christian Nationalisits more likely to hold apocalyptic views)
* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Prevalence of Apocalyptic Fear in Pop Culture ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Consequences of Apocalyptic Fear==
Introductory section before breaking into sub-sections

=== The Individual ===

* Reinforces outgrip hate. 
* XXX
* XXX

=== Society and Culture ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Politics ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

==Managing Apocalyptic Fear==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]Introductory section before breaking into sub-sections
* Does it actually need to be treated or managed?

=== Strategies ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Media Literacy ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
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        <id>3105917</id>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[File:F5 tornado Elie Manitoba 2007.jpg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 1'''. Natural Disaster are commonly featured in apocalyptic films]]

In the next 30 seconds, I want you to try list 5 end-of-the-world movies. 

...Was that easier than you expected? Have you noticed that film, TV and pop culture gravitate towards producing media of dead. The end of the world, the (very un-natural) natural disaster, a zombie apocalypse or [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence artificial intelligence] (AI) taking over the world! Audience love doomsday media. 

Why do we love the consume objectively terrifying stories exploring mass destruction and the end of existence as we know it? 

Apocalyptic fear is more common than you'd this and a quick review of today's media landscape is evidence of that. 

This book chapter is going to follow the case study of Evan, a (describe Evan in line with findings relating to who is susceptible to apocalyptic fear).

It's 2023, and Evan has just watched [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leave_the_World_Behind_(film) &quot;Leave the World Behind&quot;], a modern day psychological, apocalyptic thriller regarding a mass cyber attack on the United States (US). Throughout this chapter we will evaluate Evan's own experience of Apocalyptic Fear informed by the movie, psychological theories underpinning this phenomenon, its consequences and how it can be managed. 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
'''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help

* Write a brief overview of what Apocalyptic Fear is recorded under different terminology in the literature (Apocalyptic Fear, apocalyptic thinking, apocalypticism, exestential fear).

* What is Apocalyptic fear? 
* Psychological theories that underpin the fear.
* Consequences: How it manifests itself in an individuals behaviour (e.g. prepping behaviour, out-group hate
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

*What is Apocalyptic Fear?
*What are the consequences of Apocalyptic Fear on an individual, society and politics?
*What can be done to manage Apocalyptic Fear?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is Apocalyptic Fear?==

* Introductory section before breaking into sub-sections: How Apocalyptic Fear is referred to in the literature.
* XXX
* XXX

=== Psychological Theories ===

* Instinct theory of motivation 
* Social Dominance Orientation / Darwinism.
* Terror Management Theory
* Theory of Planned Behaviour

=== Who is susceptible? ===

* Study: Piazza, J (2025.) Christian Nationalisits more likely to hold apocalyptic views)
* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Prevalence of Apocalyptic Fear in Pop Culture ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX
{{RoundBoxTop}}Case study continued. 
Evan watches the movie, this are the things he identifies. These are the thoughts' he is having. 

According to X theory xxxxxx{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Consequences of Apocalyptic Fear==
Introductory section before breaking into sub-sections

=== The Individual ===

* Reinforces outgrip hate. 
* XXX
* XXX

=== Society and Culture ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Politics ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX
{{RoundBoxTop}}Case Study continued: Maladaptive and adaptive behaviours Evan is displaying to cope with his uncomfortable anxieties about the end of the world{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Managing Apocalyptic Fear==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]Introductory section before breaking into sub-sections
* Does it actually need to be treated or managed?

=== Strategies ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Media Literacy ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>8fyfl7afz4b735x88fw6f6ltoayhpjk</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
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      <contributor>
        <username>LazPulch</username>
        <id>3105917</id>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[File:F5 tornado Elie Manitoba 2007.jpg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 1'''. Natural Disaster are commonly featured in apocalyptic films]]

In the next 30 seconds, I want you to try list 5 end-of-the-world movies. 

...Was that easier than you expected? Have you noticed that film, TV and pop culture gravitate towards producing media of dead. The end of the world, the (very un-natural) natural disaster, a zombie apocalypse or [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence artificial intelligence] (AI) taking over the world! Audience love doomsday media. 

Why do we love the consume objectively terrifying stories exploring mass destruction and the end of existence as we know it? 

Apocalyptic fear is more common than you'd this and a quick review of today's media landscape is evidence of that. 

This book chapter is going to follow the case study of Evan, a (describe Evan in line with findings relating to who is susceptible to apocalyptic fear).

It's 2023, and Evan has just watched [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leave_the_World_Behind_(film) &quot;Leave the World Behind&quot;], a modern day psychological, apocalyptic thriller regarding a mass cyber attack on the United States (US). Throughout this chapter we will evaluate Evan's own experience of Apocalyptic Fear informed by the movie, psychological theories underpinning this phenomenon, its consequences and how it can be managed. 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
'''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help

* Write a brief overview of what Apocalyptic Fear is recorded under different terminology in the literature (Apocalyptic Fear, apocalyptic thinking, apocalypticism, exestential fear).

* What is Apocalyptic fear? 
* Psychological theories that underpin the fear.
* Consequences: How it manifests itself in an individuals behaviour (e.g. prepping behaviour, out-group hate
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

*What is Apocalyptic Fear?
*What are the consequences of Apocalyptic Fear on an individual, society and politics?
*What can be done to manage Apocalyptic Fear?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is Apocalyptic Fear?==

* Introductory section before breaking into sub-sections: How Apocalyptic Fear is referred to in the literature.
* XXX
* XXX

=== Psychological Theories ===

* Instinct theory of motivation 
* Social Dominance Orientation / Darwinism.
* Terror Management Theory
* Theory of Planned Behaviour

=== Who is susceptible? ===

* Study: Piazza, J (2025.) Christian Nationalisits more likely to hold apocalyptic views)
* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Prevalence of Apocalyptic Fear in Pop Culture ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX
{{RoundBoxTop}}Case study continued. 
Evan watches the movie, this are the things he identifies. These are the thoughts' he is having. 

According to X theory xxxxxx{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;Quiz&gt;
{According to Terror Management Theory, Evan is experiencing Apocalyptic Fear because:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ He is grappling with anxieties regarding death being inevitable.
- The characters in the film modelled the appropriate response to anxiety inducing environment.
- Evans survival instincts kicked in.
- Evan believes the film is predicting the future.
&lt;Quiz&gt;

==Consequences of Apocalyptic Fear==
Introductory section before breaking into sub-sections

=== The Individual ===

* Reinforces outgrip hate. 
* XXX
* XXX

=== Society and Culture ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Politics ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX
{{RoundBoxTop}}Case Study continued: Maladaptive and adaptive behaviours Evan is displaying to cope with his uncomfortable anxieties about the end of the world{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Managing Apocalyptic Fear==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]Introductory section before breaking into sub-sections
* Does it actually need to be treated or managed?

=== Strategies ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Media Literacy ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>14jyqq5w0nm7ihhy5paoqme0mzi8i8x</sha1>
    </revision>
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      <parentid>2824108</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T05:07:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LazPulch</username>
        <id>3105917</id>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[File:F5 tornado Elie Manitoba 2007.jpg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 1'''. Natural Disaster are commonly featured in apocalyptic films]]

In the next 30 seconds, I want you to try list 5 end-of-the-world movies. 

...Was that easier than you expected? Have you noticed that film, TV and pop culture gravitate towards producing media of dead. The end of the world, the (very un-natural) natural disaster, a zombie apocalypse or [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence artificial intelligence] (AI) taking over the world! Audience love doomsday media. 

Why do we love the consume objectively terrifying stories exploring mass destruction and the end of existence as we know it? 

Apocalyptic fear is more common than you'd this and a quick review of today's media landscape is evidence of that. 

This book chapter is going to follow the case study of Evan, a (describe Evan in line with findings relating to who is susceptible to apocalyptic fear).

It's 2023, and Evan has just watched [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leave_the_World_Behind_(film) &quot;Leave the World Behind&quot;], a modern day psychological, apocalyptic thriller regarding a mass cyber attack on the United States (US). Throughout this chapter we will evaluate Evan's own experience of Apocalyptic Fear informed by the movie, psychological theories underpinning this phenomenon, its consequences and how it can be managed. 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
'''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help

* Write a brief overview of what Apocalyptic Fear is recorded under different terminology in the literature (Apocalyptic Fear, apocalyptic thinking, apocalypticism, exestential fear).

* What is Apocalyptic fear? 
* Psychological theories that underpin the fear.
* Consequences: How it manifests itself in an individuals behaviour (e.g. prepping behaviour, out-group hate
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

*What is Apocalyptic Fear?
*What are the consequences of Apocalyptic Fear on an individual, society and politics?
*What can be done to manage Apocalyptic Fear?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is Apocalyptic Fear?==

* Introductory section before breaking into sub-sections: How Apocalyptic Fear is referred to in the literature.
* XXX
* XXX

=== Psychological Theories ===

* Instinct theory of motivation 
* Social Dominance Orientation / Darwinism.
* Terror Management Theory
* Theory of Planned Behaviour

=== Who is susceptible? ===

* Study: Piazza, J (2025.) Christian Nationalisits more likely to hold apocalyptic views)
* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Prevalence of Apocalyptic Fear in Pop Culture ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX
{{RoundBoxTop}}Case study continued. 
Evan watches the movie, this are the things he identifies. These are the thoughts' he is having. 

According to X theory xxxxxx{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;Quiz&gt;
According to Terror Management Theory, Evan is experiencing Apocalyptic Fear because:

{|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ He is grappling with anxieties regarding death being inevitable.
- The characters in the film modelled the appropriate response to anxiety inducing environment.
- Evans survival instincts kicked in.
- Evan believes the film is predicting the future.
&lt;Quiz&gt;

==Consequences of Apocalyptic Fear==
Introductory section before breaking into sub-sections

=== The Individual ===

* Reinforces outgrip hate. 
* XXX
* XXX

=== Society and Culture ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Politics ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX
{{RoundBoxTop}}Case Study continued: Maladaptive and adaptive behaviours Evan is displaying to cope with his uncomfortable anxieties about the end of the world{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Managing Apocalyptic Fear==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]Introductory section before breaking into sub-sections
* Does it actually need to be treated or managed?

=== Strategies ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Media Literacy ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]


==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[File:F5 tornado Elie Manitoba 2007.jpg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 1'''. Natural Disaster are commonly featured in apocalyptic films]]

In the next 30 seconds, try to list 5 end-of-the-world movies or TV shows. 

...was that easier than you expected? Have you noticed that film, TV and pop culture gravitate towards producing media with doomsday themes? The end of the world, the (very un-natural) natural disaster, a zombie apocalypse or [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence artificial intelligence] (AI) taking over the world! Audience love doomsday media. 

Why do we love to consume objectively terrifying stories exploring mass destruction and the end of existence as we know it? 

Apocalyptic fear is more common than you'd this and a quick review of today's media landscape is evidence of that. 

This book chapter is going to follow the case study of Evan, a (describe Evan in line with findings relating to who is susceptible to apocalyptic fear).

It's 2023, and Evan has just watched [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leave_the_World_Behind_(film) &quot;Leave the World Behind&quot;], a modern day psychological, apocalyptic thriller regarding a mass cyber attack on the United States (US). Throughout this chapter we will evaluate Evan's own experience of Apocalyptic Fear informed by the movie, psychological theories underpinning this phenomenon, its consequences and how it can be managed. 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
'''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help

* Write a brief overview of what Apocalyptic Fear is recorded under different terminology in the literature (Apocalyptic Fear, apocalyptic thinking, apocalypticism, exestential fear).

* What is Apocalyptic fear? 
* Psychological theories that underpin the fear.
* Consequences: How it manifests itself in an individuals behaviour (e.g. prepping behaviour, out-group hate
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

*What is Apocalyptic Fear?
*What are the consequences of Apocalyptic Fear on an individual, society and politics?
*What can be done to manage Apocalyptic Fear?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is Apocalyptic Fear?==

* Introductory section before breaking into sub-sections: How Apocalyptic Fear is referred to in the literature.
* XXX
* XXX

=== Psychological Theories ===

* Instinct theory of motivation 
* Social Dominance Orientation / Darwinism.
* Terror Management Theory
* Theory of Planned Behaviour

=== Who is susceptible? ===

* Study: Piazza, J (2025.) Christian Nationalisits more likely to hold apocalyptic views)
* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Prevalence of Apocalyptic Fear in Pop Culture ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX
{{RoundBoxTop}}Case study continued. 
Evan watches the movie, this are the things he identifies. These are the thoughts' he is having. 

According to X theory xxxxxx{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;Quiz&gt;
According to Terror Management Theory, Evan is experiencing Apocalyptic Fear because:

{|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ He is grappling with anxieties regarding death being inevitable.
- The characters in the film modelled the appropriate response to anxiety inducing environment.
- Evans survival instincts kicked in.
- Evan believes the film is predicting the future.
&lt;Quiz&gt;

==Consequences of Apocalyptic Fear==
Introductory section before breaking into sub-sections

=== The Individual ===

* Reinforces outgrip hate. 
* XXX
* XXX

=== Society and Culture ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Politics ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX
{{RoundBoxTop}}Case Study continued: Maladaptive and adaptive behaviours Evan is displaying to cope with his uncomfortable anxieties about the end of the world{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Managing Apocalyptic Fear==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]Introductory section before breaking into sub-sections
* Does it actually need to be treated or managed?

=== Strategies ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Media Literacy ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]


==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}[[File:F5 tornado Elie Manitoba 2007.jpg|thumb|300px|'''Figure 1'''. Natural Disaster are commonly featured in apocalyptic films]]

In the next 30 seconds, try to list 5 end-of-the-world movies or TV shows. 

...was that easier than you expected? Have you noticed that film, TV and pop culture gravitate towards producing media with doomsday themes? The end of the world, the (very un-natural) natural disaster, a zombie apocalypse or [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence artificial intelligence] (AI) taking over the world! Audience love doomsday media. 

Why do we love to consume objectively terrifying stories exploring mass destruction and the end of existence as we know it? 

Apocalyptic fear is more common than you'd this and a quick review of today's media landscape is evidence of that. 

This book chapter is going to follow the case study of Evan, a (describe Evan in line with findings relating to who is susceptible to apocalyptic fear).

It's 2023, and Evan has just watched [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leave_the_World_Behind_(film) &quot;Leave the World Behind&quot;], a modern day psychological, apocalyptic thriller regarding a mass cyber attack on the United States (US). Throughout this chapter we will evaluate Evan's own experience of Apocalyptic Fear informed by the movie, psychological theories underpinning this phenomenon, its consequences and how it can be managed. 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
'''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help

* Write a brief overview of what Apocalyptic Fear is recorded under different terminology in the literature (Apocalyptic Fear, apocalyptic thinking, apocalypticism, exestential fear).

* What is Apocalyptic fear? 
* Psychological theories that underpin the fear.
* Consequences: How it manifests itself in an individuals behaviour (e.g. prepping behaviour, out-group hate
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

*What is Apocalyptic Fear?
*What are the consequences of Apocalyptic Fear on an individual, society and politics?
*What can be done to manage Apocalyptic Fear?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is Apocalyptic Fear?==

* Introductory section before breaking into sub-sections: How Apocalyptic Fear is referred to in the literature.
* XXX
* XXX

=== Psychological Theories ===

* Instinct theory of motivation 
* Social Dominance Orientation / Darwinism.
* Terror Management Theory
* Theory of Planned Behaviour

=== Who is susceptible? ===

* Study: Piazza, J (2025.) Christian Nationalisits more likely to hold apocalyptic views)
* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Prevalence of Apocalyptic Fear in Pop Culture ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX
{{RoundBoxTop}}Case study continued. 
Evan watches the movie, this are the things he identifies. These are the thoughts' he is having. 

According to X theory xxxxxx{{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;Quiz&gt;
According to Terror Management Theory, Evan is experiencing Apocalyptic Fear because:

{|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ He is grappling with anxieties regarding death being inevitable.
- The characters in the film modelled the appropriate response to anxiety inducing environment.
- Evans survival instincts kicked in.
- Evan believes the film is predicting the future.
&lt;Quiz&gt;

==Consequences of Apocalyptic Fear==
Introductory section before breaking into sub-sections

=== The Individual ===

* Reinforces outgrip hate. 
* XXX
* XXX

=== Society and Culture ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Politics ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX
{{RoundBoxTop}}Case Study continued: Maladaptive and adaptive behaviours Evan is displaying to cope with his uncomfortable anxieties about the end of the world{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Managing Apocalyptic Fear==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]Introductory section before breaking into sub-sections
* Does it actually need to be treated or managed?

=== Strategies ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

=== Media Literacy ===

* XXX
* XXX
* XXX

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]


==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Fear]]</text>
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&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

***

Case study 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Hardiness]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Resilience]]</text>
      <sha1>a43v4osgdcjn5tfir6cau84kdifnxl3</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2823866</id>
      <parentid>2823865</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T12:34:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3068253</username>
        <id>3106791</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Focus questions</comment>
      <origin>2823866</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="10886" sha1="00h3petuzra7x1rtf2gup1gefu4zvna" xml:space="preserve"> {{title|Title goes here:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle goes here?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

***

Case study 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)

**

1. What is &quot;cognitive hardiness&quot; and &quot;resilience&quot;? 
** emphasise how this is different to grit. Although hardiness, resilience and grit are often used interchangeably as they have similar characteristics, they are different constructs. 

2. What is the role of hardinesss in promoting resilience? 
** include the theoretical history of hardiness and growth of positive psychology - talks about the capacity of humans to grow and develop in the face of adversity. 

3. What is the relationship between resilience and stress and adversity?
 ** also define stress and adversity and the fact that stress and adversity can come from different forms and level - the point at which a person can no longer handle their stress and adversity is when it has reached more than their mental resources to cope. 
** include studies - covid , mothers with disabled children


4. What are the psychopathological effects of stress and adversities? 
** trauma and psychopathology 

5. How do we build cognitive hardiness? 
** how do we stress-test our cognitive hardiness? 
* Role of personality 
* Role of biological gene
* Role of environment 
** psychological theories?? 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Hardiness]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Resilience]]</text>
      <sha1>00h3petuzra7x1rtf2gup1gefu4zvna</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2823869</id>
      <parentid>2823866</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T12:39:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3068253</username>
        <id>3106791</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Overview - case study</comment>
      <origin>2823869</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="11555" sha1="jfxutblc8akhy1ttauq0tozngklrcmd" xml:space="preserve"> {{title|Title goes here:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle goes here?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

***

Case study 

You are new manager of a new team. You recently hired two new people to fill in critical roles in the team. Both new employees do not have much experience in the role so you are aware there will be a steep learning curve for the both of them. As time goes on, you notice that one employee has been able to keep up with the pace of the work and the learning demands on her.  As for the second employee, you are noticing that he is struggling. He is not able to keep on top of his workload, and on top of that, he is displaying anxious behaviour, stress and showing lack of control over his performance. You wonder why the two of them are different in their performance. {{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)

**

1. What is &quot;cognitive hardiness&quot; and &quot;resilience&quot;? 
** emphasise how this is different to grit. Although hardiness, resilience and grit are often used interchangeably as they have similar characteristics, they are different constructs. 

2. What is the role of hardinesss in promoting resilience? 
** include the theoretical history of hardiness and growth of positive psychology - talks about the capacity of humans to grow and develop in the face of adversity. 

3. What is the relationship between resilience and stress and adversity?
 ** also define stress and adversity and the fact that stress and adversity can come from different forms and level - the point at which a person can no longer handle their stress and adversity is when it has reached more than their mental resources to cope. 
** include studies - covid , mothers with disabled children


4. What are the psychopathological effects of stress and adversities? 
** trauma and psychopathology 

5. How do we build cognitive hardiness? 
** how do we stress-test our cognitive hardiness? 
* Role of personality 
* Role of biological gene
* Role of environment 
** psychological theories?? 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Hardiness]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Resilience]]</text>
      <sha1>jfxutblc8akhy1ttauq0tozngklrcmd</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2823870</id>
      <parentid>2823869</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T12:40:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3068253</username>
        <id>3106791</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2823870</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="11631" sha1="7ydazfwm5gaavfnb7osdwflrd7vzr8d" xml:space="preserve"> {{title|Cognitive hardiness and stress resilience: How does cognitive hardiness promote resilience to stress and adversity?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

***

Case study 

You are new manager of a new team. You recently hired two new people to fill in critical roles in the team. Both new employees do not have much experience in the role so you are aware there will be a steep learning curve for the both of them. As time goes on, you notice that one employee has been able to keep up with the pace of the work and the learning demands on her.  As for the second employee, you are noticing that he is struggling. He is not able to keep on top of his workload, and on top of that, he is displaying anxious behaviour, stress and showing lack of control over his performance. You wonder why the two of them are different in their performance. {{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)

**

1. What is &quot;cognitive hardiness&quot; and &quot;resilience&quot;? 
** emphasise how this is different to grit. Although hardiness, resilience and grit are often used interchangeably as they have similar characteristics, they are different constructs. 

2. What is the role of hardinesss in promoting resilience? 
** include the theoretical history of hardiness and growth of positive psychology - talks about the capacity of humans to grow and develop in the face of adversity. 

3. What is the relationship between resilience and stress and adversity?
 ** also define stress and adversity and the fact that stress and adversity can come from different forms and level - the point at which a person can no longer handle their stress and adversity is when it has reached more than their mental resources to cope. 
** include studies - covid , mothers with disabled children


4. What are the psychopathological effects of stress and adversities? 
** trauma and psychopathology 

5. How do we build cognitive hardiness? 
** how do we stress-test our cognitive hardiness? 
* Role of personality 
* Role of biological gene
* Role of environment 
** psychological theories?? 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Hardiness]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Resilience]]</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2823871</id>
      <parentid>2823870</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T12:47:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3068253</username>
        <id>3106791</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Headings */</comment>
      <origin>2823871</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="12742" sha1="063mw1s5vs0y3jbie1km6e86mt53qya" xml:space="preserve"> {{title|Cognitive hardiness and stress resilience: How does cognitive hardiness promote resilience to stress and adversity?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

***

Case study 

You are new manager of a new team. You recently hired two new people to fill in critical roles in the team. Both new employees do not have much experience in the role so you are aware there will be a steep learning curve for the both of them. As time goes on, you notice that one employee has been able to keep up with the pace of the work and the learning demands on her.  As for the second employee, you are noticing that he is struggling. He is not able to keep on top of his workload, and on top of that, he is displaying anxious behaviour, stress and showing lack of control over his performance. You wonder why the two of them are different in their performance. {{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)

**

1. What is &quot;cognitive hardiness&quot; and &quot;resilience&quot;? 
** emphasise how this is different to grit. Although hardiness, resilience and grit are often used interchangeably as they have similar characteristics, they are different constructs. 

2. What is the role of hardinesss in promoting resilience? 
** include the theoretical history of hardiness and growth of positive psychology - talks about the capacity of humans to grow and develop in the face of adversity. 

3. What is the relationship between resilience and stress and adversity?
 ** also define stress and adversity and the fact that stress and adversity can come from different forms and level - the point at which a person can no longer handle their stress and adversity is when it has reached more than their mental resources to cope. 
** include studies - covid , mothers with disabled children


4. What are the psychopathological effects of stress and adversities? 
** trauma and psychopathology 

5. How do we build cognitive hardiness? 
** how do we stress-test our cognitive hardiness? 
* Role of personality 
* Role of biological gene
* Role of environment 
** psychological theories?? 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links
&lt;nowiki&gt;**&lt;/nowiki&gt;

== Let's talk Definition ==

=== What is &quot;cognitive hardiness&quot;? ===

=== What is &quot;resilience&quot;? ===

=== What is &quot;stress&quot;? ===

=== What is &quot;adversity&quot;? ===

== What is the role of cognitive hardiness in promoting resilience? ==

* Include the theoretical history of hardiness and growth of positive psychology - talks about the capacity of humans to grow and develop in the face of adversity. 

== What is the relationship between resilience and stress and adversity? ==

* Define stress and adversity and the fact that stress and adversity can come from different forms and level - the point at which a person can no longer handle their stress and adversity is when it has reached more than their mental resources to cope. 

* Include studies - covid , mothers with disabled children

== What are the psychopathological effects of stress and adversities? ==

* trauma and psychopathology 

== How do we build cognitive hardiness? ==

* How do we stress-test our cognitive hardiness? 

* Role of personality 

* Role of biological gene

* Role of environment 

* Psychological theories?? 


==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Hardiness]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Resilience]]</text>
      <sha1>063mw1s5vs0y3jbie1km6e86mt53qya</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2823872</id>
      <parentid>2823871</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T12:49:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3068253</username>
        <id>3106791</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* What is the relationship between resilience and stress and adversity? */</comment>
      <origin>2823872</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="12741" sha1="5eimnf28b5zv51ll38i90sfyye3tpsj" xml:space="preserve"> {{title|Cognitive hardiness and stress resilience: How does cognitive hardiness promote resilience to stress and adversity?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the title and sub-title to match the wording (and casing) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|the page history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

***

Case study 

You are new manager of a new team. You recently hired two new people to fill in critical roles in the team. Both new employees do not have much experience in the role so you are aware there will be a steep learning curve for the both of them. As time goes on, you notice that one employee has been able to keep up with the pace of the work and the learning demands on her.  As for the second employee, you are noticing that he is struggling. He is not able to keep on top of his workload, and on top of that, he is displaying anxious behaviour, stress and showing lack of control over his performance. You wonder why the two of them are different in their performance. {{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)

**

1. What is &quot;cognitive hardiness&quot; and &quot;resilience&quot;? 
** emphasise how this is different to grit. Although hardiness, resilience and grit are often used interchangeably as they have similar characteristics, they are different constructs. 

2. What is the role of hardinesss in promoting resilience? 
** include the theoretical history of hardiness and growth of positive psychology - talks about the capacity of humans to grow and develop in the face of adversity. 

3. What is the relationship between resilience and stress and adversity?
 ** also define stress and adversity and the fact that stress and adversity can come from different forms and level - the point at which a person can no longer handle their stress and adversity is when it has reached more than their mental resources to cope. 
** include studies - covid , mothers with disabled children


4. What are the psychopathological effects of stress and adversities? 
** trauma and psychopathology 

5. How do we build cognitive hardiness? 
** how do we stress-test our cognitive hardiness? 
* Role of personality 
* Role of biological gene
* Role of environment 
** psychological theories?? 

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links
&lt;nowiki&gt;**&lt;/nowiki&gt;

== Let's talk Definition ==

=== What is &quot;cognitive hardiness&quot;? ===

=== What is &quot;resilience&quot;? ===

=== What is &quot;stress&quot;? ===

=== What is &quot;adversity&quot;? ===

== What is the relationship between resilience and stress and adversity? ==

* Define stress and adversity and the fact that stress and adversity can come from different forms and level - the point at which a person can no longer handle their stress and adversity is when it has reached more than their mental resources to cope.

* Include studies - covid , mothers with disabled children

== What is the role of cognitive hardiness in promoting resilience? ==

* Include the theoretical history of hardiness and growth of positive psychology - talks about the capacity of humans to grow and develop in the face of adversity. 

== What are the psychopathological effects of stress and adversities? ==

* trauma and psychopathology 

== How do we build cognitive hardiness? ==

* How do we stress-test our cognitive hardiness? 

* Role of personality 

* Role of biological gene

* Role of environment 

* Psychological theories?? 


==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Hardiness]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Resilience]]</text>
      <sha1>5eimnf28b5zv51ll38i90sfyye3tpsj</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Social connection and emotion regulation</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>331098</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2824080</id>
      <parentid>2823827</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T03:51:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3284040</username>
        <id>3106549</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Benefits of Social Connection */</comment>
      <origin>2824080</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="10131" sha1="jo2310kl1cp8s0qot9i9ajw1huo5q4q" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Social connection and emotion regulation:&lt;br&gt;How do social relationships help regulate people's emotions?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==What is Emotion Regulation?==

* Key point 1 - Defining (not subheading)
* Key Point 2 - Theories
* Key Point 3 - Assessments

==Emotion Regulation in the Context of Social Connection==

* Key Point 1 - Brief body introducing social connection and the different subheadings that will be addressed
* Key point 2 - subheading for co-regulation
* Key Point 3
* Key Point 4

* Key point 1 - Loneliness
* Key Point 2 - Social Anxiety
* Key Point 3

==Info For Assignment==
'''Headings'''
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

'''Key points'''
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

'''Figures'''
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

'''Learning features'''
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion]] - Use for inspiration
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Social media and emotion regulation]] - Use for inspiration

Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social connection]]</text>
      <sha1>jo2310kl1cp8s0qot9i9ajw1huo5q4q</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824087</id>
      <parentid>2824080</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T04:12:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3284040</username>
        <id>3106549</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Emotion Regulation in the Context of Social Connection */</comment>
      <origin>2824087</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9789" sha1="8kcfvs41pp3y0v9qnx2v4xe34whozlb" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Social connection and emotion regulation:&lt;br&gt;How do social relationships help regulate people's emotions?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How is emotion regulation defined?
* What are the benefits of social connection?
* What if we have problems forming social connections?{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==What is Emotion Regulation?==

* Key point 1 - Defining (not subheading)
* Key Point 2 - Theories
* Key Point 3 - Assessments

==Emotion Regulation in the Context of Social Connection==

* Key Point 1 - Brief body introducing social connection and the different subheadings that will be addressed
* Key point 2 - subheading for co-regulation
* Key Point 3
* Key Point 4

==The Effects of Poor Social Connections==
* Key point 1 - Loneliness
* Key Point 2 - Social Anxiety
* Key Point 3
==Info For Assignment==
'''Headings'''
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

'''Key points'''

For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

'''Figures'''
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

'''Learning features'''

Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion]] - Use for inspiration
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Social media and emotion regulation]] - Use for inspiration

Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social connection]]</text>
      <sha1>8kcfvs41pp3y0v9qnx2v4xe34whozlb</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824094</id>
      <parentid>2824087</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T04:37:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3284040</username>
        <id>3106549</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The Effects of Poor Social Connections */</comment>
      <origin>2824094</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="10347" sha1="4h4df8z4f2g7wz68860sx4ddtvpzj23" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Social connection and emotion regulation:&lt;br&gt;How do social relationships help regulate people's emotions?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How is emotion regulation defined?
* What are the benefits of social connection?
* What if we have problems forming social connections?{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==What is Emotion Regulation?==
* Key point 1 - Defining
* Key Point 2 - Discuss where and when emotion regulation can be used with examples (maybe example in the scenario box)
* Key Point 3 - 
'''Theories'''
* First theory
* Second Theory
* Third Theory
* Mention that there are many other theories
'''Assessment'''
* First Assessment (ERQ)
* Second Assessment
* Third Assessment
* Talk about other assessments that are used
'''Quiz'''
[Insert 3 question quiz briefly recapping this section]
==Emotion Regulation in the Context of Social Connection==

* Key Point 1 - Brief body introducing social connection and the different subheadings that will be addressed
* Key point 2
* Key Point 3
'''Co-Regulation'''
* Key Point 1
* Key Point 2
* Key Point 3
==The Effects of Poor Social Connections==
* Key point 1
* Key Point 2
* Key Point 3
'''Loneliness'''
* Key Point 1 - Talk about how this can lead to psychological disorders like depression and anxiety
* Key Point 2
* Key Point 3
'''Social Anxiety'''
* Key Point 1
* Key Point 2
* Key Point 3
==Info For Assignment==
'''Headings'''
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

'''Key points'''

For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

'''Figures'''
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

'''Learning features'''

Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion]] - Use for inspiration
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Social media and emotion regulation]] - Use for inspiration

Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social connection]]</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824099</id>
      <parentid>2824094</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T04:50:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3284040</username>
        <id>3106549</id>
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      <origin>2824099</origin>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

* Key point 1
* Key point 2
* Key point 3

'''Instructions for Overview Section'''

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How is emotion regulation defined?
* What are the benefits of social connection?
* What if we have problems forming social connections?{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==What is Emotion Regulation?==
* Key point 1 - Defining
* Key Point 2 - Discuss where and when emotion regulation can be used with examples (maybe example in the scenario box)
* Key Point 3 - 
'''Theories'''
* First theory
* Second Theory
* Third Theory
* Mention that there are many other theories
'''Assessment'''
* First Assessment (ERQ)
* Second Assessment
* Third Assessment
* Talk about other assessments that are used
'''Quiz'''

[Insert 3 question quiz briefly recapping this section]
==Emotion Regulation in the Context of Social Connection==

* Key Point 1 - Brief body introducing social connection and the different subheadings that will be addressed
* Key point 2
* Key Point 3
'''Co-Regulation'''
* Key Point 1
* Key Point 2
* Key Point 3
==The Effects of Poor Social Connections==
* Key point 1
* Key Point 2
* Key Point 3
'''Loneliness'''
* Key Point 1 - Talk about how this can lead to psychological disorders like depression and anxiety
* Key Point 2
* Key Point 3
'''Social Anxiety'''
* Key Point 1
* Key Point 2
* Key Point 3
==Info For Assignment==
'''Headings'''

Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

'''Key points'''

For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

'''Figures'''
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

'''Learning features'''

Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Key point 1
* Key point 2
* Key point 3
'''Instructions'''
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion]] - Use for inspiration
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Social media and emotion regulation]] - Use for inspiration

Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social connection]]</text>
      <sha1>a7c3m0cd9yz3jp2uysb6gh2wyqefikf</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824233</id>
      <parentid>2824099</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T09:08:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3284040</username>
        <id>3106549</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* What is Emotion Regulation? */</comment>
      <origin>2824233</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="11284" sha1="ehbj816agsw76mbge1dxt3seplelvwq" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Social connection and emotion regulation:&lt;br&gt;How do social relationships help regulate people's emotions?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

* Key point 1
* Key point 2
* Key point 3

'''Instructions for Overview Section'''

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How is emotion regulation defined?
* What are the benefits of social connection?
* What if we have problems forming social connections?{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==What is Emotion Regulation?==
* Define emotion regulation and then expand the term into different variations across the literature
* Discuss where and when emotion regulation can be used with examples (maybe example in the scenario box)
* Introduce the idea that there are many strategies that can be used and also introduce subheadings as well
'''Theories'''
* Discuss the Trait theories of personality (OCEAN/Big 5, HEXACO)
* Discuss the Gross Model
* Third Theory
* Mention that there are many other theories
'''Assessment'''
* Discuss the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ)
* Second Assessment
* Third Assessment
* Talk about other assessments that are used
'''Quiz'''

[Insert 3 question quiz briefly recapping this section]
==Emotion Regulation in the Context of Social Connection==

* Brief body introducing social connection and the different subheadings that will be addressed
* Discuss the various levels/quality of connections and how they may affect emotion regulation differently (allude to poor connections)
* Key Point 3
'''Co-Regulation'''
* Key Point 1
* Key Point 2
* Key Point 3
'''Brain Activity and Physiology'''

* Key point 1
* Key point 2
* Key point 3

==The Effects of Poor Social Connections==
* Briefly introduce the subheadings and the concept
* Discuss briefly how perceived quality of the relationship matters and is a factor (also discuss meta-perception and self-esteem)
* Key Point 3
'''Loneliness'''
* Talk about how this can lead to psychological disorders like depression and anxiety
* Reiterate that loneliness can occur from just a low perceived quality of social connection
* Key Point 3
'''Social Anxiety'''
* Discuss how we are not talking about the psychological disorder but rather the key characteristics and ideas surrounding both the term and the disorder
* Key Point 2
* Key Point 3
==Info For Assignment==
'''Headings'''

Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

'''Key points'''

For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

'''Figures'''
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

'''Learning features'''

Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Key point 1
* Key point 2
* Key point 3
'''Instructions'''
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion]] - Use for inspiration
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Social media and emotion regulation]] - Use for inspiration

Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social connection]]</text>
      <sha1>ehbj816agsw76mbge1dxt3seplelvwq</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824251</id>
      <parentid>2824233</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T09:34:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3284040</username>
        <id>3106549</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Emotion Regulation in the Context of Social Connection */</comment>
      <origin>2824251</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="11350" sha1="lyb401ioeu2arx1q1fgtec1zppeeeos" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Social connection and emotion regulation:&lt;br&gt;How do social relationships help regulate people's emotions?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

* Key point 1
* Key point 2
* Key point 3

'''Instructions for Overview Section'''

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How is emotion regulation defined?
* What are the benefits of social connection?
* What if we have problems forming social connections?{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==What is Emotion Regulation?==
* Define emotion regulation and then expand the term into different variations across the literature
* Discuss where and when emotion regulation can be used with examples (maybe example in the scenario box)
* Introduce the idea that there are many strategies that can be used and also introduce subheadings as well
'''Theories'''
* Discuss the Trait theories of personality (OCEAN/Big 5, HEXACO)
* Discuss the Gross Model
* Third Theory
* Mention that there are many other theories
'''Assessment'''
* Discuss the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ)
* Second Assessment
* Third Assessment
* Talk about other assessments that are used
'''Quiz'''

[Insert 3 question quiz briefly recapping this section]
==Emotion Regulation in the Context of Social Connection==

* Brief body introducing social connection and the different subheadings that will be addressed
* Discuss the various levels/quality of connections and how they may affect emotion regulation differently (allude to poor connections)
* Key Point 3
'''Brain Activity and Physiology'''
* Key point 1
* Key point 2
* Key point 3
'''Co-Regulation'''
* Key Point 1
* Key Point 2
* Key Point 3
'''Attachment Styles'''

* Key Point 1
* Key Point 2
* Key Point 3

==The Effects of Poor Social Connections==
* Briefly introduce the subheadings and the concept
* Discuss briefly how perceived quality of the relationship matters and is a factor (also discuss meta-perception and self-esteem)
* Key Point 3
'''Loneliness'''
* Talk about how this can lead to psychological disorders like depression and anxiety
* Reiterate that loneliness can occur from just a low perceived quality of social connection
* Key Point 3
'''Social Anxiety'''
* Discuss how we are not talking about the psychological disorder but rather the key characteristics and ideas surrounding both the term and the disorder
* Key Point 2
* Key Point 3
==Info For Assignment==
'''Headings'''

Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

'''Key points'''

For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

'''Figures'''
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

'''Learning features'''

Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Key point 1
* Key point 2
* Key point 3
'''Instructions'''
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion]] - Use for inspiration
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Social media and emotion regulation]] - Use for inspiration

Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social connection]]</text>
      <sha1>lyb401ioeu2arx1q1fgtec1zppeeeos</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824252</id>
      <parentid>2824251</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T09:35:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3284040</username>
        <id>3106549</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The Effects of Poor Social Connections */</comment>
      <origin>2824252</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="11429" sha1="he8g1rspqc1l78zydvsoii7gn51syvf" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Social connection and emotion regulation:&lt;br&gt;How do social relationships help regulate people's emotions?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

* Key point 1
* Key point 2
* Key point 3

'''Instructions for Overview Section'''

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How is emotion regulation defined?
* What are the benefits of social connection?
* What if we have problems forming social connections?{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==What is Emotion Regulation?==
* Define emotion regulation and then expand the term into different variations across the literature
* Discuss where and when emotion regulation can be used with examples (maybe example in the scenario box)
* Introduce the idea that there are many strategies that can be used and also introduce subheadings as well
'''Theories'''
* Discuss the Trait theories of personality (OCEAN/Big 5, HEXACO)
* Discuss the Gross Model
* Third Theory
* Mention that there are many other theories
'''Assessment'''
* Discuss the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ)
* Second Assessment
* Third Assessment
* Talk about other assessments that are used
'''Quiz'''

[Insert 3 question quiz briefly recapping this section]
==Emotion Regulation in the Context of Social Connection==

* Brief body introducing social connection and the different subheadings that will be addressed
* Discuss the various levels/quality of connections and how they may affect emotion regulation differently (allude to poor connections)
* Key Point 3
'''Brain Activity and Physiology'''
* Key point 1
* Key point 2
* Key point 3
'''Co-Regulation'''
* Key Point 1
* Key Point 2
* Key Point 3
'''Attachment Styles'''

* Key Point 1
* Key Point 2
* Key Point 3

==The Effects of Poor Social Connections==
* Briefly introduce the subheadings and the concept
* Discuss briefly how perceived quality of the relationship matters and is a factor (also discuss meta-perception and self-esteem)
* Key Point 3
* Discuss the more insecure attachment styles and their effects where relevant
'''Loneliness'''
* Talk about how this can lead to psychological disorders like depression and anxiety
* Reiterate that loneliness can occur from just a low perceived quality of social connection
* Key Point 3
'''Social Anxiety'''
* Discuss how we are not talking about the psychological disorder but rather the key characteristics and ideas surrounding both the term and the disorder
* Key Point 2
* Key Point 3
==Info For Assignment==
'''Headings'''

Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

'''Key points'''

For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

'''Figures'''
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

'''Learning features'''

Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Key point 1
* Key point 2
* Key point 3
'''Instructions'''
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion]] - Use for inspiration
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Social media and emotion regulation]] - Use for inspiration

Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social connection]]</text>
      <sha1>he8g1rspqc1l78zydvsoii7gn51syvf</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824254</id>
      <parentid>2824252</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T09:37:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3284040</username>
        <id>3106549</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Emotion Regulation in the Context of Social Connection */</comment>
      <origin>2824254</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="11535" sha1="g87kdrrw5si4trhaosv4osu21mepvug" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Social connection and emotion regulation:&lt;br&gt;How do social relationships help regulate people's emotions?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

* Key point 1
* Key point 2
* Key point 3

'''Instructions for Overview Section'''

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How is emotion regulation defined?
* What are the benefits of social connection?
* What if we have problems forming social connections?{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==What is Emotion Regulation?==
* Define emotion regulation and then expand the term into different variations across the literature
* Discuss where and when emotion regulation can be used with examples (maybe example in the scenario box)
* Introduce the idea that there are many strategies that can be used and also introduce subheadings as well
'''Theories'''
* Discuss the Trait theories of personality (OCEAN/Big 5, HEXACO)
* Discuss the Gross Model
* Third Theory
* Mention that there are many other theories
'''Assessment'''
* Discuss the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ)
* Second Assessment
* Third Assessment
* Talk about other assessments that are used
'''Quiz'''

[Insert 3 question quiz briefly recapping this section]
==Emotion Regulation in the Context of Social Connection==

* Brief body introducing social connection and the different subheadings that will be addressed
* Discuss the various levels/quality of connections and how they may affect emotion regulation differently (allude to poor connections)
* Discuss the modes/mediums of connection in relation to emotion regulation (i.e. social media, face-to-face/in-person)
'''Brain Activity and Physiology'''
* Key point 1
* Key point 2
* Key point 3
'''Co-Regulation'''
* Key Point 1
* Key Point 2
* Key Point 3
'''Attachment Styles'''

* Key Point 1
* Key Point 2
* Key Point 3

==The Effects of Poor Social Connections==
* Briefly introduce the subheadings and the concept
* Discuss briefly how perceived quality of the relationship matters and is a factor (also discuss meta-perception and self-esteem)
* Key Point 3
* Discuss the more insecure attachment styles and their effects where relevant
'''Loneliness'''
* Talk about how this can lead to psychological disorders like depression and anxiety
* Reiterate that loneliness can occur from just a low perceived quality of social connection
* Key Point 3
'''Social Anxiety'''
* Discuss how we are not talking about the psychological disorder but rather the key characteristics and ideas surrounding both the term and the disorder
* Key Point 2
* Key Point 3
==Info For Assignment==
'''Headings'''

Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

'''Key points'''

For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

'''Figures'''
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

'''Learning features'''

Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Key point 1
* Key point 2
* Key point 3
'''Instructions'''
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion]] - Use for inspiration
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Social media and emotion regulation]] - Use for inspiration

Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social connection]]</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
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      <parentid>2824254</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T09:46:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3284040</username>
        <id>3106549</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* What is Emotion Regulation? */</comment>
      <origin>2824259</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

* Key point 1
* Key point 2
* Key point 3

'''Instructions for Overview Section'''

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How is emotion regulation defined?
* What are the benefits of social connection?
* What if we have problems forming social connections?{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==What is Emotion Regulation?==
* Define emotion regulation and then expand the term into different variations across the literature
* Discuss where and when emotion regulation can be used with examples (maybe example in the scenario box)
* Introduce the idea that there are many strategies that can be used and also introduce subheadings as well
'''Theories'''
* Discuss the Trait theories of personality (OCEAN/Big 5)
* Discuss the Gross Model
* Third Theory
* Mention that there are many other theories
'''Assessment'''
* Discuss the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ)
* Second Assessment
* Third Assessment
* Talk about other assessments that are used
'''Quiz'''

[Insert 3 question quiz briefly recapping this section]
==Emotion Regulation in the Context of Social Connection==

* Brief body introducing social connection and the different subheadings that will be addressed
* Discuss the various levels/quality of connections and how they may affect emotion regulation differently (allude to poor connections)
* Discuss the modes/mediums of connection in relation to emotion regulation (i.e. social media, face-to-face/in-person)
'''Brain Activity and Physiology'''
* Key point 1
* Key point 2
* Key point 3
'''Co-Regulation'''
* Key Point 1
* Key Point 2
* Key Point 3
'''Attachment Styles'''

* Key Point 1
* Key Point 2
* Key Point 3

==The Effects of Poor Social Connections==
* Briefly introduce the subheadings and the concept
* Discuss briefly how perceived quality of the relationship matters and is a factor (also discuss meta-perception and self-esteem)
* Key Point 3
* Discuss the more insecure attachment styles and their effects where relevant
'''Loneliness'''
* Talk about how this can lead to psychological disorders like depression and anxiety
* Reiterate that loneliness can occur from just a low perceived quality of social connection
* Key Point 3
'''Social Anxiety'''
* Discuss how we are not talking about the psychological disorder but rather the key characteristics and ideas surrounding both the term and the disorder
* Key Point 2
* Key Point 3
==Info For Assignment==
'''Headings'''

Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

'''Key points'''

For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

'''Figures'''
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

'''Learning features'''

Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Key point 1
* Key point 2
* Key point 3
'''Instructions'''
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion]] - Use for inspiration
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Social media and emotion regulation]] - Use for inspiration

Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social connection]]</text>
      <sha1>7ktcekxhj5hithhvla5isb9x7mrhvbn</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824267</id>
      <parentid>2824259</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T10:21:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3284040</username>
        <id>3106549</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Emotion Regulation in the Context of Social Connection */</comment>
      <origin>2824267</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="11661" sha1="5rec742ow2nakn5396810hi1x3hvcrg" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Social connection and emotion regulation:&lt;br&gt;How do social relationships help regulate people's emotions?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

* Key point 1
* Key point 2
* Key point 3

'''Instructions for Overview Section'''

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How is emotion regulation defined?
* What are the benefits of social connection?
* What if we have problems forming social connections?{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==What is Emotion Regulation?==
* Define emotion regulation and then expand the term into different variations across the literature
* Discuss where and when emotion regulation can be used with examples (maybe example in the scenario box)
* Introduce the idea that there are many strategies that can be used and also introduce subheadings as well
'''Theories'''
* Discuss the Trait theories of personality (OCEAN/Big 5)
* Discuss the Gross Model
* Discuss Attachment theory/styles in relation to emotional regulation
** Include table of attachment styles
** Apply the theory to the broader idea of emotional regulation
* Mention that there are many other theories
'''Assessment'''
* Discuss the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ)
* Second Assessment
* Third Assessment
* Talk about other assessments that are used
'''Quiz'''

[Insert 3 question quiz briefly recapping this section]

==Emotion Regulation in the Context of Social Connection==

* Brief body introducing social connection and the different subheadings that will be addressed
* Discuss the various levels/quality of connections and how they may affect emotion regulation differently (allude to poor connections)
* Discuss the modes/mediums of connection in relation to emotion regulation (i.e. social media, face-to-face/in-person)
* Discuss attachment styles where relevant
'''Brain Activity and Physiology'''
* Key point 1
* Key point 2
* Key point 3
'''Co-Regulation'''
* Key Point 1
* Key Point 2
* Key Point 3
==The Effects of Poor Social Connections==
* Briefly introduce the subheadings and the concept
* Discuss briefly how perceived quality of the relationship matters and is a factor (also discuss meta-perception and self-esteem)
* Key Point 3
* Discuss the more insecure attachment styles and their effects where relevant
'''Loneliness'''
* Talk about how this can lead to psychological disorders like depression and anxiety
* Reiterate that loneliness can occur from just a low perceived quality of social connection
* Key Point 3
'''Social Anxiety'''
* Discuss how we are not talking about the psychological disorder but rather the key characteristics and ideas surrounding both the term and the disorder
* Key Point 2
* Key Point 3
==Info For Assignment==
'''Headings'''

Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

'''Key points'''

For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

'''Figures'''
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

'''Learning features'''

Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Key point 1
* Key point 2
* Key point 3
'''Instructions'''
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion]] - Use for inspiration
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Social media and emotion regulation]] - Use for inspiration

Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social connection]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

* Key point 1
* Key point 2
* Key point 3

'''Instructions for Overview Section'''

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How is emotion regulation defined?
* What are the benefits of social connection?
* What if we have problems forming social connections?{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==What is Emotion Regulation?==
* Define emotion regulation and then expand the term into different variations across the literature
* Discuss where and when emotion regulation can be used with examples (maybe example in the scenario box)
* Introduce the idea that there are many strategies that can be used and also introduce subheadings as well
'''Theories'''
* Discuss the Trait theories of personality (OCEAN/Big 5)
* Discuss the Gross Model
* Discuss Attachment theory/styles in relation to emotional regulation
** Include table of attachment styles
** Apply the theory to the broader idea of emotional regulation
* Mention that there are many other theories
'''Assessment'''
* Discuss the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ)
* Second Assessment
* Third Assessment
* Talk about other assessments that are used
'''Quiz'''

[Insert 3 question quiz briefly recapping this section]

&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Question 1:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Test
- Fail
- Fail

{Question 2:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Test
- Fail

{Question 3:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Test
- Fail
&lt;/quiz&gt;
==Emotion Regulation in the Context of Social Connection==

* Brief body introducing social connection and the different subheadings that will be addressed
* Discuss the various levels/quality of connections and how they may affect emotion regulation differently (allude to poor connections)
* Discuss the modes/mediums of connection in relation to emotion regulation (i.e. social media, face-to-face/in-person)
* Discuss attachment styles where relevant
'''Brain Activity and Physiology'''
* Key point 1
* Key point 2
* Key point 3
'''Co-Regulation'''
* Key Point 1
* Key Point 2
* Key Point 3
==The Effects of Poor Social Connections==
* Briefly introduce the subheadings and the concept
* Discuss briefly how perceived quality of the relationship matters and is a factor (also discuss meta-perception and self-esteem)
* Key Point 3
* Discuss the more insecure attachment styles and their effects where relevant
'''Loneliness'''
* Talk about how this can lead to psychological disorders like depression and anxiety
* Reiterate that loneliness can occur from just a low perceived quality of social connection
* Key Point 3
'''Social Anxiety'''
* Discuss how we are not talking about the psychological disorder but rather the key characteristics and ideas surrounding both the term and the disorder
* Key Point 2
* Key Point 3
==Info For Assignment==
'''Headings'''

Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

'''Key points'''

For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

'''Figures'''
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

'''Learning features'''

Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Key point 1
* Key point 2
* Key point 3
'''Instructions'''
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion]] - Use for inspiration
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Social media and emotion regulation]] - Use for inspiration

Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional self-regulation]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Social connection]]</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
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      <parentid>2824273</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T10:42:53Z</timestamp>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

* Key point 1
* Key point 2
* Key point 3

'''Instructions for Overview Section'''

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How is emotion regulation defined?
* What are the benefits of social connection?
* What if we have problems forming social connections?{{RoundBoxBottom}}
==What is Emotion Regulation?==
* Define emotion regulation and then expand the term into different variations across the literature
* Discuss where and when emotion regulation can be used with examples (maybe example in the scenario box)
* Introduce the idea that there are many strategies that can be used and also introduce subheadings as well
'''Theories'''
* Discuss the Trait theories of personality (OCEAN/Big 5)
* Discuss the Gross Model
* Discuss Attachment theory/styles in relation to emotional regulation
** Include table of attachment styles
** Apply the theory to the broader idea of emotional regulation
* Mention that there are many other theories
'''Assessment'''
* Discuss the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ)
* Second Assessment
* Third Assessment
* Talk about other assessments that are used
'''Quiz'''

[Insert 3 question quiz briefly recapping this section]

&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Question 1:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Test
- Fail
- Fail

{Question 2:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Test
- Fail

{Question 3:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Test
- Fail
&lt;/quiz&gt;
==Emotion Regulation in the Context of Social Connection==

* Brief body introducing social connection and the different subheadings that will be addressed
* Discuss the various levels/quality of connections and how they may affect emotion regulation differently (allude to poor connections)
* Discuss the modes/mediums of connection in relation to emotion regulation (i.e. social media, face-to-face/in-person)
'''Social Support and Co-Regulation'''
* Key Point 1
* Key Point 2
* Key Point 3
'''Brain Activity and Physiology'''
* Key point 1
* Key point 2
* Key point 3
'''Attachment Styles'''

* Discuss how certain attachments will benefit more from social supports whereas others will avoid
* Discuss how the social supports will then inherently teach the person to use and adapt to emotion regulation techniques and strategies
* Split paragraphs by the relevant attachment styles

==The Effects of Poor Social Connections==
* Briefly introduce the subheadings and the concept
* Discuss briefly how perceived quality of the relationship matters and is a factor (also discuss meta-perception and self-esteem)
* Key Point 3
* Discuss the more insecure attachment styles and their effects where relevant
'''Loneliness'''
* Talk about how this can lead to psychological disorders like depression and anxiety
* Reiterate that loneliness can occur from just a low perceived quality of social connection
* Key Point 3
'''Social Anxiety'''
* Discuss how we are not talking about the psychological disorder but rather the key characteristics and ideas surrounding both the term and the disorder
* Key Point 2
* Key Point 3
==Info For Assignment==
'''Headings'''

Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

'''Key points'''

For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

'''Figures'''
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

'''Learning features'''

Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Key point 1
* Key point 2
* Key point 3
'''Instructions'''
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion]] - Use for inspiration
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Social media and emotion regulation]] - Use for inspiration

Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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__TOC__


== Overview ==
[[File:Student studying 26.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' A ''university student experiencing academic stress. Recognising and managing emotional responses to stressful situations may involve emotional intelligence.'']]
Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict.

Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively.

Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations?

One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence (EI)  the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing.

Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically.

Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship.
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

=== Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
[[File:Model of EI.png|thumb|Figure 1. ''Mayor and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]
Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways.

* '''What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Define emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Explain that emotional intelligence generally involves recognising, understanding, using, and managing emotions. Explain emotional wellbeing and clarify that wellbeing does not simply mean always experiencing positive emotions. Introduce the idea that there are different models of emotional intelligence.)  '''Research needed:''' A foundational source defining emotional intelligence, such as Mayer and Salovey, plus a reliable source defining emotional/subjective wellbeing.
* '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing.
* '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing.
* '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.)  '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management.
* '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.)  '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing.

== Focus Questions ==

* What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?
* What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?
* How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?
* How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?
* Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?
* How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?

== What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood.

== Defining emotional intelligence ==

* Introduce emotional intelligence.
* Explain that EI concerns the processing and management of emotional information.
* Explain that EI is not simply &quot;being emotional&quot; or &quot;being a nice person&quot;.
* Introduce major conceptualisations of EI.
* Explain why differences in definitions matter when examining research.

=== Ability model of emotional intelligence ===
Introduce Mayer and Salovey's ability model.

Explain the four branches:

# Perceiving emotions
# Using emotions to facilitate thought
# Understanding emotions
# Managing emotions

Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing.

'''Figure 1. The four-branch model of emotional intelligence'''

Create a simple diagram showing:

Perceiving emotions → Using emotions → Understanding emotions → Managing emotions

== Trait emotional intelligence ==

* Explain trait EI.
* Distinguish trait EI from ability EI.
* Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies.
* Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing.

== Defining emotional wellbeing ==

* Define emotional wellbeing.
* Explain that wellbeing is not simply the absence of mental illness.
* Discuss positive and negative affect.
* Discuss emotional functioning and life satisfaction where relevant.
* Explain that experiencing negative emotions does not automatically indicate poor emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional wellbeing versus always feeling positive ===
A useful distinction should be established here:

Emotionally healthy people can still experience sadness, anger, anxiety, disappointment, and stress.

Healthy emotional functioning may instead involve recognising emotions, understanding their causes, regulating them appropriately, and recovering from difficult experiences.

== Key points ==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]]</text>
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__TOC__


== Overview =={{Feature box
|title=Scenario
|content=
[[File:Student studying 26.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' A ''university student experiencing academic stress. Recognising and managing emotional responses to stressful situations may involve emotional intelligence.'']]
Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict.

Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively.

Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations?

One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence (EI)  the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing.

Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically.

Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship.
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

=== Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
[[File:Model of EI.png|thumb|Figure 1. ''Mayor and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]
Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways.

* '''What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Define emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Explain that emotional intelligence generally involves recognising, understanding, using, and managing emotions. Explain emotional wellbeing and clarify that wellbeing does not simply mean always experiencing positive emotions. Introduce the idea that there are different models of emotional intelligence.)  '''Research needed:''' A foundational source defining emotional intelligence, such as Mayer and Salovey, plus a reliable source defining emotional/subjective wellbeing.
* '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing.
* '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing.
* '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.)  '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management.
* '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.)  '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing.

== Focus Questions ==

* What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?
* What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?
* How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?
* How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?
* Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?
* How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?

== What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood.

== Defining emotional intelligence ==

* Introduce emotional intelligence.
* Explain that EI concerns the processing and management of emotional information.
* Explain that EI is not simply &quot;being emotional&quot; or &quot;being a nice person&quot;.
* Introduce major conceptualisations of EI.
* Explain why differences in definitions matter when examining research.

=== Ability model of emotional intelligence ===
Introduce Mayer and Salovey's ability model.

Explain the four branches:

# Perceiving emotions
# Using emotions to facilitate thought
# Understanding emotions
# Managing emotions

Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing.

'''Figure 1. The four-branch model of emotional intelligence'''

Create a simple diagram showing:

Perceiving emotions → Using emotions → Understanding emotions → Managing emotions

== Trait emotional intelligence ==

* Explain trait EI.
* Distinguish trait EI from ability EI.
* Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies.
* Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing.

== Defining emotional wellbeing ==

* Define emotional wellbeing.
* Explain that wellbeing is not simply the absence of mental illness.
* Discuss positive and negative affect.
* Discuss emotional functioning and life satisfaction where relevant.
* Explain that experiencing negative emotions does not automatically indicate poor emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional wellbeing versus always feeling positive ===
A useful distinction should be established here:

Emotionally healthy people can still experience sadness, anger, anxiety, disappointment, and stress.

Healthy emotional functioning may instead involve recognising emotions, understanding their causes, regulating them appropriately, and recovering from difficult experiences.

== Key points ==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]]</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
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      <contributor>
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        <id>3106753</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2824002</origin>
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__TOC__
== Overview ==

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Scenario'''
[[File:Student studying 26.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' A ''university student experiencing academic stress. Recognising and managing emotional responses to stressful situations may involve emotional intelligence.'']]
Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict.

Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively.

Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations?

One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence (EI)  the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing.

Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically.

Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship.
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

=== Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
[[File:Model of EI.png|thumb|Figure 1. ''Mayor and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]
Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways.

* '''What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Define emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Explain that emotional intelligence generally involves recognising, understanding, using, and managing emotions. Explain emotional wellbeing and clarify that wellbeing does not simply mean always experiencing positive emotions. Introduce the idea that there are different models of emotional intelligence.)  '''Research needed:''' A foundational source defining emotional intelligence, such as Mayer and Salovey, plus a reliable source defining emotional/subjective wellbeing.
* '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing.
* '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing.
* '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.)  '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management.
* '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.)  '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing.

== Focus Questions ==

* What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?
* What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?
* How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?
* How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?
* Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?
* How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?

== What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood.

== Defining emotional intelligence ==

* Introduce emotional intelligence.
* Explain that EI concerns the processing and management of emotional information.
* Explain that EI is not simply &quot;being emotional&quot; or &quot;being a nice person&quot;.
* Introduce major conceptualisations of EI.
* Explain why differences in definitions matter when examining research.

=== Ability model of emotional intelligence ===
Introduce Mayer and Salovey's ability model.

Explain the four branches:

# Perceiving emotions
# Using emotions to facilitate thought
# Understanding emotions
# Managing emotions

Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing.

'''Figure 1. The four-branch model of emotional intelligence'''

Create a simple diagram showing:

Perceiving emotions → Using emotions → Understanding emotions → Managing emotions

== Trait emotional intelligence ==

* Explain trait EI.
* Distinguish trait EI from ability EI.
* Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies.
* Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing.

== Defining emotional wellbeing ==

* Define emotional wellbeing.
* Explain that wellbeing is not simply the absence of mental illness.
* Discuss positive and negative affect.
* Discuss emotional functioning and life satisfaction where relevant.
* Explain that experiencing negative emotions does not automatically indicate poor emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional wellbeing versus always feeling positive ===
A useful distinction should be established here:

Emotionally healthy people can still experience sadness, anger, anxiety, disappointment, and stress.

Healthy emotional functioning may instead involve recognising emotions, understanding their causes, regulating them appropriately, and recovering from difficult experiences.

== Key points ==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]]</text>
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__TOC__
== Overview ==


'''Scenario'''
[[File:Student studying 26.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' A ''university student experiencing academic stress. Recognising and managing emotional responses to stressful situations may involve emotional intelligence.'']]
Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict.

Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively.

Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations?

One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence (EI)  the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing.

Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically.

Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

=== Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
[[File:Model of EI.png|thumb|Figure 1. ''Mayor and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]
Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways.

* '''What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Define emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Explain that emotional intelligence generally involves recognising, understanding, using, and managing emotions. Explain emotional wellbeing and clarify that wellbeing does not simply mean always experiencing positive emotions. Introduce the idea that there are different models of emotional intelligence.)  '''Research needed:''' A foundational source defining emotional intelligence, such as Mayer and Salovey, plus a reliable source defining emotional/subjective wellbeing.
* '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing.
* '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing.
* '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.)  '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management.
* '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.)  '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing.

== Focus Questions ==

* What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?
* What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?
* How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?
* How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?
* Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?
* How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
== What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood.

== Defining emotional intelligence ==

* Introduce emotional intelligence.
* Explain that EI concerns the processing and management of emotional information.
* Explain that EI is not simply &quot;being emotional&quot; or &quot;being a nice person&quot;.
* Introduce major conceptualisations of EI.
* Explain why differences in definitions matter when examining research.

=== Ability model of emotional intelligence ===
Introduce Mayer and Salovey's ability model.

Explain the four branches:

# Perceiving emotions
# Using emotions to facilitate thought
# Understanding emotions
# Managing emotions

Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing.

'''Figure 1. The four-branch model of emotional intelligence'''

Create a simple diagram showing:

Perceiving emotions → Using emotions → Understanding emotions → Managing emotions

== Trait emotional intelligence ==

* Explain trait EI.
* Distinguish trait EI from ability EI.
* Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies.
* Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing.

== Defining emotional wellbeing ==

* Define emotional wellbeing.
* Explain that wellbeing is not simply the absence of mental illness.
* Discuss positive and negative affect.
* Discuss emotional functioning and life satisfaction where relevant.
* Explain that experiencing negative emotions does not automatically indicate poor emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional wellbeing versus always feeling positive ===
A useful distinction should be established here:

Emotionally healthy people can still experience sadness, anger, anxiety, disappointment, and stress.

Healthy emotional functioning may instead involve recognising emotions, understanding their causes, regulating them appropriately, and recovering from difficult experiences.

== Key points ==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]]</text>
      <sha1>i96iazalq9p6g3dax3wambwfqtput2p</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
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      <parentid>2824005</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T01:56:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3239236</username>
        <id>3106753</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2824006</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="15791" sha1="efqh98kmm12pxrp7j4poe9qfratutoh" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Emotional Intelligence:&lt;br&gt;How does Emotional Intelligence affect Emotional Wellbeing?}}
__TOC__
== Overview ==

'''Scenario'''
[[File:Student studying 26.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' A ''university student experiencing academic stress. Recognising and managing emotional responses to stressful situations may involve emotional intelligence.'']]
Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict.

Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively.

Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations?

One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence (EI)  the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing.

Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically.

Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

=== Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
[[File:Model of EI.png|thumb|Figure 1. ''Mayor and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]
Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways.

* '''What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Define emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Explain that emotional intelligence generally involves recognising, understanding, using, and managing emotions. Explain emotional wellbeing and clarify that wellbeing does not simply mean always experiencing positive emotions. Introduce the idea that there are different models of emotional intelligence.)  '''Research needed:''' A foundational source defining emotional intelligence, such as Mayer and Salovey, plus a reliable source defining emotional/subjective wellbeing.
* '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing.
* '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing.
* '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.)  '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management.
* '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.)  '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing.

== Focus Questions ==

* What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?
* What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?
* How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?
* How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?
* Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?
* How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?

== What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood.

== Defining emotional intelligence ==

* Introduce emotional intelligence.
* Explain that EI concerns the processing and management of emotional information.
* Explain that EI is not simply &quot;being emotional&quot; or &quot;being a nice person&quot;.
* Introduce major conceptualisations of EI.
* Explain why differences in definitions matter when examining research.

=== Ability model of emotional intelligence ===
Introduce Mayer and Salovey's ability model.

Explain the four branches:

# Perceiving emotions
# Using emotions to facilitate thought
# Understanding emotions
# Managing emotions

Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing.

'''Figure 1. The four-branch model of emotional intelligence'''

Create a simple diagram showing:

Perceiving emotions → Using emotions → Understanding emotions → Managing emotions

== Trait emotional intelligence ==

* Explain trait EI.
* Distinguish trait EI from ability EI.
* Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies.
* Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing.

== Defining emotional wellbeing ==

* Define emotional wellbeing.
* Explain that wellbeing is not simply the absence of mental illness.
* Discuss positive and negative affect.
* Discuss emotional functioning and life satisfaction where relevant.
* Explain that experiencing negative emotions does not automatically indicate poor emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional wellbeing versus always feeling positive ===
A useful distinction should be established here:

Emotionally healthy people can still experience sadness, anger, anxiety, disappointment, and stress.

Healthy emotional functioning may instead involve recognising emotions, understanding their causes, regulating them appropriately, and recovering from difficult experiences.

== Key points ==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]]</text>
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__TOC__
== Overview ==

'''Scenario'''
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict.

Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively.

Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations?

One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence (EI) the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing.

Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically.

Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}[[File:Student studying 26.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' A ''university student experiencing academic stress. Recognising and managing emotional responses to stressful situations may involve emotional intelligence.'']]
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

=== Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
[[File:Model of EI.png|thumb|Figure 1. ''Mayor and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]
Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways.

* '''What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Define emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Explain that emotional intelligence generally involves recognising, understanding, using, and managing emotions. Explain emotional wellbeing and clarify that wellbeing does not simply mean always experiencing positive emotions. Introduce the idea that there are different models of emotional intelligence.)  '''Research needed:''' A foundational source defining emotional intelligence, such as Mayer and Salovey, plus a reliable source defining emotional/subjective wellbeing.
* '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing.
* '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing.
* '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.)  '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management.
* '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.)  '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing.

== Focus Questions ==

* What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?
* What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?
* How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?
* How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?
* Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?
* How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?

== What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood.

== Defining emotional intelligence ==

* Introduce emotional intelligence.
* Explain that EI concerns the processing and management of emotional information.
* Explain that EI is not simply &quot;being emotional&quot; or &quot;being a nice person&quot;.
* Introduce major conceptualisations of EI.
* Explain why differences in definitions matter when examining research.

=== Ability model of emotional intelligence ===
Introduce Mayer and Salovey's ability model.

Explain the four branches:

# Perceiving emotions
# Using emotions to facilitate thought
# Understanding emotions
# Managing emotions

Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing.

'''Figure 1. The four-branch model of emotional intelligence'''

Create a simple diagram showing:

Perceiving emotions → Using emotions → Understanding emotions → Managing emotions

== Trait emotional intelligence ==

* Explain trait EI.
* Distinguish trait EI from ability EI.
* Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies.
* Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing.

== Defining emotional wellbeing ==

* Define emotional wellbeing.
* Explain that wellbeing is not simply the absence of mental illness.
* Discuss positive and negative affect.
* Discuss emotional functioning and life satisfaction where relevant.
* Explain that experiencing negative emotions does not automatically indicate poor emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional wellbeing versus always feeling positive ===
A useful distinction should be established here:

Emotionally healthy people can still experience sadness, anger, anxiety, disappointment, and stress.

Healthy emotional functioning may instead involve recognising emotions, understanding their causes, regulating them appropriately, and recovering from difficult experiences.

== Key points ==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]]</text>
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__TOC__
== Overview ==

'''Scenario'''
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict.

Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively.

Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations?

One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence (EI) the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing.

Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically.

Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}[[File:Student studying 26.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' A ''university student experiencing academic stress. Recognising and managing emotional responses to stressful situations may involve emotional intelligence.'']]
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

=== Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
[[File:Model of EI.png|thumb|Figure 1. ''Mayor and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]
Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways.

* '''What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Define emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Explain that emotional intelligence generally involves recognising, understanding, using, and managing emotions. Explain emotional wellbeing and clarify that wellbeing does not simply mean always experiencing positive emotions. Introduce the idea that there are different models of emotional intelligence.)  '''Research needed:''' A foundational source defining emotional intelligence, such as Mayer and Salovey, plus a reliable source defining emotional/subjective wellbeing.
* '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing.
* '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing.
* '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.)  '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management.
* '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.)  '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing.

== Focus Questions ==

* What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?
* What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?
* How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?
* How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?
* Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?
* How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?

== What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood.

== Defining emotional intelligence ==

* Introduce emotional intelligence.
* Explain that EI concerns the processing and management of emotional information.
* Explain that EI is not simply &quot;being emotional&quot; or &quot;being a nice person&quot;.
* Introduce major conceptualisations of EI.
* Explain why differences in definitions matter when examining research.

=== Ability model of emotional intelligence ===
Introduce Mayer and Salovey's ability model.

Explain the four branches:

# Perceiving emotions
# Using emotions to facilitate thought
# Understanding emotions
# Managing emotions

Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing.

'''Figure 1. The four-branch model of emotional intelligence'''

Create a simple diagram showing:

Perceiving emotions → Using emotions → Understanding emotions → Managing emotions

== Trait emotional intelligence ==

* Explain trait EI.
* Distinguish trait EI from ability EI.
* Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies.
* Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing.

== Defining emotional wellbeing ==

* Define emotional wellbeing.
* Explain that wellbeing is not simply the absence of mental illness.
* Discuss positive and negative affect.
* Discuss emotional functioning and life satisfaction where relevant.
* Explain that experiencing negative emotions does not automatically indicate poor emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional wellbeing versus always feeling positive ===
A useful distinction should be established here:

Emotionally healthy people can still experience sadness, anger, anxiety, disappointment, and stress.

Healthy emotional functioning may instead involve recognising emotions, understanding their causes, regulating them appropriately, and recovering from difficult experiences.

== Key points ==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

=== Table 1. Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Concept
!Central concern
!Example
|-
|Emotional intelligence
|Processing, understanding and managing emotional information
|Recognising why you feel anxious and choosing an appropriate response
|-
|Emotional wellbeing
|Quality of emotional experience and functioning
|Experiencing manageable negative emotion while maintaining positive functioning
|-
|Emotion regulation
|Influencing emotional experiences or responses
|Reappraising a stressful situation rather than reacting impulsively
|}
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]]</text>
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__TOC__
== Overview ==

'''Scenario'''
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict.

Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively.

Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations?

One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence (EI) the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing.

Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically.

Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}[[File:Student studying 26.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' A ''university student experiencing academic stress. Recognising and managing emotional responses to stressful situations may involve emotional intelligence.'']]
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

=== Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
[[File:Model of EI.png|thumb|Figure 1. ''Mayor and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]
Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways.

* '''What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Define emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Explain that emotional intelligence generally involves recognising, understanding, using, and managing emotions. Explain emotional wellbeing and clarify that wellbeing does not simply mean always experiencing positive emotions. Introduce the idea that there are different models of emotional intelligence.)  '''Research needed:''' A foundational source defining emotional intelligence, such as Mayer and Salovey, plus a reliable source defining emotional/subjective wellbeing.
* '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing.
* '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing.
* '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.)  '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management.
* '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.)  '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing.

== Focus Questions ==

* What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?
* What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?
* How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?
* How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?
* Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?
* How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?

== What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood.

== Defining emotional intelligence ==

* Introduce emotional intelligence.
* Explain that EI concerns the processing and management of emotional information.
* Explain that EI is not simply &quot;being emotional&quot; or &quot;being a nice person&quot;.
* Introduce major conceptualisations of EI.
* Explain why differences in definitions matter when examining research.

=== Ability model of emotional intelligence ===
Introduce Mayer and Salovey's ability model.

Explain the four branches:

# Perceiving emotions
# Using emotions to facilitate thought
# Understanding emotions
# Managing emotions

Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing.

'''Figure 1. The four-branch model of emotional intelligence'''

Create a simple diagram showing:

Perceiving emotions → Using emotions → Understanding emotions → Managing emotions

== Trait emotional intelligence ==

* Explain trait EI.
* Distinguish trait EI from ability EI.
* Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies.
* Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing.

== Defining emotional wellbeing ==

* Define emotional wellbeing.
* Explain that wellbeing is not simply the absence of mental illness.
* Discuss positive and negative affect.
* Discuss emotional functioning and life satisfaction where relevant.
* Explain that experiencing negative emotions does not automatically indicate poor emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional wellbeing versus always feeling positive ===
A useful distinction should be established here:

Emotionally healthy people can still experience sadness, anger, anxiety, disappointment, and stress.

Healthy emotional functioning may instead involve recognising emotions, understanding their causes, regulating them appropriately, and recovering from difficult experiences.

== Key points ==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

=== Table 1. Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Concept
!Central concern
!Example
|-
|Emotional intelligence
|Processing, understanding and managing emotional information
|Recognising why you feel anxious and choosing an appropriate response
|-
|Emotional wellbeing
|Quality of emotional experience and functioning
|Experiencing manageable negative emotion while maintaining positive functioning
|-
|Emotion regulation
|Influencing emotional experiences or responses
|Reappraising a stressful situation rather than reacting impulsively
|}
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
** Emotional wellbeing involves healthy emotional experience and functioning rather than simply experiencing positive emotions.
** Research suggests that higher emotional intelligence is generally associated with better indicators of wellbeing.
** Emotion regulation, coping and interpersonal functioning may help explain this relationship.
** Different EI components and models may show different relationships with wellbeing.
** Emotional intelligence may be partly developable, creating potential applications for wellbeing interventions.
** or universal cause of emotional wellbeing.  Return briefly to Sophie:  Sophie's situation demonstrates that emotional intelligence does not remove disappointment, stress, or conflict. Instead, emotional abilities may help her recognise what she is experiencing, understand why she feels that way, regulate her response, and choose behaviours that support her wellbeing.  The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]]</text>
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        <id>3106753</id>
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__TOC__
== Overview ==

'''Scenario'''
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict.

Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively.

Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations?

One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence (EI) the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing.

Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically.

Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}[[File:Student studying 26.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' A ''university student experiencing academic stress. Recognising and managing emotional responses to stressful situations may involve emotional intelligence.'']]
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

=== Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
[[File:Model of EI.png|thumb|Figure 1. ''Mayor and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]
Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways.

* '''What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Define emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Explain that emotional intelligence generally involves recognising, understanding, using, and managing emotions. Explain emotional wellbeing and clarify that wellbeing does not simply mean always experiencing positive emotions. Introduce the idea that there are different models of emotional intelligence.)  '''Research needed:''' A foundational source defining emotional intelligence, such as Mayer and Salovey, plus a reliable source defining emotional/subjective wellbeing.
* '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing.
* '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing.
* '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.)  '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management.
* '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.)  '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing.

== Focus Questions ==

* What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?
* What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?
* How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?
* How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?
* Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?
* How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?

== What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood.

== Defining emotional intelligence ==

* Introduce emotional intelligence.
* Explain that EI concerns the processing and management of emotional information.
* Explain that EI is not simply &quot;being emotional&quot; or &quot;being a nice person&quot;.
* Introduce major conceptualisations of EI.
* Explain why differences in definitions matter when examining research.

=== Ability model of emotional intelligence ===
Introduce Mayer and Salovey's ability model.

Explain the four branches:

# Perceiving emotions
# Using emotions to facilitate thought
# Understanding emotions
# Managing emotions

Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing.

'''Figure 1. The four-branch model of emotional intelligence'''

Create a simple diagram showing:

Perceiving emotions → Using emotions → Understanding emotions → Managing emotions

== Trait emotional intelligence ==

* Explain trait EI.
* Distinguish trait EI from ability EI.
* Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies.
* Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing.

== Defining emotional wellbeing ==

* Define emotional wellbeing.
* Explain that wellbeing is not simply the absence of mental illness.
* Discuss positive and negative affect.
* Discuss emotional functioning and life satisfaction where relevant.
* Explain that experiencing negative emotions does not automatically indicate poor emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional wellbeing versus always feeling positive ===
A useful distinction should be established here:

Emotionally healthy people can still experience sadness, anger, anxiety, disappointment, and stress.

Healthy emotional functioning may instead involve recognising emotions, understanding their causes, regulating them appropriately, and recovering from difficult experiences.

== Key points ==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

=== Table 1. Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Concept
!Central concern
!Example
|-
|Emotional intelligence
|Processing, understanding and managing emotional information
|Recognising why you feel anxious and choosing an appropriate response
|-
|Emotional wellbeing
|Quality of emotional experience and functioning
|Experiencing manageable negative emotion while maintaining positive functioning
|-
|Emotion regulation
|Influencing emotional experiences or responses
|Reappraising a stressful situation rather than reacting impulsively
|}
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
** Emotional wellbeing involves healthy emotional experience and functioning rather than simply experiencing positive emotions.
** Research suggests that higher emotional intelligence is generally associated with better indicators of wellbeing.
** Emotion regulation, coping and interpersonal functioning may help explain this relationship.
** Different EI components and models may show different relationships with wellbeing.
** Emotional intelligence may be partly developable, creating potential applications for wellbeing interventions.
** or universal cause of emotional wellbeing.  Return briefly to Sophie:  Sophie's situation demonstrates that emotional intelligence does not remove disappointment, stress, or conflict. Instead, emotional abilities may help her recognise what she is experiencing, understand why she feels that way, regulate her response, and choose behaviours that support her wellbeing.  
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]]</text>
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__TOC__
== Overview ==

'''Scenario'''
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict.

Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively.

Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations?

One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence (EI) the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing.

Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically.

Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}[[File:Student studying 26.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' A ''university student experiencing academic stress. Recognising and managing emotional responses to stressful situations may involve emotional intelligence.'']]
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

=== Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
[[File:Model of EI.png|thumb|Figure 1. ''Mayor and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]
Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways.

* '''What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Define emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Explain that emotional intelligence generally involves recognising, understanding, using, and managing emotions. Explain emotional wellbeing and clarify that wellbeing does not simply mean always experiencing positive emotions. Introduce the idea that there are different models of emotional intelligence.)  '''Research needed:''' A foundational source defining emotional intelligence, such as Mayer and Salovey, plus a reliable source defining emotional/subjective wellbeing.
* '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing.
* '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing.
* '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.)  '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management.
* '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.)  '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing.

== Focus Questions ==

* What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?
* What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?
* How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?
* How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?
* Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?
* How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?

== What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood.

== Defining emotional intelligence ==

* Introduce emotional intelligence.
* Explain that EI concerns the processing and management of emotional information.
* Explain that EI is not simply &quot;being emotional&quot; or &quot;being a nice person&quot;.
* Introduce major conceptualisations of EI.
* Explain why differences in definitions matter when examining research.

=== Ability model of emotional intelligence ===
Introduce Mayer and Salovey's ability model.

Explain the four branches:

# Perceiving emotions
# Using emotions to facilitate thought
# Understanding emotions
# Managing emotions

Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing.

'''Figure 1. The four-branch model of emotional intelligence'''

Create a simple diagram showing:

Perceiving emotions → Using emotions → Understanding emotions → Managing emotions

== Trait emotional intelligence ==

* Explain trait EI.
* Distinguish trait EI from ability EI.
* Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies.
* Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing.

== Defining emotional wellbeing ==

* Define emotional wellbeing.
* Explain that wellbeing is not simply the absence of mental illness.
* Discuss positive and negative affect.
* Discuss emotional functioning and life satisfaction where relevant.
* Explain that experiencing negative emotions does not automatically indicate poor emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional wellbeing versus always feeling positive ===
A useful distinction should be established here:

Emotionally healthy people can still experience sadness, anger, anxiety, disappointment, and stress.

Healthy emotional functioning may instead involve recognising emotions, understanding their causes, regulating them appropriately, and recovering from difficult experiences.

== Key points ==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

=== Table 1. Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Concept
!Central concern
!Example
|-
|Emotional intelligence
|Processing, understanding and managing emotional information
|Recognising why you feel anxious and choosing an appropriate response
|-
|Emotional wellbeing
|Quality of emotional experience and functioning
|Experiencing manageable negative emotion while maintaining positive functioning
|-
|Emotion regulation
|Influencing emotional experiences or responses
|Reappraising a stressful situation rather than reacting impulsively
|}
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;


= What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? =
Research generally suggests an association between emotional intelligence and indicators of psychological and emotional wellbeing. However, understanding this relationship requires examining the type of emotional intelligence being measured and the specific aspect of wellbeing being considered.

== Emotional intelligence and positive wellbeing ==
Discuss research examining associations between higher EI and:

* positive affect
* life satisfaction
* happiness
* psychological wellbeing
* subjective wellbeing

Explain the strength and nature of these associations rather than simply saying &quot;EI causes happiness&quot;.

'''Return to Sophie:'''

Sophie's emotional intelligence would not prevent her from feeling disappointed. Instead, emotional abilities might influence how she processes and responds to that disappointment.

== Emotional intelligence and positive wellbeing ==
Discuss research examining associations between higher EI and:

* positive affect
* life satisfaction
* happiness
* psychological wellbeing
* subjective wellbeing

Explain the strength and nature of these associations rather than simply saying &quot;EI causes happiness&quot;.

'''Return to Sophie:'''

Sophie's emotional intelligence would not prevent her from feeling disappointed. Instead, emotional abilities might influence how she processes and responds to that disappointment.

== Emotional intelligence and negative emotional experiences ==
Discuss associations between EI and:

* stress
* emotional distress
* anxiety/depressive symptoms where appropriate
* negative affect
* difficulty coping with emotional experiences

Make an important distinction:

'''High EI ≠ absence of negative emotion.'''

Instead, emotionally intelligent individuals may be better equipped to recognise, interpret and regulate difficult emotions.

== Trait versus ability emotional intelligence ==
Compare findings for trait and ability EI.

Possible discussion:

* Trait EI often shows stronger associations with self-reported wellbeing.
* Some of this relationship could occur because both constructs involve self-perceptions.
* Ability EI uses performance-based measures and may show different relationships.
* Therefore, results depend partly on how EI is conceptualised and measured.

=== Take-home message ===
Emotional intelligence is associated with emotional wellbeing, but this does not mean that emotionally intelligent people are constantly happy. EI may instead provide emotional skills and resources that support healthier responses to positive and negative experiences.

= How might emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? =
An association between EI and wellbeing does not explain why they are related. Several psychological processes may help explain how emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing.

== Emotional awareness and perception ==

* Explain recognising emotions accurately.
* Explain how identifying emotional states may allow people to respond appropriately.
* Discuss consequences of difficulty identifying emotions.
* Connect emotional awareness with wellbeing.

'''Sophie example:''' Sophie recognising that she feels embarrassed and disappointed gives her more information than simply thinking, &quot;I feel terrible.&quot;

== Understanding emotions ==
'''Discuss the ability to understand:'''

* what caused an emotion
* how emotions may change
* combinations of emotions
* consequences of emotional states

Explain how understanding emotions may reduce confusion and facilitate adaptive responses.

For Sophie:&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;I'm angry because I'm disappointed with my result&quot; creates a different basis for action than simply experiencing unexplained distress.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

== Emotion regulation ==
This should probably be one of your biggest sections because it directly connects EI to emotional wellbeing.

'''Discuss:'''

* What emotion regulation is.
* Adaptive versus maladaptive regulation.
* Cognitive reappraisal.
* Suppression where relevant.
* How EI could facilitate the selection of appropriate regulation strategies.
* Why regulation does not mean suppressing or eliminating negative emotions.

=== Figure 2. Possible pathway between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
'''Emotional event'''


'''Emotion perception'''

&quot;What am I feeling?&quot;


'''Emotion understanding'''

&quot;Why am I feeling this?&quot;


'''Emotion regulation'''

&quot;What is an appropriate way to respond?&quot;


'''Emotional wellbeing'''

Explain that the process is not necessarily this simple or linear, but the figure illustrates one pathway through which EI could support wellbeing.

==Conclusion==
** Emotional wellbeing involves healthy emotional experience and functioning rather than simply experiencing positive emotions.
** Research suggests that higher emotional intelligence is generally associated with better indicators of wellbeing.
** Emotion regulation, coping and interpersonal functioning may help explain this relationship.
** Different EI components and models may show different relationships with wellbeing.
** Emotional intelligence may be partly developable, creating potential applications for wellbeing interventions.
** or universal cause of emotional wellbeing.  Return briefly to Sophie:  Sophie's situation demonstrates that emotional intelligence does not remove disappointment, stress, or conflict. Instead, emotional abilities may help her recognise what she is experiencing, understand why she feels that way, regulate her response, and choose behaviours that support her wellbeing.  
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]]</text>
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__TOC__
== Overview ==

'''Scenario'''
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict.

Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively.

Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations?

One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence (EI) the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing.

Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically.

Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}[[File:Student studying 26.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' A ''university student experiencing academic stress. Recognising and managing emotional responses to stressful situations may involve emotional intelligence.'']]
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

=== Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
[[File:Model of EI.png|thumb|Figure 1. ''Mayor and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]
Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways.

* '''What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Define emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Explain that emotional intelligence generally involves recognising, understanding, using, and managing emotions. Explain emotional wellbeing and clarify that wellbeing does not simply mean always experiencing positive emotions. Introduce the idea that there are different models of emotional intelligence.)  '''Research needed:''' A foundational source defining emotional intelligence, such as Mayer and Salovey, plus a reliable source defining emotional/subjective wellbeing.
* '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing.
* '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing.
* '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.)  '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management.
* '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.)  '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing.

== Focus Questions ==

* What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?
* What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?
* How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?
* How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?
* Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?
* How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?

== What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood.

== Defining emotional intelligence ==

* Introduce emotional intelligence.
* Explain that EI concerns the processing and management of emotional information.
* Explain that EI is not simply &quot;being emotional&quot; or &quot;being a nice person&quot;.
* Introduce major conceptualisations of EI.
* Explain why differences in definitions matter when examining research.

=== Ability model of emotional intelligence ===
Introduce Mayer and Salovey's ability model.

Explain the four branches:

# Perceiving emotions
# Using emotions to facilitate thought
# Understanding emotions
# Managing emotions

Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing.

'''Figure 1. The four-branch model of emotional intelligence'''

Create a simple diagram showing:

Perceiving emotions → Using emotions → Understanding emotions → Managing emotions

== Trait emotional intelligence ==

* Explain trait EI.
* Distinguish trait EI from ability EI.
* Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies.
* Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing.

== Defining emotional wellbeing ==

* Define emotional wellbeing.
* Explain that wellbeing is not simply the absence of mental illness.
* Discuss positive and negative affect.
* Discuss emotional functioning and life satisfaction where relevant.
* Explain that experiencing negative emotions does not automatically indicate poor emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional wellbeing versus always feeling positive ===
A useful distinction should be established here:

Emotionally healthy people can still experience sadness, anger, anxiety, disappointment, and stress.

Healthy emotional functioning may instead involve recognising emotions, understanding their causes, regulating them appropriately, and recovering from difficult experiences.

== Key points ==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

=== Table 1. Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Concept
!Central concern
!Example
|-
|Emotional intelligence
|Processing, understanding and managing emotional information
|Recognising why you feel anxious and choosing an appropriate response
|-
|Emotional wellbeing
|Quality of emotional experience and functioning
|Experiencing manageable negative emotion while maintaining positive functioning
|-
|Emotion regulation
|Influencing emotional experiences or responses
|Reappraising a stressful situation rather than reacting impulsively
|}
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;


= Which components of emotional intelligence matter most? =
Although emotional intelligence is often discussed as a single construct, its components may not contribute equally to wellbeing.

== Emotion perception ==

* Benefits of recognising emotional states.
* Importance of identifying emotional cues.
* Potential limitations: recognising an emotion alone does not guarantee effective management.

== Emotion understanding ==

* Understanding causes and consequences.
* Emotional complexity.
* How understanding may facilitate coping and regulation.

== Emotion regulation and management ==
This is likely to be especially important.

Discuss evidence connecting effective emotion regulation with:

* positive affect
* reduced emotional distress
* resilience
* coping
* wellbeing

Explain why regulation could potentially mediate the relationship between EI and wellbeing.

== Interpersonal emotional abilities ==
Discuss:

* understanding others' emotions
* social functioning
* conflict management
* supportive relationships

=== Table 2. How components of emotional intelligence may support emotional wellbeing ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|EI component
|Potential contribution to wellbeing
|-
|Emotion perception
|Helps identify emotional states and relevant cues
|-
|Emotion understanding
|Helps interpret causes and changes in emotions
|-
|Emotion regulation
|Supports adaptive responses to difficult emotional experiences
|-
|Interpersonal emotional skills
|May facilitate communication and supportive relationships
|}

= Can emotional intelligence be developed to improve emotional wellbeing? =
If EI contributes to emotional wellbeing, an important practical question is whether these emotional abilities can be improved.

== Can emotional intelligence change? ==

* Discuss whether EI is stable or malleable.
* Introduce EI training/intervention research.
* Distinguish trait-like characteristics from trainable emotional skills.
* Avoid claiming that EI can always be dramatically increased.

== Emotional intelligence interventions ==
Discuss interventions that may involve:

* recognising emotions
* emotional vocabulary
* understanding emotional triggers
* perspective-taking
* emotion regulation strategies
* communication skills

Then evaluate whether interventions actually improve EI and/or wellbeing.

== Applying emotional intelligence in everyday life ==
Use psychological evidence rather than turning the section into generic self-help advice.

Possible applications include:

* identifying emotions before responding
* considering what triggered an emotional response
* distinguishing emotions from interpretations
* selecting context-appropriate regulation strategies
* communicating emotional experiences effectively
* seeking social support

== Limitations and cautions ==
This section will make the chapter more critical rather than simply arguing that &quot;high EI = good&quot;.

Discuss:

* Different definitions and measures of EI.
* Heavy reliance on self-report measures in some research.
* Correlation does not establish causation.
* EI may overlap with personality characteristics.
* Wellbeing itself has different definitions.
* Context matters.
* Emotion regulation strategies are not universally adaptive.
* High emotional intelligence does not protect someone from every stressful experience or mental health difficulty.

=== Take-home message ===
Emotional intelligence may provide skills that support emotional wellbeing, particularly through emotional awareness, understanding, regulation, coping, and interpersonal functioning. However, its benefits depend on context, how EI is conceptualised, and how emotional abilities are applied.

==Conclusion==
** Emotional wellbeing involves healthy emotional experience and functioning rather than simply experiencing positive emotions.
** Research suggests that higher emotional intelligence is generally associated with better indicators of wellbeing.
** Emotion regulation, coping and interpersonal functioning may help explain this relationship.
** Different EI components and models may show different relationships with wellbeing.
** Emotional intelligence may be partly developable, creating potential applications for wellbeing interventions.
** or universal cause of emotional wellbeing.  Return briefly to Sophie:  Sophie's situation demonstrates that emotional intelligence does not remove disappointment, stress, or conflict. Instead, emotional abilities may help her recognise what she is experiencing, understand why she feels that way, regulate her response, and choose behaviours that support her wellbeing.  
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* Emotional intelligence
* Emotion regulation
* Subjective wellbeing
* Psychological wellbeing
* Coping
* Stress
* Positive psychology

Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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__TOC__
== Overview ==

'''Scenario'''
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict.

Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively.

Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations?

One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence (EI) the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing.

Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically.

Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}[[File:Student studying 26.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' A ''university student experiencing academic stress. Recognising and managing emotional responses to stressful situations may involve emotional intelligence.'']]
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

=== Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways.

* '''What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Define emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Explain that emotional intelligence generally involves recognising, understanding, using, and managing emotions. Explain emotional wellbeing and clarify that wellbeing does not simply mean always experiencing positive emotions. Introduce the idea that there are different models of emotional intelligence.)  '''Research needed:''' A foundational source defining emotional intelligence, such as Mayer and Salovey, plus a reliable source defining emotional/subjective wellbeing.
* '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing.
* '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing.
* '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.)  '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management.
* '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.)  '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing.

== Focus Questions ==

* What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?
* What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?
* How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?
* How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?
* Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?
* How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?

== What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood.

== Defining emotional intelligence ==

* Introduce emotional intelligence.
* Explain that EI concerns the processing and management of emotional information.
* Explain that EI is not simply &quot;being emotional&quot; or &quot;being a nice person&quot;.
* Introduce major conceptualisations of EI.
* Explain why differences in definitions matter when examining research.

=== '''Ability model of emotional intelligence''' ===
Introduce Mayer and Salovey's ability model.

Explain the four branches:

# Perceiving emotions
# Using emotions to facilitate thought
# Understanding emotions[[File:Model of EI.png|thumb|Figure 1. ''Mayor and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]Managing emotions

Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing.

'''Figure 1. The four-branch model of emotional intelligence'''

Create a simple diagram showing:

Perceiving emotions → Using emotions → Understanding emotions → Managing emotions

== Trait emotional intelligence ==

* Explain trait EI.
* Distinguish trait EI from ability EI.
* Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies.
* Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing.

== What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
After defining both concepts, this section examines what psychological research shows about the overall relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional intelligence and positive wellbeing ===

* Examine whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional wellbeing.
* Discuss research involving positive affect, happiness, life satisfaction, and subjective or psychological wellbeing.
* Explain the strength of the relationship where research allows.
* Avoid assuming that emotional intelligence directly causes greater happiness.

=== Emotional intelligence and negative emotional experiences ===

* Examine the relationship between EI and stress.
* Discuss emotional distress and negative affect.
* Consider relevant research involving anxiety or depressive symptoms.
* Explain that higher EI does not mean that someone will never experience negative emotions.
* Instead, people with stronger emotional abilities may be better able to understand and respond to difficult emotions.

=== Trait and ability emotional intelligence ===

* Compare research findings for trait and ability EI.
* Examine whether trait EI shows different relationships with wellbeing than ability EI.
* Consider how the way EI is measured could influence research findings.
* Discuss the limitations of relying heavily on self-report measures.

=== What does the evidence tell us? ===

* Bring the research together.
* Establish whether there is consistent evidence for an association between EI and emotional wellbeing.
* Distinguish correlation from causation.
* Identify any inconsistencies or limitations in the evidence.

== How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? ==
Finding an association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing does not necessarily explain why the two are related. Several psychological processes may help explain how emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional awareness and perception ===

* Explain the importance of accurately recognising emotions.
* Discuss how identifying an emotional state can help a person decide how to respond.
* Explain what may happen when people have difficulty recognising their emotions.
* Connect emotional awareness with emotional wellbeing.

=== Understanding emotions ===

* Discuss the ability to understand why an emotion has occurred.
* Explain how people can recognise changes and combinations of emotions.
* Consider how understanding the causes and consequences of emotions may support emotional functioning.
* Explain how emotional understanding may make it easier to choose an appropriate response.

=== Emotion regulation ===

* Define emotion regulation.
* Explain how EI may support the regulation of difficult emotional experiences.
* Discuss adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies.
* Consider cognitive reappraisal and suppression where relevant.
* Explain that regulating an emotion does not necessarily mean removing or suppressing it.
* Examine whether emotion regulation helps explain the relationship between EI and wellbeing.

=== Coping with stress ===

* Examine how EI may influence responses to stressful situations.
* Discuss appraisal and coping strategies.
* Consider emotional recovery and resilience.
* Connect effective coping with emotional wellbeing.

=== Social relationships and support ===

* Explain how EI may help people recognise other people's emotions.
* Discuss emotional communication.
* Examine interpersonal conflict and relationship management.
* Consider whether stronger relationships and social support provide another pathway between EI and wellbeing.

'''Figure 3. Possible pathways through which emotional intelligence may support emotional wellbeing.'''

Emotional intelligence may contribute to emotional wellbeing through several interacting processes, including emotional awareness, understanding, emotion regulation, coping with stress, and social functioning. These processes may work together rather than occurring in a simple step-by-step sequence.

== Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? ==
Although emotional intelligence is often discussed as a single concept, its individual components may not contribute equally to emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotion perception ===

* Examine the benefits of accurately recognising emotional states.
* Discuss the importance of identifying emotional cues in oneself and others.
* Consider limitations: recognising an emotion does not necessarily mean someone will manage it effectively.

=== Using emotions ===

* Explain what it means to use emotions to support thinking.
* Discuss how emotional information may guide attention, judgement, or problem-solving.
* Examine whether this component has a clear relationship with emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotion understanding ===

* Discuss understanding the causes and consequences of emotions.
* Consider emotional complexity and changes in emotional states.
* Examine how understanding emotions may support coping and regulation.

=== Emotion regulation and management ===

* Examine whether emotion regulation is particularly strongly related to emotional wellbeing.
* Discuss positive affect and negative affect.
* Consider emotional distress.
* Examine connections with resilience and coping.
* Consider whether emotion regulation could help explain the broader relationship between EI and wellbeing.

=== Comparing the components ===

* Compare evidence across the different EI components.
* Consider whether any component appears particularly important for wellbeing.
* Avoid assuming that emotion regulation is the most important unless the research supports this conclusion.
* Consider whether the different abilities work together.

'''Table 1. Components of emotional intelligence and their possible contributions to emotional wellbeing'''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!EI component
!Possible contribution to emotional wellbeing
|-
|Emotion perception
|Helps people recognise their own and others' emotional states
|-
|Using emotions
|May help emotional information guide thinking and attention
|-
|Emotion understanding
|Helps people understand the causes, changes, and consequences of emotions
|-
|Emotion regulation
|May support adaptive responses to difficult emotional experiences
|}

== How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? ==
If emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing, an important practical question is whether these abilities can be strengthened.

=== Can emotional intelligence be developed? ===

* Examine whether emotional intelligence is stable or can change.
* Consider differences between trait-like characteristics and emotional abilities that can be learned.
* Introduce research on EI training and interventions.

=== Emotional intelligence interventions ===

* Examine interventions designed to improve emotional intelligence.
* Consider training in:
** recognising emotions
** emotional vocabulary
** understanding emotional triggers
** perspective-taking
** emotion regulation
** interpersonal communication
* Examine whether these interventions actually improve emotional intelligence.
* More importantly, consider whether improvements in EI lead to improvements in wellbeing.

=== Applying emotional intelligence ===

* Discuss evidence-based ways emotional abilities could be applied in everyday life.
* Consider recognising emotions before responding.
* Understanding emotional triggers.
* Choosing appropriate emotion regulation strategies.
* Communicating emotions effectively.
* Seeking and maintaining social support.

=== Limitations and cautions ===

* Different definitions and measures of EI make research difficult to compare.
* Some research relies heavily on self-report measures.
* Associations between EI and wellbeing do not necessarily establish causation.
* EI may overlap with personality and other psychological characteristics.
* Emotional wellbeing is also defined and measured in different ways.
* The effectiveness of emotion regulation strategies can depend on the situation.
* Higher emotional intelligence does not prevent people from experiencing stress, negative emotions, or mental health difficulties.

=== Emotional wellbeing versus always feeling positive ===
A useful distinction should be established here:

Emotionally healthy people can still experience sadness, anger, anxiety, disappointment, and stress.

Healthy emotional functioning may instead involve recognising emotions, understanding their causes, regulating them appropriately, and recovering from difficult experiences.

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

=== Table 1. Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Concept
!Central concern
!Example
|-
|Emotional intelligence
|Processing, understanding and managing emotional information
|Recognising why you feel anxious and choosing an appropriate response
|-
|Emotional wellbeing
|Quality of emotional experience and functioning
|Experiencing manageable negative emotion while maintaining positive functioning
|-
|Emotion regulation
|Influencing emotional experiences or responses
|Reappraising a stressful situation rather than reacting impulsively
|}
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;


==Conclusion==
** Emotional wellbeing involves healthy emotional experience and functioning rather than simply experiencing positive emotions.
** Research suggests that higher emotional intelligence is generally associated with better indicators of wellbeing.
** Emotion regulation, coping and interpersonal functioning may help explain this relationship.
** Different EI components and models may show different relationships with wellbeing.
** Emotional intelligence may be partly developable, creating potential applications for wellbeing interventions.
** or universal cause of emotional wellbeing.  Return briefly to Sophie:  Sophie's situation demonstrates that emotional intelligence does not remove disappointment, stress, or conflict. Instead, emotional abilities may help her recognise what she is experiencing, understand why she feels that way, regulate her response, and choose behaviours that support her wellbeing.  
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* Emotional intelligence
* Emotion regulation
* Subjective wellbeing
* Psychological wellbeing
* Coping
* Stress
* Positive psychology

Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]]</text>
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__TOC__
== Overview ==

'''Scenario'''
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict.

Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively.

Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations?

One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence (EI) the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing.

Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically.

Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
=== Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways.

* '''What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Define emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Explain that emotional intelligence generally involves recognising, understanding, using, and managing emotions. Explain emotional wellbeing and clarify that wellbeing does not simply mean always experiencing positive emotions. Introduce the idea that there are different models of emotional intelligence.)  '''Research needed:''' A foundational source defining emotional intelligence, such as Mayer and Salovey, plus a reliable source defining emotional/subjective wellbeing.[[File:Student studying 26.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' ''A university student experiencing academic stress. Recognising and managing emotional responses to stressful situations may involve emotional intelligence.'']]
* '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing.
* '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing.
* '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.)  '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management.
* '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.)  '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing.

== Focus Questions ==

* {{RoundBoxTop}}

1. What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? 

2. What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?

3. How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?

4. How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?

5. Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?

6. How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?  {{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood.

=== Defining emotional intelligence ===
* Introduce emotional intelligence.
* Explain that EI concerns the processing and management of emotional information.
* Explain that EI is not simply &quot;being emotional&quot; or &quot;being a nice person&quot;.
* Introduce major conceptualisations of EI.
* Explain why differences in definitions matter when examining research.

==== '''Ability model of emotional intelligence''' ====
Introduce Mayer and Salovey's ability model.

Explain the four branches:

# Perceiving emotions
# Using emotions to facilitate thought
# Understanding emotions[[File:Model of EI.png|thumb|Figure 2. ''Mayor and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]Managing emotions

Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing.

'''Figure 2. The four-branch model of emotional intelligence'''

Create a simple diagram showing:

Perceiving emotions → Using emotions → Understanding emotions → Managing emotions

== Trait emotional intelligence ==

* Explain trait EI.
* Distinguish trait EI from ability EI.
* Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies.
* Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing.

== What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
After defining both concepts, this section examines what psychological research shows about the overall relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional intelligence and positive wellbeing ===

* Examine whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional wellbeing.
* Discuss research involving positive affect, happiness, life satisfaction, and subjective or psychological wellbeing.
* Explain the strength of the relationship where research allows.
* Avoid assuming that emotional intelligence directly causes greater happiness.

=== Emotional intelligence and negative emotional experiences ===

* Examine the relationship between EI and stress.
* Discuss emotional distress and negative affect.
* Consider relevant research involving anxiety or depressive symptoms.
* Explain that higher EI does not mean that someone will never experience negative emotions.
* Instead, people with stronger emotional abilities may be better able to understand and respond to difficult emotions.

=== Trait and ability emotional intelligence ===

* Compare research findings for trait and ability EI.
* Examine whether trait EI shows different relationships with wellbeing than ability EI.
* Consider how the way EI is measured could influence research findings.
* Discuss the limitations of relying heavily on self-report measures.

=== What does the evidence tell us? ===

* Bring the research together.
* Establish whether there is consistent evidence for an association between EI and emotional wellbeing.
* Distinguish correlation from causation.
* Identify any inconsistencies or limitations in the evidence.

== How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? ==
Finding an association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing does not necessarily explain why the two are related. Several psychological processes may help explain how emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional awareness and perception ===

* Explain the importance of accurately recognising emotions.
* Discuss how identifying an emotional state can help a person decide how to respond.
* Explain what may happen when people have difficulty recognising their emotions.
* Connect emotional awareness with emotional wellbeing.

=== Understanding emotions ===

* Discuss the ability to understand why an emotion has occurred.
* Explain how people can recognise changes and combinations of emotions.
* Consider how understanding the causes and consequences of emotions may support emotional functioning.
* Explain how emotional understanding may make it easier to choose an appropriate response.

=== Emotion regulation ===

* Define emotion regulation.
* Explain how EI may support the regulation of difficult emotional experiences.
* Discuss adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies.
* Consider cognitive reappraisal and suppression where relevant.
* Explain that regulating an emotion does not necessarily mean removing or suppressing it.
* Examine whether emotion regulation helps explain the relationship between EI and wellbeing.

=== Coping with stress ===

* Examine how EI may influence responses to stressful situations.
* Discuss appraisal and coping strategies.
* Consider emotional recovery and resilience.
* Connect effective coping with emotional wellbeing.

=== Social relationships and support ===

* Explain how EI may help people recognise other people's emotions.
* Discuss emotional communication.
* Examine interpersonal conflict and relationship management.
* Consider whether stronger relationships and social support provide another pathway between EI and wellbeing.

'''Figure 3. Possible pathways through which emotional intelligence may support emotional wellbeing.'''

Emotional intelligence may contribute to emotional wellbeing through several interacting processes, including emotional awareness, understanding, emotion regulation, coping with stress, and social functioning. These processes may work together rather than occurring in a simple step-by-step sequence.

== Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? ==
Although emotional intelligence is often discussed as a single concept, its individual components may not contribute equally to emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotion perception ===

* Examine the benefits of accurately recognising emotional states.
* Discuss the importance of identifying emotional cues in oneself and others.
* Consider limitations: recognising an emotion does not necessarily mean someone will manage it effectively.

=== Using emotions ===

* Explain what it means to use emotions to support thinking.
* Discuss how emotional information may guide attention, judgement, or problem-solving.
* Examine whether this component has a clear relationship with emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotion understanding ===

* Discuss understanding the causes and consequences of emotions.
* Consider emotional complexity and changes in emotional states.
* Examine how understanding emotions may support coping and regulation.

=== Emotion regulation and management ===

* Examine whether emotion regulation is particularly strongly related to emotional wellbeing.
* Discuss positive affect and negative affect.
* Consider emotional distress.
* Examine connections with resilience and coping.
* Consider whether emotion regulation could help explain the broader relationship between EI and wellbeing.

=== Comparing the components ===

* Compare evidence across the different EI components.
* Consider whether any component appears particularly important for wellbeing.
* Avoid assuming that emotion regulation is the most important unless the research supports this conclusion.
* Consider whether the different abilities work together.

== Table 1. Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Concept
!Central concern
!Example
|-
|Emotional intelligence
|Processing, understanding and managing emotional information
|Recognising why you feel anxious and choosing an appropriate response
|-
|Emotional wellbeing
|Quality of emotional experience and functioning
|Experiencing manageable negative emotion while maintaining positive functioning
|-
|Emotion regulation
|Influencing emotional experiences or responses
|Reappraising a stressful situation rather than reacting impulsively
|}

== How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? ==
If emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing, an important practical question is whether these abilities can be strengthened.

=== Can emotional intelligence be developed? ===

* Examine whether emotional intelligence is stable or can change.
* Consider differences between trait-like characteristics and emotional abilities that can be learned.
* Introduce research on EI training and interventions.

=== Emotional intelligence interventions ===

* Examine interventions designed to improve emotional intelligence.
* Consider training in:
** recognising emotions
** emotional vocabulary
** understanding emotional triggers
** perspective-taking
** emotion regulation
** interpersonal communication
* Examine whether these interventions actually improve emotional intelligence.
* More importantly, consider whether improvements in EI lead to improvements in wellbeing.

=== Applying emotional intelligence ===

* Discuss evidence-based ways emotional abilities could be applied in everyday life.
* Consider recognising emotions before responding.
* Understanding emotional triggers.
* Choosing appropriate emotion regulation strategies.
* Communicating emotions effectively.
* Seeking and maintaining social support.

=== Limitations and cautions ===

* Different definitions and measures of EI make research difficult to compare.
* Some research relies heavily on self-report measures.
* Associations between EI and wellbeing do not necessarily establish causation.
* EI may overlap with personality and other psychological characteristics.
* Emotional wellbeing is also defined and measured in different ways.
* The effectiveness of emotion regulation strategies can depend on the situation.
* Higher emotional intelligence does not prevent people from experiencing stress, negative emotions, or mental health difficulties.

=== Emotional wellbeing versus always feeling positive ===
A useful distinction should be established here:

Emotionally healthy people can still experience sadness, anger, anxiety, disappointment, and stress.

Healthy emotional functioning may instead involve recognising emotions, understanding their causes, regulating them appropriately, and recovering from difficult experiences.

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;


==Conclusion==
** Emotional wellbeing involves healthy emotional experience and functioning rather than simply experiencing positive emotions.
** Research suggests that higher emotional intelligence is generally associated with better indicators of wellbeing.
** Emotion regulation, coping and interpersonal functioning may help explain this relationship.
** Different EI components and models may show different relationships with wellbeing.
** Emotional intelligence may be partly developable, creating potential applications for wellbeing interventions.
** or universal cause of emotional wellbeing.  Return briefly to Sophie:  Sophie's situation demonstrates that emotional intelligence does not remove disappointment, stress, or conflict. Instead, emotional abilities may help her recognise what she is experiencing, understand why she feels that way, regulate her response, and choose behaviours that support her wellbeing.  
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* Emotional intelligence
* Emotion regulation
* Subjective wellbeing
* Psychological wellbeing
* Coping
* Stress
* Positive psychology

Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]]</text>
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__TOC__
== Overview ==

'''Scenario'''
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict.

Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively.

Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations?

One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence (EI) the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing.

Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically.

Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
=== Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways.

* '''What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Define emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Explain that emotional intelligence generally involves recognising, understanding, using, and managing emotions. Explain emotional wellbeing and clarify that wellbeing does not simply mean always experiencing positive emotions. Introduce the idea that there are different models of emotional intelligence.)  '''Research needed:''' A foundational source defining emotional intelligence, such as Mayer and Salovey, plus a reliable source defining emotional/subjective wellbeing.[[File:Student studying 26.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' ''A university student experiencing academic stress. Recognising and managing emotional responses to stressful situations may involve emotional intelligence.'']]
* '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing.
* '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing.
* '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.)  '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management.
* '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.)  '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing.

== Focus Questions ==

* {{RoundBoxTop}}

1. What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? 

2. What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?

3. How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?

4. How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?

5. Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?

6. How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?  {{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood.

=== Defining emotional intelligence ===
* Introduce emotional intelligence.
* Explain that EI concerns the processing and management of emotional information.
* Explain that EI is not simply &quot;being emotional&quot; or &quot;being a nice person&quot;.
* Introduce major conceptualisations of EI.
* Explain why differences in definitions matter when examining research.

==== '''Ability model of emotional intelligence''' ====
Introduce Mayer and Salovey's ability model.

Explain the four branches:

# Perceiving emotions
# Using emotions to facilitate thought
# Understanding emotions[[File:Model of EI.png|thumb|Figure 2. ''Mayor and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]Managing emotions

Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing.

'''Figure 2. The four-branch model of emotional intelligence'''

Create a simple diagram showing:

Perceiving emotions → Using emotions → Understanding emotions → Managing emotions

== Trait emotional intelligence ==

* Explain trait EI.
* Distinguish trait EI from ability EI.
* Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies.
* Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing.

== What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
After defining both concepts, this section examines what psychological research shows about the overall relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional intelligence and positive wellbeing ===

* Examine whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional wellbeing.
* Discuss research involving positive affect, happiness, life satisfaction, and subjective or psychological wellbeing.
* Explain the strength of the relationship where research allows.
* Avoid assuming that emotional intelligence directly causes greater happiness.

=== Emotional intelligence and negative emotional experiences ===

* Examine the relationship between EI and stress.
* Discuss emotional distress and negative affect.
* Consider relevant research involving anxiety or depressive symptoms.
* Explain that higher EI does not mean that someone will never experience negative emotions.
* Instead, people with stronger emotional abilities may be better able to understand and respond to difficult emotions.

=== Trait and ability emotional intelligence ===

* Compare research findings for trait and ability EI.
* Examine whether trait EI shows different relationships with wellbeing than ability EI.
* Consider how the way EI is measured could influence research findings.
* Discuss the limitations of relying heavily on self-report measures.

=== What does the evidence tell us? ===

* Bring the research together.
* Establish whether there is consistent evidence for an association between EI and emotional wellbeing.
* Distinguish correlation from causation.
* Identify any inconsistencies or limitations in the evidence.

== How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? ==
Finding an association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing does not necessarily explain why the two are related. Several psychological processes may help explain how emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional awareness and perception ===

* Explain the importance of accurately recognising emotions.
* Discuss how identifying an emotional state can help a person decide how to respond.
* Explain what may happen when people have difficulty recognising their emotions.
* Connect emotional awareness with emotional wellbeing.

=== Understanding emotions ===

* Discuss the ability to understand why an emotion has occurred.
* Explain how people can recognise changes and combinations of emotions.
* Consider how understanding the causes and consequences of emotions may support emotional functioning.
* Explain how emotional understanding may make it easier to choose an appropriate response.

=== Emotion regulation ===

* Define emotion regulation.
* Explain how EI may support the regulation of difficult emotional experiences.
* Discuss adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies.
* Consider cognitive reappraisal and suppression where relevant.
* Explain that regulating an emotion does not necessarily mean removing or suppressing it.
* Examine whether emotion regulation helps explain the relationship between EI and wellbeing.

=== Coping with stress ===

* Examine how EI may influence responses to stressful situations.
* Discuss appraisal and coping strategies.
* Consider emotional recovery and resilience.
* Connect effective coping with emotional wellbeing.

=== Social relationships and support ===

* Explain how EI may help people recognise other people's emotions.
* Discuss emotional communication.
* Examine interpersonal conflict and relationship management.
* Consider whether stronger relationships and social support provide another pathway between EI and wellbeing.

'''Figure 3. Possible pathways through which emotional intelligence may support emotional wellbeing.'''

Emotional intelligence may contribute to emotional wellbeing through several interacting processes, including emotional awareness, understanding, emotion regulation, coping with stress, and social functioning. These processes may work together rather than occurring in a simple step-by-step sequence.

== Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? ==
Although emotional intelligence is often discussed as a single concept, its individual components may not contribute equally to emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotion perception ===

* Examine the benefits of accurately recognising emotional states.
* Discuss the importance of identifying emotional cues in oneself and others.
* Consider limitations: recognising an emotion does not necessarily mean someone will manage it effectively.

=== Using emotions ===

* Explain what it means to use emotions to support thinking.
* Discuss how emotional information may guide attention, judgement, or problem-solving.
* Examine whether this component has a clear relationship with emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotion understanding ===

* Discuss understanding the causes and consequences of emotions.
* Consider emotional complexity and changes in emotional states.
* Examine how understanding emotions may support coping and regulation.

=== Emotion regulation and management ===

* Examine whether emotion regulation is particularly strongly related to emotional wellbeing.
* Discuss positive affect and negative affect.
* Consider emotional distress.
* Examine connections with resilience and coping.
* Consider whether emotion regulation could help explain the broader relationship between EI and wellbeing.

=== Comparing the components ===

* Compare evidence across the different EI components.
* Consider whether any component appears particularly important for wellbeing.
* Avoid assuming that emotion regulation is the most important unless the research supports this conclusion.
* Consider whether the different abilities work together.

== Table 1. Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Concept
!Central concern
!Example
|-
|Emotional intelligence
|Processing, understanding and managing emotional information
|Recognising why you feel anxious and choosing an appropriate response
|-
|Emotional wellbeing
|Quality of emotional experience and functioning
|Experiencing manageable negative emotion while maintaining positive functioning
|-
|Emotion regulation
|Influencing emotional experiences or responses
|Reappraising a stressful situation rather than reacting impulsively
|}

== How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? ==
If emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing, an important practical question is whether these abilities can be strengthened.

=== Can emotional intelligence be developed? ===

* Examine whether emotional intelligence is stable or can change.
* Consider differences between trait-like characteristics and emotional abilities that can be learned.
* Introduce research on EI training and interventions.

=== Emotional intelligence interventions ===

* Examine interventions designed to improve emotional intelligence.
* Consider training in:
** recognising emotions
** emotional vocabulary
** understanding emotional triggers
** perspective-taking
** emotion regulation
** interpersonal communication
* Examine whether these interventions actually improve emotional intelligence.
* More importantly, consider whether improvements in EI lead to improvements in wellbeing.

=== Applying emotional intelligence ===

* Discuss evidence-based ways emotional abilities could be applied in everyday life.
* Consider recognising emotions before responding.
* Understanding emotional triggers.
* Choosing appropriate emotion regulation strategies.
* Communicating emotions effectively.
* Seeking and maintaining social support.

=== Limitations and cautions ===

* Different definitions and measures of EI make research difficult to compare.
* Some research relies heavily on self-report measures.
* Associations between EI and wellbeing do not necessarily establish causation.
* EI may overlap with personality and other psychological characteristics.
* Emotional wellbeing is also defined and measured in different ways.
* The effectiveness of emotion regulation strategies can depend on the situation.
* Higher emotional intelligence does not prevent people from experiencing stress, negative emotions, or mental health difficulties.

=== Emotional wellbeing versus always feeling positive ===
A useful distinction should be established here:

Emotionally healthy people can still experience sadness, anger, anxiety, disappointment, and stress.

Healthy emotional functioning may instead involve recognising emotions, understanding their causes, regulating them appropriately, and recovering from difficult experiences.

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

;Quizzes
{1. What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ The correct answer.
- A. The ability to avoid experiencing negative emotions
- B. The ability to perceive, understand, use, and manage emotions 
- C. The tendency to experience positive emotions most of the time
- D. The ability to control how other people feel
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;


==Conclusion==
** Emotional wellbeing involves healthy emotional experience and functioning rather than simply experiencing positive emotions.
** Research suggests that higher emotional intelligence is generally associated with better indicators of wellbeing.
** Emotion regulation, coping and interpersonal functioning may help explain this relationship.
** Different EI components and models may show different relationships with wellbeing.
** Emotional intelligence may be partly developable, creating potential applications for wellbeing interventions.
** or universal cause of emotional wellbeing.  Return briefly to Sophie:  Sophie's situation demonstrates that emotional intelligence does not remove disappointment, stress, or conflict. Instead, emotional abilities may help her recognise what she is experiencing, understand why she feels that way, regulate her response, and choose behaviours that support her wellbeing.  
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* Emotional intelligence
* Emotion regulation
* Subjective wellbeing
* Psychological wellbeing
* Coping
* Stress
* Positive psychology

Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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__TOC__
== Overview ==

'''Scenario'''
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict.

Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively.

Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations?

One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence (EI) the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing.

Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically.

Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
=== Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways.

* '''What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Define emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Explain that emotional intelligence generally involves recognising, understanding, using, and managing emotions. Explain emotional wellbeing and clarify that wellbeing does not simply mean always experiencing positive emotions. Introduce the idea that there are different models of emotional intelligence.)  '''Research needed:''' A foundational source defining emotional intelligence, such as Mayer and Salovey, plus a reliable source defining emotional/subjective wellbeing.[[File:Student studying 26.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' ''A university student experiencing academic stress. Recognising and managing emotional responses to stressful situations may involve emotional intelligence.'']]
* '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing.
* '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing.
* '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.)  '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management.
* '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.)  '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing.

== Focus Questions ==

* {{RoundBoxTop}}

1. What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? 

2. What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?

3. How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?

4. How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?

5. Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?

6. How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?  {{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood.

=== Defining emotional intelligence ===
* Introduce emotional intelligence.
* Explain that EI concerns the processing and management of emotional information.
* Explain that EI is not simply &quot;being emotional&quot; or &quot;being a nice person&quot;.
* Introduce major conceptualisations of EI.
* Explain why differences in definitions matter when examining research.

==== '''Ability model of emotional intelligence''' ====
Introduce Mayer and Salovey's ability model.

Explain the four branches:

# Perceiving emotions
# Using emotions to facilitate thought
# Understanding emotions[[File:Model of EI.png|thumb|Figure 2. ''Mayor and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]Managing emotions

Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing.

'''Figure 2. The four-branch model of emotional intelligence'''

Create a simple diagram showing:

Perceiving emotions → Using emotions → Understanding emotions → Managing emotions

== Trait emotional intelligence ==

* Explain trait EI.
* Distinguish trait EI from ability EI.
* Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies.
* Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing.

== What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
After defining both concepts, this section examines what psychological research shows about the overall relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional intelligence and positive wellbeing ===

* Examine whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional wellbeing.
* Discuss research involving positive affect, happiness, life satisfaction, and subjective or psychological wellbeing.
* Explain the strength of the relationship where research allows.
* Avoid assuming that emotional intelligence directly causes greater happiness.

=== Emotional intelligence and negative emotional experiences ===

* Examine the relationship between EI and stress.
* Discuss emotional distress and negative affect.
* Consider relevant research involving anxiety or depressive symptoms.
* Explain that higher EI does not mean that someone will never experience negative emotions.
* Instead, people with stronger emotional abilities may be better able to understand and respond to difficult emotions.

=== Trait and ability emotional intelligence ===

* Compare research findings for trait and ability EI.
* Examine whether trait EI shows different relationships with wellbeing than ability EI.
* Consider how the way EI is measured could influence research findings.
* Discuss the limitations of relying heavily on self-report measures.

=== What does the evidence tell us? ===

* Bring the research together.
* Establish whether there is consistent evidence for an association between EI and emotional wellbeing.
* Distinguish correlation from causation.
* Identify any inconsistencies or limitations in the evidence.

== How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? ==
Finding an association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing does not necessarily explain why the two are related. Several psychological processes may help explain how emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional awareness and perception ===

* Explain the importance of accurately recognising emotions.
* Discuss how identifying an emotional state can help a person decide how to respond.
* Explain what may happen when people have difficulty recognising their emotions.
* Connect emotional awareness with emotional wellbeing.

=== Understanding emotions ===

* Discuss the ability to understand why an emotion has occurred.
* Explain how people can recognise changes and combinations of emotions.
* Consider how understanding the causes and consequences of emotions may support emotional functioning.
* Explain how emotional understanding may make it easier to choose an appropriate response.

=== Emotion regulation ===

* Define emotion regulation.
* Explain how EI may support the regulation of difficult emotional experiences.
* Discuss adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies.
* Consider cognitive reappraisal and suppression where relevant.
* Explain that regulating an emotion does not necessarily mean removing or suppressing it.
* Examine whether emotion regulation helps explain the relationship between EI and wellbeing.

=== Coping with stress ===

* Examine how EI may influence responses to stressful situations.
* Discuss appraisal and coping strategies.
* Consider emotional recovery and resilience.
* Connect effective coping with emotional wellbeing.

=== Social relationships and support ===

* Explain how EI may help people recognise other people's emotions.
* Discuss emotional communication.
* Examine interpersonal conflict and relationship management.
* Consider whether stronger relationships and social support provide another pathway between EI and wellbeing.

'''Figure 3. Possible pathways through which emotional intelligence may support emotional wellbeing.'''

Emotional intelligence may contribute to emotional wellbeing through several interacting processes, including emotional awareness, understanding, emotion regulation, coping with stress, and social functioning. These processes may work together rather than occurring in a simple step-by-step sequence.

== Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? ==
Although emotional intelligence is often discussed as a single concept, its individual components may not contribute equally to emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotion perception ===

* Examine the benefits of accurately recognising emotional states.
* Discuss the importance of identifying emotional cues in oneself and others.
* Consider limitations: recognising an emotion does not necessarily mean someone will manage it effectively.

=== Using emotions ===

* Explain what it means to use emotions to support thinking.
* Discuss how emotional information may guide attention, judgement, or problem-solving.
* Examine whether this component has a clear relationship with emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotion understanding ===

* Discuss understanding the causes and consequences of emotions.
* Consider emotional complexity and changes in emotional states.
* Examine how understanding emotions may support coping and regulation.

=== Emotion regulation and management ===

* Examine whether emotion regulation is particularly strongly related to emotional wellbeing.
* Discuss positive affect and negative affect.
* Consider emotional distress.
* Examine connections with resilience and coping.
* Consider whether emotion regulation could help explain the broader relationship between EI and wellbeing.

=== Comparing the components ===

* Compare evidence across the different EI components.
* Consider whether any component appears particularly important for wellbeing.
* Avoid assuming that emotion regulation is the most important unless the research supports this conclusion.
* Consider whether the different abilities work together.

== Table 1. Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Concept
!Central concern
!Example
|-
|Emotional intelligence
|Processing, understanding and managing emotional information
|Recognising why you feel anxious and choosing an appropriate response
|-
|Emotional wellbeing
|Quality of emotional experience and functioning
|Experiencing manageable negative emotion while maintaining positive functioning
|-
|Emotion regulation
|Influencing emotional experiences or responses
|Reappraising a stressful situation rather than reacting impulsively
|}

== How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? ==
If emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing, an important practical question is whether these abilities can be strengthened.

=== Can emotional intelligence be developed? ===

* Examine whether emotional intelligence is stable or can change.
* Consider differences between trait-like characteristics and emotional abilities that can be learned.
* Introduce research on EI training and interventions.

=== Emotional intelligence interventions ===

* Examine interventions designed to improve emotional intelligence.
* Consider training in:
** recognising emotions
** emotional vocabulary
** understanding emotional triggers
** perspective-taking
** emotion regulation
** interpersonal communication
* Examine whether these interventions actually improve emotional intelligence.
* More importantly, consider whether improvements in EI lead to improvements in wellbeing.

=== Applying emotional intelligence ===

* Discuss evidence-based ways emotional abilities could be applied in everyday life.
* Consider recognising emotions before responding.
* Understanding emotional triggers.
* Choosing appropriate emotion regulation strategies.
* Communicating emotions effectively.
* Seeking and maintaining social support.

=== Limitations and cautions ===

* Different definitions and measures of EI make research difficult to compare.
* Some research relies heavily on self-report measures.
* Associations between EI and wellbeing do not necessarily establish causation.
* EI may overlap with personality and other psychological characteristics.
* Emotional wellbeing is also defined and measured in different ways.
* The effectiveness of emotion regulation strategies can depend on the situation.
* Higher emotional intelligence does not prevent people from experiencing stress, negative emotions, or mental health difficulties.

=== Emotional wellbeing versus always feeling positive ===
A useful distinction should be established here:

Emotionally healthy people can still experience sadness, anger, anxiety, disappointment, and stress.

Healthy emotional functioning may instead involve recognising emotions, understanding their causes, regulating them appropriately, and recovering from difficult experiences.

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

;Quizzes

* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;


==Conclusion==
** Emotional wellbeing involves healthy emotional experience and functioning rather than simply experiencing positive emotions.
** Research suggests that higher emotional intelligence is generally associated with better indicators of wellbeing.
** Emotion regulation, coping and interpersonal functioning may help explain this relationship.
** Different EI components and models may show different relationships with wellbeing.
** Emotional intelligence may be partly developable, creating potential applications for wellbeing interventions.
** or universal cause of emotional wellbeing.  Return briefly to Sophie:  Sophie's situation demonstrates that emotional intelligence does not remove disappointment, stress, or conflict. Instead, emotional abilities may help her recognise what she is experiencing, understand why she feels that way, regulate her response, and choose behaviours that support her wellbeing.  
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* Emotional intelligence
* Emotion regulation
* Subjective wellbeing
* Psychological wellbeing
* Coping
* Stress
* Positive psychology

Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
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}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]]</text>
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__TOC__
== Overview ==

'''Scenario'''
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict.

Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively.

Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations?

One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence (EI) the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing.

Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically.

Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
=== Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways.

* '''What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Define emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Explain that emotional intelligence generally involves recognising, understanding, using, and managing emotions. Explain emotional wellbeing and clarify that wellbeing does not simply mean always experiencing positive emotions. Introduce the idea that there are different models of emotional intelligence.)  '''Research needed:''' A foundational source defining emotional intelligence, such as Mayer and Salovey, plus a reliable source defining emotional/subjective wellbeing.[[File:Student studying 26.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' ''A university student experiencing academic stress. Recognising and managing emotional responses to stressful situations may involve emotional intelligence.'']]
* '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing.
* '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing.
* '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.)  '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management.
* '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.)  '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing.

== Focus Questions ==

* {{RoundBoxTop}}

1. What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? 

2. What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?

3. How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?

4. How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?

5. Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?

6. How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?  {{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood.

=== Defining emotional intelligence ===
* Introduce emotional intelligence.
* Explain that EI concerns the processing and management of emotional information.
* Explain that EI is not simply &quot;being emotional&quot; or &quot;being a nice person&quot;.
* Introduce major conceptualisations of EI.
* Explain why differences in definitions matter when examining research.

==== '''Ability model of emotional intelligence''' ====
Introduce Mayer and Salovey's ability model.

Explain the four branches:

# Perceiving emotions
# Using emotions to facilitate thought
# Understanding emotions[[File:Model of EI.png|thumb|Figure 2. ''Mayor and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]Managing emotions

Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing.

'''Figure 2. The four-branch model of emotional intelligence'''

Create a simple diagram showing:

Perceiving emotions → Using emotions → Understanding emotions → Managing emotions

== Trait emotional intelligence ==

* Explain trait EI.
* Distinguish trait EI from ability EI.
* Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies.
* Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing.

== What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
After defining both concepts, this section examines what psychological research shows about the overall relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional intelligence and positive wellbeing ===

* Examine whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional wellbeing.
* Discuss research involving positive affect, happiness, life satisfaction, and subjective or psychological wellbeing.
* Explain the strength of the relationship where research allows.
* Avoid assuming that emotional intelligence directly causes greater happiness.

=== Emotional intelligence and negative emotional experiences ===

* Examine the relationship between EI and stress.
* Discuss emotional distress and negative affect.
* Consider relevant research involving anxiety or depressive symptoms.
* Explain that higher EI does not mean that someone will never experience negative emotions.
* Instead, people with stronger emotional abilities may be better able to understand and respond to difficult emotions.

=== Trait and ability emotional intelligence ===

* Compare research findings for trait and ability EI.
* Examine whether trait EI shows different relationships with wellbeing than ability EI.
* Consider how the way EI is measured could influence research findings.
* Discuss the limitations of relying heavily on self-report measures.

=== What does the evidence tell us? ===

* Bring the research together.
* Establish whether there is consistent evidence for an association between EI and emotional wellbeing.
* Distinguish correlation from causation.
* Identify any inconsistencies or limitations in the evidence.

== How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? ==
Finding an association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing does not necessarily explain why the two are related. Several psychological processes may help explain how emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional awareness and perception ===

* Explain the importance of accurately recognising emotions.
* Discuss how identifying an emotional state can help a person decide how to respond.
* Explain what may happen when people have difficulty recognising their emotions.
* Connect emotional awareness with emotional wellbeing.

=== Understanding emotions ===

* Discuss the ability to understand why an emotion has occurred.
* Explain how people can recognise changes and combinations of emotions.
* Consider how understanding the causes and consequences of emotions may support emotional functioning.
* Explain how emotional understanding may make it easier to choose an appropriate response.

=== Emotion regulation ===

* Define emotion regulation.
* Explain how EI may support the regulation of difficult emotional experiences.
* Discuss adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies.
* Consider cognitive reappraisal and suppression where relevant.
* Explain that regulating an emotion does not necessarily mean removing or suppressing it.
* Examine whether emotion regulation helps explain the relationship between EI and wellbeing.

=== Coping with stress ===

* Examine how EI may influence responses to stressful situations.
* Discuss appraisal and coping strategies.
* Consider emotional recovery and resilience.
* Connect effective coping with emotional wellbeing.

=== Social relationships and support ===

* Explain how EI may help people recognise other people's emotions.
* Discuss emotional communication.
* Examine interpersonal conflict and relationship management.
* Consider whether stronger relationships and social support provide another pathway between EI and wellbeing.

'''Figure 3. Possible pathways through which emotional intelligence may support emotional wellbeing.'''

Emotional intelligence may contribute to emotional wellbeing through several interacting processes, including emotional awareness, understanding, emotion regulation, coping with stress, and social functioning. These processes may work together rather than occurring in a simple step-by-step sequence.

== Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? ==
Although emotional intelligence is often discussed as a single concept, its individual components may not contribute equally to emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotion perception ===

* Examine the benefits of accurately recognising emotional states.
* Discuss the importance of identifying emotional cues in oneself and others.
* Consider limitations: recognising an emotion does not necessarily mean someone will manage it effectively.

=== Using emotions ===

* Explain what it means to use emotions to support thinking.
* Discuss how emotional information may guide attention, judgement, or problem-solving.
* Examine whether this component has a clear relationship with emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotion understanding ===

* Discuss understanding the causes and consequences of emotions.
* Consider emotional complexity and changes in emotional states.
* Examine how understanding emotions may support coping and regulation.

=== Emotion regulation and management ===

* Examine whether emotion regulation is particularly strongly related to emotional wellbeing.
* Discuss positive affect and negative affect.
* Consider emotional distress.
* Examine connections with resilience and coping.
* Consider whether emotion regulation could help explain the broader relationship between EI and wellbeing.

=== Comparing the components ===

* Compare evidence across the different EI components.
* Consider whether any component appears particularly important for wellbeing.
* Avoid assuming that emotion regulation is the most important unless the research supports this conclusion.
* Consider whether the different abilities work together.

== Table 1. Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Concept
!Central concern
!Example
|-
|Emotional intelligence
|Processing, understanding and managing emotional information
|Recognising why you feel anxious and choosing an appropriate response
|-
|Emotional wellbeing
|Quality of emotional experience and functioning
|Experiencing manageable negative emotion while maintaining positive functioning
|-
|Emotion regulation
|Influencing emotional experiences or responses
|Reappraising a stressful situation rather than reacting impulsively
|}

== How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? ==
If emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing, an important practical question is whether these abilities can be strengthened.

=== Can emotional intelligence be developed? ===

* Examine whether emotional intelligence is stable or can change.
* Consider differences between trait-like characteristics and emotional abilities that can be learned.
* Introduce research on EI training and interventions.

=== Emotional intelligence interventions ===

* Examine interventions designed to improve emotional intelligence.
* Consider training in:
** recognising emotions
** emotional vocabulary
** understanding emotional triggers
** perspective-taking
** emotion regulation
** interpersonal communication
* Examine whether these interventions actually improve emotional intelligence.
* More importantly, consider whether improvements in EI lead to improvements in wellbeing.

=== Applying emotional intelligence ===

* Discuss evidence-based ways emotional abilities could be applied in everyday life.
* Consider recognising emotions before responding.
* Understanding emotional triggers.
* Choosing appropriate emotion regulation strategies.
* Communicating emotions effectively.
* Seeking and maintaining social support.

=== Limitations and cautions ===

* Different definitions and measures of EI make research difficult to compare.
* Some research relies heavily on self-report measures.
* Associations between EI and wellbeing do not necessarily establish causation.
* EI may overlap with personality and other psychological characteristics.
* Emotional wellbeing is also defined and measured in different ways.
* The effectiveness of emotion regulation strategies can depend on the situation.
* Higher emotional intelligence does not prevent people from experiencing stress, negative emotions, or mental health difficulties.

=== Emotional wellbeing versus always feeling positive ===
A useful distinction should be established here:

Emotionally healthy people can still experience sadness, anger, anxiety, disappointment, and stress.

Healthy emotional functioning may instead involve recognising emotions, understanding their causes, regulating them appropriately, and recovering from difficult experiences.

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

;Quizzes
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which statement best describes emotional intelligence?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ The ability to perceive, understand, use, and manage emotions.
- The ability to avoid experiencing negative emotions.
- The ability to remain happy in all situations.
- The ability to control the emotions of other people.
}
&lt;/quiz&gt;


* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;


==Conclusion==
** Emotional wellbeing involves healthy emotional experience and functioning rather than simply experiencing positive emotions.
** Research suggests that higher emotional intelligence is generally associated with better indicators of wellbeing.
** Emotion regulation, coping and interpersonal functioning may help explain this relationship.
** Different EI components and models may show different relationships with wellbeing.
** Emotional intelligence may be partly developable, creating potential applications for wellbeing interventions.
** or universal cause of emotional wellbeing.  Return briefly to Sophie:  Sophie's situation demonstrates that emotional intelligence does not remove disappointment, stress, or conflict. Instead, emotional abilities may help her recognise what she is experiencing, understand why she feels that way, regulate her response, and choose behaviours that support her wellbeing.  
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* Emotional intelligence
* Emotion regulation
* Subjective wellbeing
* Psychological wellbeing
* Coping
* Stress
* Positive psychology

Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]]
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__TOC__
== Overview ==

'''Scenario'''
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict.

Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively.

Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations?

One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence (EI) the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing.

Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically.

Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
=== Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways.

* '''What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Define emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Explain that emotional intelligence generally involves recognising, understanding, using, and managing emotions. Explain emotional wellbeing and clarify that wellbeing does not simply mean always experiencing positive emotions. Introduce the idea that there are different models of emotional intelligence.)  '''Research needed:''' A foundational source defining emotional intelligence, such as Mayer and Salovey, plus a reliable source defining emotional/subjective wellbeing.[[File:Student studying 26.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' ''A university student experiencing academic stress. Recognising and managing emotional responses to stressful situations may involve emotional intelligence.'']]
* '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing.
* '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing.
* '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.)  '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management.
* '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.)  '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing.

== Focus Questions ==

* {{RoundBoxTop}}

1. What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? 

2. What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?

3. How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?

4. How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?

5. Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?

6. How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?  {{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood.

=== Defining emotional intelligence ===
* Introduce emotional intelligence.
* Explain that EI concerns the processing and management of emotional information.
* Explain that EI is not simply &quot;being emotional&quot; or &quot;being a nice person&quot;.
* Introduce major conceptualisations of EI.
* Explain why differences in definitions matter when examining research.

==== '''Ability model of emotional intelligence''' ====
Introduce Mayer and Salovey's ability model.

Explain the four branches:

# Perceiving emotions
# Using emotions to facilitate thought
# Understanding emotions[[File:Model of EI.png|thumb|Figure 2. ''Mayor and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]Managing emotions

Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing.

'''Figure 2. The four-branch model of emotional intelligence'''

Create a simple diagram showing:

Perceiving emotions → Using emotions → Understanding emotions → Managing emotions

== Trait emotional intelligence ==

* Explain trait EI.
* Distinguish trait EI from ability EI.
* Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies.
* Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing.

== What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
After defining both concepts, this section examines what psychological research shows about the overall relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional intelligence and positive wellbeing ===

* Examine whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional wellbeing.
* Discuss research involving positive affect, happiness, life satisfaction, and subjective or psychological wellbeing.
* Explain the strength of the relationship where research allows.
* Avoid assuming that emotional intelligence directly causes greater happiness.

=== Emotional intelligence and negative emotional experiences ===

* Examine the relationship between EI and stress.
* Discuss emotional distress and negative affect.
* Consider relevant research involving anxiety or depressive symptoms.
* Explain that higher EI does not mean that someone will never experience negative emotions.
* Instead, people with stronger emotional abilities may be better able to understand and respond to difficult emotions.

=== Trait and ability emotional intelligence ===

* Compare research findings for trait and ability EI.
* Examine whether trait EI shows different relationships with wellbeing than ability EI.
* Consider how the way EI is measured could influence research findings.
* Discuss the limitations of relying heavily on self-report measures.

=== What does the evidence tell us? ===

* Bring the research together.
* Establish whether there is consistent evidence for an association between EI and emotional wellbeing.
* Distinguish correlation from causation.
* Identify any inconsistencies or limitations in the evidence.

== How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? ==
Finding an association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing does not necessarily explain why the two are related. Several psychological processes may help explain how emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional awareness and perception ===

* Explain the importance of accurately recognising emotions.
* Discuss how identifying an emotional state can help a person decide how to respond.
* Explain what may happen when people have difficulty recognising their emotions.
* Connect emotional awareness with emotional wellbeing.

=== Understanding emotions ===

* Discuss the ability to understand why an emotion has occurred.
* Explain how people can recognise changes and combinations of emotions.
* Consider how understanding the causes and consequences of emotions may support emotional functioning.
* Explain how emotional understanding may make it easier to choose an appropriate response.

=== Emotion regulation ===

* Define emotion regulation.
* Explain how EI may support the regulation of difficult emotional experiences.
* Discuss adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies.
* Consider cognitive reappraisal and suppression where relevant.
* Explain that regulating an emotion does not necessarily mean removing or suppressing it.
* Examine whether emotion regulation helps explain the relationship between EI and wellbeing.

=== Coping with stress ===

* Examine how EI may influence responses to stressful situations.
* Discuss appraisal and coping strategies.
* Consider emotional recovery and resilience.
* Connect effective coping with emotional wellbeing.

=== Social relationships and support ===

* Explain how EI may help people recognise other people's emotions.
* Discuss emotional communication.
* Examine interpersonal conflict and relationship management.
* Consider whether stronger relationships and social support provide another pathway between EI and wellbeing.

'''Figure 3. Possible pathways through which emotional intelligence may support emotional wellbeing.'''

Emotional intelligence may contribute to emotional wellbeing through several interacting processes, including emotional awareness, understanding, emotion regulation, coping with stress, and social functioning. These processes may work together rather than occurring in a simple step-by-step sequence.

== Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? ==
Although emotional intelligence is often discussed as a single concept, its individual components may not contribute equally to emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotion perception ===

* Examine the benefits of accurately recognising emotional states.
* Discuss the importance of identifying emotional cues in oneself and others.
* Consider limitations: recognising an emotion does not necessarily mean someone will manage it effectively.

=== Using emotions ===

* Explain what it means to use emotions to support thinking.
* Discuss how emotional information may guide attention, judgement, or problem-solving.
* Examine whether this component has a clear relationship with emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotion understanding ===

* Discuss understanding the causes and consequences of emotions.
* Consider emotional complexity and changes in emotional states.
* Examine how understanding emotions may support coping and regulation.

=== Emotion regulation and management ===

* Examine whether emotion regulation is particularly strongly related to emotional wellbeing.
* Discuss positive affect and negative affect.
* Consider emotional distress.
* Examine connections with resilience and coping.
* Consider whether emotion regulation could help explain the broader relationship between EI and wellbeing.

=== Comparing the components ===

* Compare evidence across the different EI components.
* Consider whether any component appears particularly important for wellbeing.
* Avoid assuming that emotion regulation is the most important unless the research supports this conclusion.
* Consider whether the different abilities work together.

== Table 1. Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Concept
!Central concern
!Example
|-
|Emotional intelligence
|Processing, understanding and managing emotional information
|Recognising why you feel anxious and choosing an appropriate response
|-
|Emotional wellbeing
|Quality of emotional experience and functioning
|Experiencing manageable negative emotion while maintaining positive functioning
|-
|Emotion regulation
|Influencing emotional experiences or responses
|Reappraising a stressful situation rather than reacting impulsively
|}

== How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? ==
If emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing, an important practical question is whether these abilities can be strengthened.

=== Can emotional intelligence be developed? ===

* Examine whether emotional intelligence is stable or can change.
* Consider differences between trait-like characteristics and emotional abilities that can be learned.
* Introduce research on EI training and interventions.

=== Emotional intelligence interventions ===

* Examine interventions designed to improve emotional intelligence.
* Consider training in:
** recognising emotions
** emotional vocabulary
** understanding emotional triggers
** perspective-taking
** emotion regulation
** interpersonal communication
* Examine whether these interventions actually improve emotional intelligence.
* More importantly, consider whether improvements in EI lead to improvements in wellbeing.

=== Applying emotional intelligence ===

* Discuss evidence-based ways emotional abilities could be applied in everyday life.
* Consider recognising emotions before responding.
* Understanding emotional triggers.
* Choosing appropriate emotion regulation strategies.
* Communicating emotions effectively.
* Seeking and maintaining social support.

=== Limitations and cautions ===

* Different definitions and measures of EI make research difficult to compare.
* Some research relies heavily on self-report measures.
* Associations between EI and wellbeing do not necessarily establish causation.
* EI may overlap with personality and other psychological characteristics.
* Emotional wellbeing is also defined and measured in different ways.
* The effectiveness of emotion regulation strategies can depend on the situation.
* Higher emotional intelligence does not prevent people from experiencing stress, negative emotions, or mental health difficulties.

=== Emotional wellbeing versus always feeling positive ===
A useful distinction should be established here:

Emotionally healthy people can still experience sadness, anger, anxiety, disappointment, and stress.

Healthy emotional functioning may instead involve recognising emotions, understanding their causes, regulating them appropriately, and recovering from difficult experiences.

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

;
;
'''Quizzes'''&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which statement best describes emotional intelligence?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ The ability to perceive, understand, use, and manage emotions.
- The ability to avoid experiencing negative emotions.
- The ability to remain happy in all situations.
- The ability to control the emotions of other people.
}
&lt;/quiz&gt;


* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]


==Conclusion==
** Emotional wellbeing involves healthy emotional experience and functioning rather than simply experiencing positive emotions.
** Research suggests that higher emotional intelligence is generally associated with better indicators of wellbeing.
** Emotion regulation, coping and interpersonal functioning may help explain this relationship.
** Different EI components and models may show different relationships with wellbeing.
** Emotional intelligence may be partly developable, creating potential applications for wellbeing interventions.
** or universal cause of emotional wellbeing.  Return briefly to Sophie:  Sophie's situation demonstrates that emotional intelligence does not remove disappointment, stress, or conflict. Instead, emotional abilities may help her recognise what she is experiencing, understand why she feels that way, regulate her response, and choose behaviours that support her wellbeing.  
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* Emotional intelligence
* Emotion regulation
* Subjective wellbeing
* Psychological wellbeing
* Coping
* Stress
* Positive psychology

Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]]
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__TOC__
== Overview ==

'''Scenario'''
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict.

Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively.

Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations?

One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence (EI) the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing.

Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically.

Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
=== Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways.

* '''What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Define emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Explain that emotional intelligence generally involves recognising, understanding, using, and managing emotions. Explain emotional wellbeing and clarify that wellbeing does not simply mean always experiencing positive emotions. Introduce the idea that there are different models of emotional intelligence.)  '''Research needed:''' A foundational source defining emotional intelligence, such as Mayer and Salovey, plus a reliable source defining emotional/subjective wellbeing.[[File:Student studying 26.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' ''A university student experiencing academic stress. Recognising and managing emotional responses to stressful situations may involve emotional intelligence.'']]
* '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing.
* '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing.
* '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.)  '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management.
* '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.)  '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing.

== Focus Questions ==

* {{RoundBoxTop}}

1. What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? 

2. What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?

3. How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?

4. How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?

5. Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?

6. How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?  {{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood.

=== Defining emotional intelligence ===
* Introduce emotional intelligence.
* Explain that EI concerns the processing and management of emotional information.
* Explain that EI is not simply &quot;being emotional&quot; or &quot;being a nice person&quot;.
* Introduce major conceptualisations of EI.
* Explain why differences in definitions matter when examining research.

==== '''Ability model of emotional intelligence''' ====
Introduce Mayer and Salovey's ability model.

Explain the four branches:

# Perceiving emotions
# Using emotions to facilitate thought
# Understanding emotions[[File:Model of EI.png|thumb|Figure 2. ''Mayor and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]Managing emotions

Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing.

'''Figure 2. The four-branch model of emotional intelligence'''

Create a simple diagram showing:

Perceiving emotions → Using emotions → Understanding emotions → Managing emotions

&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which statement best describes emotional intelligence?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ The ability to perceive, understand, use, and manage emotions.
- The ability to avoid experiencing negative emotions.
- The ability to remain happy in all situations.
- The ability to control the emotions of other people.
}
&lt;/quiz&gt;
== Trait emotional intelligence ==

* Explain trait EI.
* Distinguish trait EI from ability EI.
* Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies.
* Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing.

== What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
After defining both concepts, this section examines what psychological research shows about the overall relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional intelligence and positive wellbeing ===

* Examine whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional wellbeing.
* Discuss research involving positive affect, happiness, life satisfaction, and subjective or psychological wellbeing.
* Explain the strength of the relationship where research allows.
* Avoid assuming that emotional intelligence directly causes greater happiness.

=== Emotional intelligence and negative emotional experiences ===

* Examine the relationship between EI and stress.
* Discuss emotional distress and negative affect.
* Consider relevant research involving anxiety or depressive symptoms.
* Explain that higher EI does not mean that someone will never experience negative emotions.
* Instead, people with stronger emotional abilities may be better able to understand and respond to difficult emotions.

=== Trait and ability emotional intelligence ===

* Compare research findings for trait and ability EI.
* Examine whether trait EI shows different relationships with wellbeing than ability EI.
* Consider how the way EI is measured could influence research findings.
* Discuss the limitations of relying heavily on self-report measures.

=== What does the evidence tell us? ===

* Bring the research together.
* Establish whether there is consistent evidence for an association between EI and emotional wellbeing.
* Distinguish correlation from causation.
* Identify any inconsistencies or limitations in the evidence.

== How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? ==
Finding an association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing does not necessarily explain why the two are related. Several psychological processes may help explain how emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional awareness and perception ===

* Explain the importance of accurately recognising emotions.
* Discuss how identifying an emotional state can help a person decide how to respond.
* Explain what may happen when people have difficulty recognising their emotions.
* Connect emotional awareness with emotional wellbeing.

=== Understanding emotions ===

* Discuss the ability to understand why an emotion has occurred.
* Explain how people can recognise changes and combinations of emotions.
* Consider how understanding the causes and consequences of emotions may support emotional functioning.
* Explain how emotional understanding may make it easier to choose an appropriate response.

=== Emotion regulation ===

* Define emotion regulation.
* Explain how EI may support the regulation of difficult emotional experiences.
* Discuss adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies.
* Consider cognitive reappraisal and suppression where relevant.
* Explain that regulating an emotion does not necessarily mean removing or suppressing it.
* Examine whether emotion regulation helps explain the relationship between EI and wellbeing.

=== Coping with stress ===

* Examine how EI may influence responses to stressful situations.
* Discuss appraisal and coping strategies.
* Consider emotional recovery and resilience.
* Connect effective coping with emotional wellbeing.

=== Social relationships and support ===

* Explain how EI may help people recognise other people's emotions.
* Discuss emotional communication.
* Examine interpersonal conflict and relationship management.
* Consider whether stronger relationships and social support provide another pathway between EI and wellbeing.

'''Figure 3. Possible pathways through which emotional intelligence may support emotional wellbeing.'''

Emotional intelligence may contribute to emotional wellbeing through several interacting processes, including emotional awareness, understanding, emotion regulation, coping with stress, and social functioning. These processes may work together rather than occurring in a simple step-by-step sequence.

== Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? ==
Although emotional intelligence is often discussed as a single concept, its individual components may not contribute equally to emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotion perception ===

* Examine the benefits of accurately recognising emotional states.
* Discuss the importance of identifying emotional cues in oneself and others.
* Consider limitations: recognising an emotion does not necessarily mean someone will manage it effectively.

=== Using emotions ===

* Explain what it means to use emotions to support thinking.
* Discuss how emotional information may guide attention, judgement, or problem-solving.
* Examine whether this component has a clear relationship with emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotion understanding ===

* Discuss understanding the causes and consequences of emotions.
* Consider emotional complexity and changes in emotional states.
* Examine how understanding emotions may support coping and regulation.

=== Emotion regulation and management ===

* Examine whether emotion regulation is particularly strongly related to emotional wellbeing.
* Discuss positive affect and negative affect.
* Consider emotional distress.
* Examine connections with resilience and coping.
* Consider whether emotion regulation could help explain the broader relationship between EI and wellbeing.

=== Comparing the components ===

* Compare evidence across the different EI components.
* Consider whether any component appears particularly important for wellbeing.
* Avoid assuming that emotion regulation is the most important unless the research supports this conclusion.
* Consider whether the different abilities work together.

== Table 1. Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Concept
!Central concern
!Example
|-
|Emotional intelligence
|Processing, understanding and managing emotional information
|Recognising why you feel anxious and choosing an appropriate response
|-
|Emotional wellbeing
|Quality of emotional experience and functioning
|Experiencing manageable negative emotion while maintaining positive functioning
|-
|Emotion regulation
|Influencing emotional experiences or responses
|Reappraising a stressful situation rather than reacting impulsively
|}

== How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? ==
If emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing, an important practical question is whether these abilities can be strengthened.

=== Can emotional intelligence be developed? ===

* Examine whether emotional intelligence is stable or can change.
* Consider differences between trait-like characteristics and emotional abilities that can be learned.
* Introduce research on EI training and interventions.

=== Emotional intelligence interventions ===

* Examine interventions designed to improve emotional intelligence.
* Consider training in:
** recognising emotions
** emotional vocabulary
** understanding emotional triggers
** perspective-taking
** emotion regulation
** interpersonal communication
* Examine whether these interventions actually improve emotional intelligence.
* More importantly, consider whether improvements in EI lead to improvements in wellbeing.

=== Applying emotional intelligence ===

* Discuss evidence-based ways emotional abilities could be applied in everyday life.
* Consider recognising emotions before responding.
* Understanding emotional triggers.
* Choosing appropriate emotion regulation strategies.
* Communicating emotions effectively.
* Seeking and maintaining social support.

=== Limitations and cautions ===

* Different definitions and measures of EI make research difficult to compare.
* Some research relies heavily on self-report measures.
* Associations between EI and wellbeing do not necessarily establish causation.
* EI may overlap with personality and other psychological characteristics.
* Emotional wellbeing is also defined and measured in different ways.
* The effectiveness of emotion regulation strategies can depend on the situation.
* Higher emotional intelligence does not prevent people from experiencing stress, negative emotions, or mental health difficulties.

=== Emotional wellbeing versus always feeling positive ===
A useful distinction should be established here:

Emotionally healthy people can still experience sadness, anger, anxiety, disappointment, and stress.

Healthy emotional functioning may instead involve recognising emotions, understanding their causes, regulating them appropriately, and recovering from difficult experiences.

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

;
;
'''Quizzes'''&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which statement best describes emotional intelligence?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ The ability to perceive, understand, use, and manage emotions.
- The ability to avoid experiencing negative emotions.
- The ability to remain happy in all situations.
- The ability to control the emotions of other people.
}
&lt;/quiz&gt;


* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]


==Conclusion==
** Emotional wellbeing involves healthy emotional experience and functioning rather than simply experiencing positive emotions.
** Research suggests that higher emotional intelligence is generally associated with better indicators of wellbeing.
** Emotion regulation, coping and interpersonal functioning may help explain this relationship.
** Different EI components and models may show different relationships with wellbeing.
** Emotional intelligence may be partly developable, creating potential applications for wellbeing interventions.
** or universal cause of emotional wellbeing.  Return briefly to Sophie:  Sophie's situation demonstrates that emotional intelligence does not remove disappointment, stress, or conflict. Instead, emotional abilities may help her recognise what she is experiencing, understand why she feels that way, regulate her response, and choose behaviours that support her wellbeing.  
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* Emotional intelligence
* Emotion regulation
* Subjective wellbeing
* Psychological wellbeing
* Coping
* Stress
* Positive psychology

Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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__TOC__
== Overview ==

'''Scenario'''
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict.

Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively.

Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations?

One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence (EI) the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing.

Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically.

Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
=== Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways.

* '''What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Define emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Explain that emotional intelligence generally involves recognising, understanding, using, and managing emotions. Explain emotional wellbeing and clarify that wellbeing does not simply mean always experiencing positive emotions. Introduce the idea that there are different models of emotional intelligence.)  '''Research needed:''' A foundational source defining emotional intelligence, such as Mayer and Salovey, plus a reliable source defining emotional/subjective wellbeing.[[File:Student studying 26.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' ''A university student experiencing academic stress. Recognising and managing emotional responses to stressful situations may involve emotional intelligence.'']]
* '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing.
* '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing.
* '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.)  '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management.
* '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.)  '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing.

== Focus Questions ==

* {{RoundBoxTop}}

1. What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? 

2. What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?

3. How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?

4. How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?

5. Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?

6. How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?  {{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood.

=== Defining emotional intelligence ===
* Introduce emotional intelligence.
* Explain that EI concerns the processing and management of emotional information.
* Explain that EI is not simply &quot;being emotional&quot; or &quot;being a nice person&quot;.
* Introduce major conceptualisations of EI.
* Explain why differences in definitions matter when examining research.

==== '''Ability model of emotional intelligence''' ====
Introduce Mayer and Salovey's ability model.

Explain the four branches:

# Perceiving emotions
# Using emotions to facilitate thought
# Understanding emotions[[File:Model of EI.png|thumb|Figure 2. ''Mayor and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]Managing emotions

Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing.

'''Figure 2. The four-branch model of emotional intelligence'''

Create a simple diagram showing:

Perceiving emotions → Using emotions → Understanding emotions → Managing emotions

&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which statement best describes emotional intelligence?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ The ability to perceive, understand, use, and manage emotions.
- The ability to avoid experiencing negative emotions.
- The ability to remain happy in all situations.
- The ability to control the emotions of other people.
}
&lt;/quiz&gt;
== Trait emotional intelligence ==

* Explain trait EI.
* Distinguish trait EI from ability EI.
* Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies.
* Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing.

== What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
After defining both concepts, this section examines what psychological research shows about the overall relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional intelligence and positive wellbeing ===

* Examine whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional wellbeing.
* Discuss research involving positive affect, happiness, life satisfaction, and subjective or psychological wellbeing.
* Explain the strength of the relationship where research allows.
* Avoid assuming that emotional intelligence directly causes greater happiness.

=== Emotional intelligence and negative emotional experiences ===

* Examine the relationship between EI and stress.
* Discuss emotional distress and negative affect.
* Consider relevant research involving anxiety or depressive symptoms.
* Explain that higher EI does not mean that someone will never experience negative emotions.
* Instead, people with stronger emotional abilities may be better able to understand and respond to difficult emotions.

=== Trait and ability emotional intelligence ===

* Compare research findings for trait and ability EI.
* Examine whether trait EI shows different relationships with wellbeing than ability EI.
* Consider how the way EI is measured could influence research findings.
* Discuss the limitations of relying heavily on self-report measures.

=== What does the evidence tell us? ===

* Bring the research together.
* Establish whether there is consistent evidence for an association between EI and emotional wellbeing.
* Distinguish correlation from causation.
* Identify any inconsistencies or limitations in the evidence.

== How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? ==
Finding an association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing does not necessarily explain why the two are related. Several psychological processes may help explain how emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional awareness and perception ===

* Explain the importance of accurately recognising emotions.
* Discuss how identifying an emotional state can help a person decide how to respond.
* Explain what may happen when people have difficulty recognising their emotions.
* Connect emotional awareness with emotional wellbeing.

=== Understanding emotions ===

* Discuss the ability to understand why an emotion has occurred.
* Explain how people can recognise changes and combinations of emotions.
* Consider how understanding the causes and consequences of emotions may support emotional functioning.
* Explain how emotional understanding may make it easier to choose an appropriate response.

=== Emotion regulation ===

* Define emotion regulation.
* Explain how EI may support the regulation of difficult emotional experiences.
* Discuss adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies.
* Consider cognitive reappraisal and suppression where relevant.
* Explain that regulating an emotion does not necessarily mean removing or suppressing it.
* Examine whether emotion regulation helps explain the relationship between EI and wellbeing.

=== Coping with stress ===

* Examine how EI may influence responses to stressful situations.
* Discuss appraisal and coping strategies.
* Consider emotional recovery and resilience.
* Connect effective coping with emotional wellbeing.

=== Social relationships and support ===

* Explain how EI may help people recognise other people's emotions.
* Discuss emotional communication.
* Examine interpersonal conflict and relationship management.
* Consider whether stronger relationships and social support provide another pathway between EI and wellbeing.

'''Figure 3. Possible pathways through which emotional intelligence may support emotional wellbeing.'''

Emotional intelligence may contribute to emotional wellbeing through several interacting processes, including emotional awareness, understanding, emotion regulation, coping with stress, and social functioning. These processes may work together rather than occurring in a simple step-by-step sequence.

== Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? ==
Although emotional intelligence is often discussed as a single concept, its individual components may not contribute equally to emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotion perception ===

* Examine the benefits of accurately recognising emotional states.
* Discuss the importance of identifying emotional cues in oneself and others.
* Consider limitations: recognising an emotion does not necessarily mean someone will manage it effectively.

=== Using emotions ===

* Explain what it means to use emotions to support thinking.
* Discuss how emotional information may guide attention, judgement, or problem-solving.
* Examine whether this component has a clear relationship with emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotion understanding ===

* Discuss understanding the causes and consequences of emotions.
* Consider emotional complexity and changes in emotional states.
* Examine how understanding emotions may support coping and regulation.

=== Emotion regulation and management ===

* Examine whether emotion regulation is particularly strongly related to emotional wellbeing.
* Discuss positive affect and negative affect.
* Consider emotional distress.
* Examine connections with resilience and coping.
* Consider whether emotion regulation could help explain the broader relationship between EI and wellbeing.

=== Comparing the components ===

* Compare evidence across the different EI components.
* Consider whether any component appears particularly important for wellbeing.
* Avoid assuming that emotion regulation is the most important unless the research supports this conclusion.
* Consider whether the different abilities work together.

== Table 1. Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Concept
!Central concern
!Example
|-
|Emotional intelligence
|Processing, understanding and managing emotional information
|Recognising why you feel anxious and choosing an appropriate response
|-
|Emotional wellbeing
|Quality of emotional experience and functioning
|Experiencing manageable negative emotion while maintaining positive functioning
|-
|Emotion regulation
|Influencing emotional experiences or responses
|Reappraising a stressful situation rather than reacting impulsively
|}

== How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing? ==
If emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing, an important practical question is whether these abilities can be strengthened.

=== Can emotional intelligence be developed? ===

* Examine whether emotional intelligence is stable or can change.
* Consider differences between trait-like characteristics and emotional abilities that can be learned.
* Introduce research on EI training and interventions.

=== Emotional intelligence interventions ===

* Examine interventions designed to improve emotional intelligence.
* Consider training in:
** recognising emotions
** emotional vocabulary
** understanding emotional triggers
** perspective-taking
** emotion regulation
** interpersonal communication
* Examine whether these interventions actually improve emotional intelligence.
* More importantly, consider whether improvements in EI lead to improvements in wellbeing.

=== Applying emotional intelligence ===

* Discuss evidence-based ways emotional abilities could be applied in everyday life.
* Consider recognising emotions before responding.
* Understanding emotional triggers.
* Choosing appropriate emotion regulation strategies.
* Communicating emotions effectively.
* Seeking and maintaining social support.

=== Limitations and cautions ===

* Different definitions and measures of EI make research difficult to compare.
* Some research relies heavily on self-report measures.
* Associations between EI and wellbeing do not necessarily establish causation.
* EI may overlap with personality and other psychological characteristics.
* Emotional wellbeing is also defined and measured in different ways.
* The effectiveness of emotion regulation strategies can depend on the situation.
* Higher emotional intelligence does not prevent people from experiencing stress, negative emotions, or mental health difficulties.

=== Emotional wellbeing versus always feeling positive ===
A useful distinction should be established here:

Emotionally healthy people can still experience sadness, anger, anxiety, disappointment, and stress.

Healthy emotional functioning may instead involve recognising emotions, understanding their causes, regulating them appropriately, and recovering from difficult experiences.

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

;
;
'''Quizzes'''
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]


==Conclusion==
** Emotional wellbeing involves healthy emotional experience and functioning rather than simply experiencing positive emotions.
** Research suggests that higher emotional intelligence is generally associated with better indicators of wellbeing.
** Emotion regulation, coping and interpersonal functioning may help explain this relationship.
** Different EI components and models may show different relationships with wellbeing.
** Emotional intelligence may be partly developable, creating potential applications for wellbeing interventions.
** or universal cause of emotional wellbeing.  Return briefly to Sophie:  Sophie's situation demonstrates that emotional intelligence does not remove disappointment, stress, or conflict. Instead, emotional abilities may help her recognise what she is experiencing, understand why she feels that way, regulate her response, and choose behaviours that support her wellbeing.  
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* Emotional intelligence
* Emotion regulation
* Subjective wellbeing
* Psychological wellbeing
* Coping
* Stress
* Positive psychology

Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]]</text>
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__TOC__
== Overview ==

'''Scenario'''
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict.

Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively.

Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations?

One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence (EI) the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing.

Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically.

Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
=== Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways.

* '''What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Define emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Explain that emotional intelligence generally involves recognising, understanding, using, and managing emotions. Explain emotional wellbeing and clarify that wellbeing does not simply mean always experiencing positive emotions. Introduce the idea that there are different models of emotional intelligence.)  '''Research needed:''' A foundational source defining emotional intelligence, such as Mayer and Salovey, plus a reliable source defining emotional/subjective wellbeing.[[File:Student studying 26.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' ''A university student experiencing academic stress. Recognising and managing emotional responses to stressful situations may involve emotional intelligence.'']]
* '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing.
* '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing.
* '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.)  '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management.
* '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.)  '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing.

== Focus Questions ==

* {{RoundBoxTop}}

1. What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? 

2. What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?

3. How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?

4. How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?

5. Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood.

=== Defining emotional intelligence ===
* Introduce emotional intelligence.
* Explain that EI concerns the processing and management of emotional information.
* Explain that EI is not simply &quot;being emotional&quot; or &quot;being a nice person&quot;.
* Introduce major conceptualisations of EI.
* Explain why differences in definitions matter when examining research.

==== '''Ability model of emotional intelligence''' ====
Introduce Mayer and Salovey's ability model.

Explain the four branches:

# Perceiving emotions
# Using emotions to facilitate thought
# Understanding emotions[[File:Model of EI.png|thumb|Figure 2. ''Mayor and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]Managing emotions

Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing.

'''Figure 2. The four-branch model of emotional intelligence'''

Create a simple diagram showing:

Perceiving emotions → Using emotions → Understanding emotions → Managing emotions

&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which statement best describes emotional intelligence?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ The ability to perceive, understand, use, and manage emotions.
- The ability to avoid experiencing negative emotions.
- The ability to remain happy in all situations.
- The ability to control the emotions of other people.
}
&lt;/quiz&gt;
== Trait emotional intelligence ==

* Explain trait EI.
* Distinguish trait EI from ability EI.
* Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies.
* Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing.

== What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
After defining both concepts, this section examines what psychological research shows about the overall relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional intelligence and positive wellbeing ===

* Examine whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional wellbeing.
* Discuss research involving positive affect, happiness, life satisfaction, and subjective or psychological wellbeing.
* Explain the strength of the relationship where research allows.
* Avoid assuming that emotional intelligence directly causes greater happiness.

=== Emotional intelligence and negative emotional experiences ===

* Examine the relationship between EI and stress.
* Discuss emotional distress and negative affect.
* Consider relevant research involving anxiety or depressive symptoms.
* Explain that higher EI does not mean that someone will never experience negative emotions.
* Instead, people with stronger emotional abilities may be better able to understand and respond to difficult emotions.

=== Trait and ability emotional intelligence ===

* Compare research findings for trait and ability EI.
* Examine whether trait EI shows different relationships with wellbeing than ability EI.
* Consider how the way EI is measured could influence research findings.
* Discuss the limitations of relying heavily on self-report measures.

=== What does the evidence tell us? ===

* Bring the research together.
* Establish whether there is consistent evidence for an association between EI and emotional wellbeing.
* Distinguish correlation from causation.
* Identify any inconsistencies or limitations in the evidence.

== How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? ==
Finding an association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing does not necessarily explain why the two are related. Several psychological processes may help explain how emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional awareness and perception ===

* Explain the importance of accurately recognising emotions.
* Discuss how identifying an emotional state can help a person decide how to respond.
* Explain what may happen when people have difficulty recognising their emotions.
* Connect emotional awareness with emotional wellbeing.

=== Understanding emotions ===

* Discuss the ability to understand why an emotion has occurred.
* Explain how people can recognise changes and combinations of emotions.
* Consider how understanding the causes and consequences of emotions may support emotional functioning.
* Explain how emotional understanding may make it easier to choose an appropriate response.

=== Emotion regulation ===

* Define emotion regulation.
* Explain how EI may support the regulation of difficult emotional experiences.
* Discuss adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies.
* Consider cognitive reappraisal and suppression where relevant.
* Explain that regulating an emotion does not necessarily mean removing or suppressing it.
* Examine whether emotion regulation helps explain the relationship between EI and wellbeing.

=== Coping with stress ===

* Examine how EI may influence responses to stressful situations.
* Discuss appraisal and coping strategies.
* Consider emotional recovery and resilience.
* Connect effective coping with emotional wellbeing.

=== Social relationships and support ===

* Explain how EI may help people recognise other people's emotions.
* Discuss emotional communication.
* Examine interpersonal conflict and relationship management.
* Consider whether stronger relationships and social support provide another pathway between EI and wellbeing.

'''Figure 3. Possible pathways through which emotional intelligence may support emotional wellbeing.'''

Emotional intelligence may contribute to emotional wellbeing through several interacting processes, including emotional awareness, understanding, emotion regulation, coping with stress, and social functioning. These processes may work together rather than occurring in a simple step-by-step sequence.

== Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? ==
Although emotional intelligence is often discussed as a single concept, its individual components may not contribute equally to emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotion perception ===

* Examine the benefits of accurately recognising emotional states.
* Discuss the importance of identifying emotional cues in oneself and others.
* Consider limitations: recognising an emotion does not necessarily mean someone will manage it effectively.

=== Using emotions ===

* Explain what it means to use emotions to support thinking.
* Discuss how emotional information may guide attention, judgement, or problem-solving.
* Examine whether this component has a clear relationship with emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotion understanding ===

* Discuss understanding the causes and consequences of emotions.
* Consider emotional complexity and changes in emotional states.
* Examine how understanding emotions may support coping and regulation.

=== Emotion regulation and management ===

* Examine whether emotion regulation is particularly strongly related to emotional wellbeing.
* Discuss positive affect and negative affect.
* Consider emotional distress.
* Examine connections with resilience and coping.
* Consider whether emotion regulation could help explain the broader relationship between EI and wellbeing.

=== Comparing the components ===

* Compare evidence across the different EI components.
* Consider whether any component appears particularly important for wellbeing.
* Avoid assuming that emotion regulation is the most important unless the research supports this conclusion.
* Consider whether the different abilities work together.

== Table 1. Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Concept
!Central concern
!Example
|-
|Emotional intelligence
|Processing, understanding and managing emotional information
|Recognising why you feel anxious and choosing an appropriate response
|-
|Emotional wellbeing
|Quality of emotional experience and functioning
|Experiencing manageable negative emotion while maintaining positive functioning
|-
|Emotion regulation
|Influencing emotional experiences or responses
|Reappraising a stressful situation rather than reacting impulsively
|}

== Figures ==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

;
;
'''Quizzes'''
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]


==Conclusion==
** Emotional wellbeing involves healthy emotional experience and functioning rather than simply experiencing positive emotions.
** Research suggests that higher emotional intelligence is generally associated with better indicators of wellbeing.
** Emotion regulation, coping and interpersonal functioning may help explain this relationship.
** Different EI components and models may show different relationships with wellbeing.
** Emotional intelligence may be partly developable, creating potential applications for wellbeing interventions.
** or universal cause of emotional wellbeing.  Return briefly to Sophie:  Sophie's situation demonstrates that emotional intelligence does not remove disappointment, stress, or conflict. Instead, emotional abilities may help her recognise what she is experiencing, understand why she feels that way, regulate her response, and choose behaviours that support her wellbeing.  
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* Emotional intelligence
* Emotion regulation
* Subjective wellbeing
* Psychological wellbeing
* Coping
* Stress
* Positive psychology

Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Well-being]]</text>
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__TOC__
== Overview ==

'''Scenario'''
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict.

Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively.

Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations?

One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence (EI) the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing.

Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically.

Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
=== Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways.

* '''What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Define emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Explain that emotional intelligence generally involves recognising, understanding, using, and managing emotions. Explain emotional wellbeing and clarify that wellbeing does not simply mean always experiencing positive emotions. Introduce the idea that there are different models of emotional intelligence.)  '''Research needed:''' A foundational source defining emotional intelligence, such as Mayer and Salovey, plus a reliable source defining emotional/subjective wellbeing.[[File:Student studying 26.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' ''A university student experiencing academic stress. Recognising and managing emotional responses to stressful situations may involve emotional intelligence.'']]
* '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing.
* '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing.
* '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.)  '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management.
* '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.)  '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing.

== Focus Questions ==

* {{RoundBoxTop}}

1. What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? 

2. What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?

3. How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?

4. How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?

5. Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood.

=== Defining emotional intelligence ===
* Introduce emotional intelligence.
* Explain that EI concerns the processing and management of emotional information.
* Explain that EI is not simply &quot;being emotional&quot; or &quot;being a nice person&quot;.
* Introduce major conceptualisations of EI.
* Explain why differences in definitions matter when examining research.

==== '''Ability model of emotional intelligence''' ====
Introduce Mayer and Salovey's ability model.

Explain the four branches:

# Perceiving emotions
# Using emotions to facilitate thought
# Understanding emotions[[File:Model of EI.png|thumb|Figure 2. ''Mayor and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]Managing emotions

Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing.

'''Figure 2. The four-branch model of emotional intelligence'''

Create a simple diagram showing:

Perceiving emotions → Using emotions → Understanding emotions → Managing emotions

&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which statement best describes emotional intelligence?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ The ability to perceive, understand, use, and manage emotions.
- The ability to avoid experiencing negative emotions.
- The ability to remain happy in all situations.
- The ability to control the emotions of other people.
}
&lt;/quiz&gt;

=== Trait emotional intelligence ===
* Explain trait EI.
* Distinguish trait EI from ability EI.
* Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies.
* Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing.

=== Defining emotional wellbeing ===

** Define emotional wellbeing and explain what it means in psychology.
** Explain that emotional wellbeing involves both positive and negative emotional experiences.
** Clarify that good emotional wellbeing does not mean feeling happy or positive all the time.
** Discuss the ability to recognise, understand, and manage emotions as part of healthy emotional functioning.
** Explain that experiencing emotions such as sadness, anger, anxiety, or disappointment is a normal part of emotional wellbeing.
** Discuss how emotional wellbeing may involve being able to cope with difficult emotions and recover from stressful experiences.
** Distinguish emotional wellbeing from the absence of mental illness or psychological distress.
** Briefly explain how emotional wellbeing is measured in psychological research, as this will be important when you later discuss its relationship with emotional intelligence.

== What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
After defining both concepts, this section examines what psychological research shows about the overall relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional intelligence and positive wellbeing ===

* Examine whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional wellbeing.
* Discuss research involving positive affect, happiness, life satisfaction, and subjective or psychological wellbeing.
* Explain the strength of the relationship where research allows.
* Avoid assuming that emotional intelligence directly causes greater happiness.

=== Emotional intelligence and negative emotional experiences ===

* Examine the relationship between EI and stress.
* Discuss emotional distress and negative affect.
* Consider relevant research involving anxiety or depressive symptoms.
* Explain that higher EI does not mean that someone will never experience negative emotions.
* Instead, people with stronger emotional abilities may be better able to understand and respond to difficult emotions.

=== Trait and ability emotional intelligence ===

* Compare research findings for trait and ability EI.
* Examine whether trait EI shows different relationships with wellbeing than ability EI.
* Consider how the way EI is measured could influence research findings.
* Discuss the limitations of relying heavily on self-report measures.

=== What does the evidence tell us? ===

* Bring the research together.
* Establish whether there is consistent evidence for an association between EI and emotional wellbeing.
* Distinguish correlation from causation.
* Identify any inconsistencies or limitations in the evidence.

== How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? ==
Finding an association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing does not necessarily explain why the two are related. Several psychological processes may help explain how emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional awareness and perception ===

* Explain the importance of accurately recognising emotions.
* Discuss how identifying an emotional state can help a person decide how to respond.
* Explain what may happen when people have difficulty recognising their emotions.
* Connect emotional awareness with emotional wellbeing.

=== Understanding emotions ===

* Discuss the ability to understand why an emotion has occurred.
* Explain how people can recognise changes and combinations of emotions.
* Consider how understanding the causes and consequences of emotions may support emotional functioning.
* Explain how emotional understanding may make it easier to choose an appropriate response.

=== Emotion regulation ===

* Define emotion regulation.
* Explain how EI may support the regulation of difficult emotional experiences.
* Discuss adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies.
* Consider cognitive reappraisal and suppression where relevant.
* Explain that regulating an emotion does not necessarily mean removing or suppressing it.
* Examine whether emotion regulation helps explain the relationship between EI and wellbeing.

=== Coping with stress ===

* Examine how EI may influence responses to stressful situations.
* Discuss appraisal and coping strategies.
* Consider emotional recovery and resilience.
* Connect effective coping with emotional wellbeing.

=== Social relationships and support ===

* Explain how EI may help people recognise other people's emotions.
* Discuss emotional communication.
* Examine interpersonal conflict and relationship management.
* Consider whether stronger relationships and social support provide another pathway between EI and wellbeing.

'''Figure 3. Possible pathways through which emotional intelligence may support emotional wellbeing.'''

Emotional intelligence may contribute to emotional wellbeing through several interacting processes, including emotional awareness, understanding, emotion regulation, coping with stress, and social functioning. These processes may work together rather than occurring in a simple step-by-step sequence.

== Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? ==
Although emotional intelligence is often discussed as a single concept, its individual components may not contribute equally to emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotion perception ===

* Examine the benefits of accurately recognising emotional states.
* Discuss the importance of identifying emotional cues in oneself and others.
* Consider limitations: recognising an emotion does not necessarily mean someone will manage it effectively.

=== Using emotions ===

* Explain what it means to use emotions to support thinking.
* Discuss how emotional information may guide attention, judgement, or problem-solving.
* Examine whether this component has a clear relationship with emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotion understanding ===

* Discuss understanding the causes and consequences of emotions.
* Consider emotional complexity and changes in emotional states.
* Examine how understanding emotions may support coping and regulation.

=== Emotion regulation and management ===

* Examine whether emotion regulation is particularly strongly related to emotional wellbeing.
* Discuss positive affect and negative affect.
* Consider emotional distress.
* Examine connections with resilience and coping.
* Consider whether emotion regulation could help explain the broader relationship between EI and wellbeing.

=== Comparing the components ===

* Compare evidence across the different EI components.
* Consider whether any component appears particularly important for wellbeing.
* Avoid assuming that emotion regulation is the most important unless the research supports this conclusion.
* Consider whether the different abilities work together.

== Table 1. Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Concept
!Central concern
!Example
|-
|Emotional intelligence
|Processing, understanding and managing emotional information
|Recognising why you feel anxious and choosing an appropriate response
|-
|Emotional wellbeing
|Quality of emotional experience and functioning
|Experiencing manageable negative emotion while maintaining positive functioning
|-
|Emotion regulation
|Influencing emotional experiences or responses
|Reappraising a stressful situation rather than reacting impulsively
|}

== Figures ==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

;
;
'''Quizzes'''
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]


==Conclusion==
** Emotional wellbeing involves healthy emotional experience and functioning rather than simply experiencing positive emotions.
** Research suggests that higher emotional intelligence is generally associated with better indicators of wellbeing.
** Emotion regulation, coping and interpersonal functioning may help explain this relationship.
** Different EI components and models may show different relationships with wellbeing.
** Emotional intelligence may be partly developable, creating potential applications for wellbeing interventions.
** or universal cause of emotional wellbeing.  Return briefly to Sophie:  Sophie's situation demonstrates that emotional intelligence does not remove disappointment, stress, or conflict. Instead, emotional abilities may help her recognise what she is experiencing, understand why she feels that way, regulate her response, and choose behaviours that support her wellbeing.  
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* Emotional intelligence
* Emotion regulation
* Subjective wellbeing
* Psychological wellbeing
* Coping
* Stress
* Positive psychology

Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]]
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__TOC__
== Overview ==

'''Scenario'''
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
Imagine Sophie, a university student who has several assessments due while also dealing with conflict with a close friend. After receiving a disappointing mark, Sophie initially feels frustrated, embarrassed, and overwhelmed. Rather than immediately reacting, she recognises that disappointment and stress are influencing how she is thinking about the situation. She takes some time to regulate her emotions, considers why the result affected her so strongly, and later talks calmly with her friend about the conflict.

Another student experiencing the same circumstances might struggle to identify what they are feeling, become increasingly overwhelmed, or react impulsively.

Why might people respond so differently to similar emotional situations?

One possible explanation involves emotional intelligence (EI) the capacity to perceive, understand, use, and regulate emotion. Emotional intelligence may influence how people interpret and respond to emotional experiences and, consequently, their emotional wellbeing.

Emotional wellbeing involves more than simply experiencing positive emotions or avoiding negative ones. It concerns how people experience and manage emotions and their broader capacity to function psychologically.

Understanding the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing is important because difficult emotions are unavoidable. Psychological research can help explain whether emotionally intelligent abilities support wellbeing, which components of emotional intelligence may be particularly important, and the psychological processes that could explain this relationship.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
=== Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ===
Emotional intelligence may play an important role in how people recognise, understand, and regulate their emotions. These emotional abilities may influence how people cope with difficult experiences, maintain positive emotions, and support their overall emotional wellbeing. However, emotional intelligence is a complex construct, and different emotional abilities may contribute to wellbeing in different ways.

* '''What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Define emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Explain that emotional intelligence generally involves recognising, understanding, using, and managing emotions. Explain emotional wellbeing and clarify that wellbeing does not simply mean always experiencing positive emotions. Introduce the idea that there are different models of emotional intelligence.)  '''Research needed:''' A foundational source defining emotional intelligence, such as Mayer and Salovey, plus a reliable source defining emotional/subjective wellbeing.[[File:Student studying 26.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' ''A university student experiencing academic stress. Recognising and managing emotional responses to stressful situations may involve emotional intelligence.'']]
* '''What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss research showing whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional or psychological wellbeing. Consider outcomes such as positive affect, life satisfaction, happiness, stress, and negative emotional experiences. Be careful to distinguish an association from evidence that emotional intelligence directly causes better wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Meta-analyses or empirical studies examining the association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing.
* '''How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss the psychological processes that may explain the relationship. Emotional intelligence may help people recognise what they are feeling, understand why they are experiencing an emotion, regulate difficult emotions, cope with stress, and manage interpersonal situations. These processes may help explain why emotional intelligence is associated with wellbeing.)  '''Research needed:''' Research connecting emotional intelligence with emotion regulation, coping, stress management, and social functioning, as well as research linking these processes with wellbeing.
* '''Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether different components of emotional intelligence contribute differently to wellbeing. Consider emotion perception, using emotion, emotion understanding, and emotion management/regulation. Emotion regulation may be particularly relevant, but this needs to be evaluated using research rather than assumed.)  '''Research needed:''' Studies comparing different dimensions or branches of emotional intelligence and their relationships with wellbeing, particularly emotion regulation/management.
* '''How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?'''  (Discuss whether emotional intelligence can be improved through training or psychological interventions. Consider strategies aimed at emotional awareness, understanding emotions, emotion regulation, and interpersonal skills. Examine whether improving these abilities actually leads to improvements in wellbeing and acknowledge limitations in the evidence.)  '''Research needed:''' Intervention studies and preferably systematic reviews or meta-analyses of emotional intelligence training and its effects on emotional or psychological wellbeing.

== Focus Questions ==

* {{RoundBoxTop}}

1. What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? 

2. What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing?

3. How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing?

4. How can emotional intelligence be developed to support emotional wellbeing?

5. Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What are emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
Before examining their relationship, it is important to establish what psychologists mean by emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing. Both are multidimensional concepts, and different theoretical approaches influence how they are measured and understood.

=== Defining emotional intelligence ===
* Introduce emotional intelligence.
* Explain that EI concerns the processing and management of emotional information.
* Explain that EI is not simply &quot;being emotional&quot; or &quot;being a nice person&quot;.
* Introduce major conceptualisations of EI.
* Explain why differences in definitions matter when examining research.

==== '''Ability model of emotional intelligence''' ====
Introduce Mayer and Salovey's ability model.

Explain the four branches:

# Perceiving emotions
# Using emotions to facilitate thought
# Understanding emotions[[File:Model of EI.png|thumb|Figure 2. ''Mayer and Salovey's Emotional Intelligence model'' ]]Managing emotions

Explain briefly how each ability could theoretically contribute to wellbeing.

'''Figure 2. The four-branch model of emotional intelligence'''

Create a simple diagram showing:

Perceiving emotions → Using emotions → Understanding emotions → Managing emotions

&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Which statement best describes emotional intelligence?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ The ability to perceive, understand, use, and manage emotions.
- The ability to avoid experiencing negative emotions.
- The ability to remain happy in all situations.
- The ability to control the emotions of other people.
}
&lt;/quiz&gt;

=== Trait emotional intelligence ===
* Explain trait EI.
* Distinguish trait EI from ability EI.
* Explain that trait EI concerns people's perceptions of their emotional abilities and tendencies.
* Briefly introduce why trait EI is relevant to emotional wellbeing.

=== Defining emotional wellbeing ===

** Define emotional wellbeing and explain what it means in psychology.
** Explain that emotional wellbeing involves both positive and negative emotional experiences.
** Clarify that good emotional wellbeing does not mean feeling happy or positive all the time.
** Discuss the ability to recognise, understand, and manage emotions as part of healthy emotional functioning.
** Explain that experiencing emotions such as sadness, anger, anxiety, or disappointment is a normal part of emotional wellbeing.
** Discuss how emotional wellbeing may involve being able to cope with difficult emotions and recover from stressful experiences.
** Distinguish emotional wellbeing from the absence of mental illness or psychological distress.
** Briefly explain how emotional wellbeing is measured in psychological research, as this will be important when you later discuss its relationship with emotional intelligence.

== What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing? ==
After defining both concepts, this section examines what psychological research shows about the overall relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional intelligence and positive wellbeing ===

* Examine whether higher emotional intelligence is associated with greater emotional wellbeing.
* Discuss research involving positive affect, happiness, life satisfaction, and subjective or psychological wellbeing.
* Explain the strength of the relationship where research allows.
* Avoid assuming that emotional intelligence directly causes greater happiness.

=== Emotional intelligence and negative emotional experiences ===

* Examine the relationship between EI and stress.
* Discuss emotional distress and negative affect.
* Consider relevant research involving anxiety or depressive symptoms.
* Explain that higher EI does not mean that someone will never experience negative emotions.
* Instead, people with stronger emotional abilities may be better able to understand and respond to difficult emotions.

=== Trait and ability emotional intelligence ===

* Compare research findings for trait and ability EI.
* Examine whether trait EI shows different relationships with wellbeing than ability EI.
* Consider how the way EI is measured could influence research findings.
* Discuss the limitations of relying heavily on self-report measures.

=== What does the evidence tell us? ===

* Bring the research together.
* Establish whether there is consistent evidence for an association between EI and emotional wellbeing.
* Distinguish correlation from causation.
* Identify any inconsistencies or limitations in the evidence.

== How does emotional intelligence influence emotional wellbeing? ==
Finding an association between emotional intelligence and wellbeing does not necessarily explain why the two are related. Several psychological processes may help explain how emotional intelligence contributes to emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotional awareness and perception ===

* Explain the importance of accurately recognising emotions.
* Discuss how identifying an emotional state can help a person decide how to respond.
* Explain what may happen when people have difficulty recognising their emotions.
* Connect emotional awareness with emotional wellbeing.

=== Understanding emotions ===

* Discuss the ability to understand why an emotion has occurred.
* Explain how people can recognise changes and combinations of emotions.
* Consider how understanding the causes and consequences of emotions may support emotional functioning.
* Explain how emotional understanding may make it easier to choose an appropriate response.

=== Emotion regulation ===

* Define emotion regulation.
* Explain how EI may support the regulation of difficult emotional experiences.
* Discuss adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation strategies.
* Consider cognitive reappraisal and suppression where relevant.
* Explain that regulating an emotion does not necessarily mean removing or suppressing it.
* Examine whether emotion regulation helps explain the relationship between EI and wellbeing.

=== Coping with stress ===

* Examine how EI may influence responses to stressful situations.
* Discuss appraisal and coping strategies.
* Consider emotional recovery and resilience.
* Connect effective coping with emotional wellbeing.

=== Social relationships and support ===

* Explain how EI may help people recognise other people's emotions.
* Discuss emotional communication.
* Examine interpersonal conflict and relationship management.
* Consider whether stronger relationships and social support provide another pathway between EI and wellbeing.

'''Figure 3. Possible pathways through which emotional intelligence may support emotional wellbeing.'''

Emotional intelligence may contribute to emotional wellbeing through several interacting processes, including emotional awareness, understanding, emotion regulation, coping with stress, and social functioning. These processes may work together rather than occurring in a simple step-by-step sequence.

== Which components of emotional intelligence are particularly important for emotional wellbeing? ==
Although emotional intelligence is often discussed as a single concept, its individual components may not contribute equally to emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotion perception ===

* Examine the benefits of accurately recognising emotional states.
* Discuss the importance of identifying emotional cues in oneself and others.
* Consider limitations: recognising an emotion does not necessarily mean someone will manage it effectively.

=== Using emotions ===

* Explain what it means to use emotions to support thinking.
* Discuss how emotional information may guide attention, judgement, or problem-solving.
* Examine whether this component has a clear relationship with emotional wellbeing.

=== Emotion understanding ===

* Discuss understanding the causes and consequences of emotions.
* Consider emotional complexity and changes in emotional states.
* Examine how understanding emotions may support coping and regulation.

=== Emotion regulation and management ===

* Examine whether emotion regulation is particularly strongly related to emotional wellbeing.
* Discuss positive affect and negative affect.
* Consider emotional distress.
* Examine connections with resilience and coping.
* Consider whether emotion regulation could help explain the broader relationship between EI and wellbeing.

=== Comparing the components ===

* Compare evidence across the different EI components.
* Consider whether any component appears particularly important for wellbeing.
* Avoid assuming that emotion regulation is the most important unless the research supports this conclusion.
* Consider whether the different abilities work together.

== Table 1. Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Concept
!Central concern
!Example
|-
|Emotional intelligence
|Processing, understanding and managing emotional information
|Recognising why you feel anxious and choosing an appropriate response
|-
|Emotional wellbeing
|Quality of emotional experience and functioning
|Experiencing manageable negative emotion while maintaining positive functioning
|-
|Emotion regulation
|Influencing emotional experiences or responses
|Reappraising a stressful situation rather than reacting impulsively
|}

== Figures ==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 3'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]
* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

;
;
'''Quizzes'''
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]


==Conclusion==
** Emotional wellbeing involves healthy emotional experience and functioning rather than simply experiencing positive emotions.
** Research suggests that higher emotional intelligence is generally associated with better indicators of wellbeing.
** Emotion regulation, coping and interpersonal functioning may help explain this relationship.
** Different EI components and models may show different relationships with wellbeing.
** Emotional intelligence may be partly developable, creating potential applications for wellbeing interventions.
** or universal cause of emotional wellbeing.  Return briefly to Sophie:  Sophie's situation demonstrates that emotional intelligence does not remove disappointment, stress, or conflict. Instead, emotional abilities may help her recognise what she is experiencing, understand why she feels that way, regulate her response, and choose behaviours that support her wellbeing.  
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* Emotional intelligence
* Emotion regulation
* Subjective wellbeing
* Psychological wellbeing
* Coping
* Stress
* Positive psychology

Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]]
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sexual motivation]]</text>
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    </revision>
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&lt;div align=center&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What are sex work services? ==

* Introductory bullet point 

=== Defining sex work services? ===

* Bullet point discussing what these services are.  

=== Who is using sex work services? ===

* Bullet point discussing that both men and women use them for different reasons but also similar reasons. 

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sexual motivation]]</text>
      <sha1>hvxq0jra39w7yjusozwpzldcaw8okzc</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824104</id>
      <parentid>2824102</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T04:56:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3261236</username>
        <id>3106976</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>edited bullet</comment>
      <origin>2824104</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9570" sha1="egg3omfrhyvg98w4cheuz05h24wdtl2" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Motivations for using sex work services:&lt;br&gt;What motivates use of sex work services?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What are sex work services? ==

* Introductory bullet point 

=== Defining sex work services? ===

* Bullet point discussing what these services are.  

=== Who is using sex work services? ===

* Bullet point discussing that both men and women use them for different reasons but also similar reasons. Research has predominantly explored men who are paying for sex services, largely ignoring the female demographic. 

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sexual motivation]]</text>
      <sha1>egg3omfrhyvg98w4cheuz05h24wdtl2</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824106</id>
      <parentid>2824104</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T04:58:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3261236</username>
        <id>3106976</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>edit heading</comment>
      <origin>2824106</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9560" sha1="n8i2tlaqjabkasvzgk289pkmy4zwo5e" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Motivations for using sex work services:&lt;br&gt;What motivates use of sex work services?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Sexual Motivation ==

* Introductory bullet point 

=== Defining sex work services? ===

* Bullet point discussing what these services are.  

=== Who is using sex work services? ===

* Bullet point discussing that both men and women use them for different reasons but also similar reasons. Research has predominantly explored men who are paying for sex services, largely ignoring the female demographic. 

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sexual motivation]]</text>
      <sha1>n8i2tlaqjabkasvzgk289pkmy4zwo5e</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824107</id>
      <parentid>2824106</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T05:00:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3261236</username>
        <id>3106976</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2824107</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9669" sha1="h6zmh31ws1wp72bwou385agf2vmljnp" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Motivations for using sex work services:&lt;br&gt;What motivates use of sex work services?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Sexual Motivation ==

* Introductory bullet point on sexual motivation and theory for sexual motivation. Link this introduction to the following sub-headings. 

=== Defining sex work services? ===

* Bullet point discussing what these services are.  

=== Who is using sex work services? ===

* Bullet point discussing that both men and women use them for different reasons but also similar reasons. Research has predominantly explored men who are paying for sex services, largely ignoring the female demographic. 

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sexual motivation]]</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824126</id>
      <parentid>2824107</parentid>
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      <contributor>
        <username>U3261236</username>
        <id>3106976</id>
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&lt;div align=center&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Sexual Motivation ==

* Introductory bullet point on sexual motivation and theory for sexual motivation. Link this introduction to the following sub-headings. 

=== Defining sex work services? ===

* Bullet point discussing what these services are.  

=== Who is using sex work services? ===

* Bullet point discussing that both men and women use them for different reasons but also similar reasons. Research has predominantly explored men who are paying for sex services, largely ignoring the female demographic. 

== Men's Motivations ==

* Introduce that so much of the literature discusses men's use of sex work services and their motivations for it. stigma that men who pay for sex are violent and aggressive to the female workers. Introduce the &quot;push&quot; and &quot;pull&quot; factors of sex services. 

=== Masculinity ===

=== Intimacy ===

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sexual motivation]]</text>
      <sha1>j05qc9p34v6016d2efhfp04psyfarc6</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824136</id>
      <parentid>2824126</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T05:55:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3261236</username>
        <id>3106976</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2824136</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
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&lt;div align=center&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Sexual Motivation ==

* Introductory bullet point on sexual motivation and theory for sexual motivation. Link this introduction to the following sub-headings. 

=== Defining sex work services? ===

* Bullet point discussing what these services are.  

=== Who is using sex work services? ===

* Bullet point discussing that both men and women use them for different reasons but also similar reasons. Research has predominantly explored men who are paying for sex services, largely ignoring the female demographic. 

== Men's Motivations ==

* Introduce that so much of the literature discusses men's use of sex work services and their motivations for it. stigma that men who pay for sex are violent and aggressive to the female workers. Introduce the &quot;push&quot; and &quot;pull&quot; factors of sex services. 

=== Masculinity ===

=== Intimacy ===

== Women's Motivations ==

* Introduce women also use sexual services. &quot;women provide rather than purchase&quot;

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sexual motivation]]</text>
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&lt;div align=center&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Sexual Motivation ==

* Introductory bullet point on sexual motivation and theory for sexual motivation. Link this introduction to the following sub-headings. 

=== Defining sex work services? ===

* Bullet point discussing what these services are.  

=== Who is using sex work services? ===

* Both men and women use sex work services for varying reasons but also for similar reasons. Research has predominantly explored men as the primary users of sex work services, in turn leading to the female demographic being underrepresented.  

== Men's Motivations ==

* Introduce that so much of the literature discusses men's use of sex work services and their motivations for it. stigma that men who pay for sex are violent and aggressive to the female workers. Introduce the &quot;push&quot; and &quot;pull&quot; factors of sex services. 

=== Masculinity ===

=== Intimacy ===

== Women's Motivations ==

* Introduce women also use sexual services. &quot;women provide rather than purchase&quot;

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sexual motivation]]</text>
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        <id>3054107</id>
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__TOC__

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}'''What would you do if you found yourself in this scenario?'''

Feeling lost and left with little money of your own, but you have to make ends meet. What will you do when you have to pay your rent? What if have a child? Would you turn to sex work to make ends meet? 
[[File:“Sex workers rights are human rights” - Europride 2019.jpg|thumb|200px|'''''Figure 1:''''' Prostitution in Sao Paulo, Brazil]]

If you did... would that make your rights to a safe and trustworthy work environment just disapear? Sex work itself is illegal, having been driven to such means to make ends meet you must register as self employed in order to pay taxes, buy a house, or even just be considered an employee (Huglstad et al., 2020).

Sex workers rights activists proclaim that sex work is work and that they are not victims in need of help (Jackson, 2016) (see Figure 1). That in itself poses another scenario. What drives people into sex work? Is it finance and convenience? Or is it pleasure and fun?

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[https://ichef.bbci.co.uk/ace/standard/976/cpsprodpb/8167/production/_90172133_mediaitem90172132.jpg.webp ''Figure 1''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]

; Imagine this ... or Scenari ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What are the main driving forces causing people to turn to sex work?
* What is the effect of the adult entertainment industry on sex workers?
* What is the condition of work place satisfaction for sex workers?
* What is the relationship between whorephobia and others' actions towards sex workers?
* Do those who turn to sex work for pleasure have different experiences to those who do so for money alone?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Sex]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Work motivation]]</text>
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    <revision>
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      <parentid>2823570</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T01:04:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jack4234</username>
        <id>3106762</id>
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      <origin>2823960</origin>
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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]]


__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Ueber-die-sammlung-19-jahrhundert-caspar-david-friedrich-wanderer-ueber-dem-nebelmeer.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Figure 1. Wanderer above the Sea of Fog]]

; Scenario

A university student has started their final year of their bachelor's degree, and the academic standards are higher than previous years. One may imagine their future as exciting: graduating, beginning a meaningful career, becoming financially independent, and becoming the capable and competent person they hope to be. Alternatively, they may imagine their future as unsettling: losing motivation, failing to make use of their opportunities, and becoming someone they once hoped to avoid.

Neither future exists, however, these imagined versions of the self can influence what the student does today – whether they attend lectures and tutorials, persist through difficult assignments and exams, or give up when progress feels slow.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A brief, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

[https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1037/1089-2680.11.4.348 Possible selves] are conceptions of who we may become in the future and involve, to some degree, imagining ourselves as agents within those future situations (Erikson, 2007). They can include versions of ourselves that we hope to become, as well as those we fear becoming. Markus and Nurius (1986) proposed that these future self-representations are motivationally important because they can provide incentives for behaviour and give personal meaning and direction to our goals.

In the opening scenario, the university student can imagine both a desired future of graduating and beginning a meaningful career, and an unwanted future characterised by lost opportunities and lack of direction. Yet imagining either future does not guarantee that the student will study, persist through setbacks, or take advantage of opportunities in the present. This illustrates a central problem in understanding possible selves: how does an imagined future identity become motivation and, ultimately, goal-directed behaviour?

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

*What are possible selves, and why can they have motivational significance?
*How do possible selves interact with self-regulatory processes involved in goal pursuit?
*Under what conditions do possible selves facilitate - or fail to facilitate - goal-directed behaviour?
* How can possible selves be used to strengthen motivation and translate future aspirations into present action?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
[[File:Teens sharing a song.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Adolescents enjoying spending time together.]]
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

== Possible selves ==
*what is the psychological construct that is doing the influencing?
*Establishing what they are and why they have motivational significance 
*Introduce Markus and Nurius (1986) Possible Selves theory. Specifically, explaining how possibles selves are future-oriented representations of the self
*Markus and Nurius argue that possible selves connect cognition and motivation because they embody hopes, fears, goals and threats and can provide incentives for behaviour.
*Possible selves: theory research and applications: Researchers have found that future possible selves also affect one's current identity (Markius &amp; Nurius, 1986). Possible selves are hypothetical images about one's future, including ideal selves that we would like to become, such as XXX. Theorists believe that possible selves are important because they help people to evaluate their current selves and because they serve to motivate people who behave in ways that will help them attain or avoid their hoped-for or feared possible selves. 
Insert examples. Research has shown that people imagine themselves in the future a great deal of the time and that people are more likely to endorse positive possible selves than negative ones. 


=== 1.1 Definition and theoretical origins ===
*Introduce markus and nurius (1986) and explain why possible selves were proposed as an extension of existing understanding of self knowledge
*Markus and nurius as fundamental literature, in which possible selves give self-relevant form to hopes, fears, goals and threats and provide a conceptual link between cognition and motivation
*Establish key propositions that will run throughout the chapter: possible selves may give motivation direction, but processing an imagined future identity does not necessarily produce goal-directed action. More recent literature challenges the idea that possible selves directly cause behaviour 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x

=== 1.2 forms and content of possible selves (could be combined into 1.1) ===
*Explain hoped-for possible selves as desirable future identities that people would like to approach i.e., becoming better a pickle ball, becoming thinner, or workplace success
*Explain feared possible selves as undesirable future identities people wish to avoid i.e., becoming unhealthy
*Maybe discuss expected possible selves
*Content of possible selves is shaped by people's experiences and sociocultural circumstances rather than being a manifestation of the isolated self. Cross and Markus found systemic differences in hoped for and feared possible selves across adulthood https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232436255_Possible_Selves_across_the_Life_Span 

=== 1.3 motivational properties of possible selves === 
*Explain how markus and nurius proposal that possible selves can function as incentives for future behavior, giving self-relevant meaning and direction to motives
*Introduce evidence that making possible selves salient can affect subsequent motivation or performance. Find recent research study that investigates the effect of self-relevant future imagery on performance
*Explain how characteristics such as the specificity, accessibility, perceived likelihood and elaboration of the possible self may influence how motivational it becomes. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022103103000295 

== Goal pursuit and self-regulation ==
*Establish why a motivating future identity is not enough by itself. Something must translate the representation into behaviour
*People must initiate, regulate, and sustain behaviour
*Introduce self-regulation as the set of processes through which people organise

=== 2.1 from goals to goal-directed behaviour ===
*Define goal pursuit and distinguish a desired endpoint from the behaviours required to move toward that endpoint.
*Establish the distinction between motivation/intention and action: wanting an outcome does not ensure the behaviours necessary to achieve it. Research on implementation intentions is useful background evidence that specifying how and when to act can help translate goal intentions into action. 10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493 
*Explain that successful goal pursuit involves processes such as planning, effort, behavioural initiation, persistence and responding to obstacles.
*Connect this immediately back to possible selves: imagining “becoming a psychologist,” for example, only becomes behaviourally consequential if it becomes connected to actions such as studying, seeking experience and completing required training.

=== 2.2 self-regulation in goal pursuit ===
*Define self-regulation, a social-cognitive process at the intersection of metacognition, motivation, and behaviour, encompasses how people conceptualize, strive for, and accomplish their goals. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11409-020-09255-3 
*Introduce hoyle and sherrills (2006) argument: Possible selves as a component in self-regulatory processes through which motivation and behaviour are influenced. Not simply to be understood as directly causing motivation and behaviour; instead, they can form part of the self-regulatory processes through which motivation and behavior are influenced. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x
*Explain that a future identity can provide a reference point or direction, while self-regulation provides mechanisms such as planning, behavioural strategies, monitoring and adjustment.
*Finish with the question that launches Section 3: what determines whether a possible self actually becomes an effective component of self-regulation?

== Possible selves in motivated goal pursuit ==
*Center of the chapter
*Investigating the relationship between possible selves in motivated goal pursuit
*Integrate the constructs established in sections 1 and 2 rather than introducing another independent theory
*How self-representations can affect present motivation, decisions and behaviour
*Look at evidence showing that the motivational effects of possible selves are conditional: their content alone is less important than whether they can become effective self-regulatory resources. https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/science/article/pii/S0092656603000576 

=== 3.1 modelling the relationships ===
*compare Makrus and Nurius and Hoyle and Sherrill self-regulatory interpretation, showing the development from possible selves as incentives toward a more process oriented explanation https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x
*Introduce the MAPS framework 10.1007/s11409-020-09255-3 (use image)
*Possible selves may provide direction and motivational meaning, while self-regulation provides mechanisms through which that imagined future can influence present behaviour
*Answer the question: how?

=== 3.2 when possible selves facilitate goal pursuit ===
*Possible selves are more effective when linked to plausible strategies. Possible selves were associated with better outcomes when they could function as self-regulators rather than merely a positive image 10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.188
*Visualising future selves. Indeed, visualizing a future general success or specific failure led to better performance on an attention task (Study 1) and higher academic motivation (Study 2) than imagining a future general failure or specific success. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0276236619864275 
*Attainability and agency https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33424511/ 
*Context https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2014.965733

=== 3.3  when possible selves fail to motivate (may be able to combine with 3.2) ===
*Oyserman roadmap study to explain possible self may not generate behaviour
*“Seeing the destination but not the path”
*Key concept: the motivational value of a possible self lies not merely in imagining the destination, but in whether that future representation can organise effective action in the present

== Harnessing possible selves for goal pursuit ==
*Building capacity for goal pursuit, how understanding these mechanisms allows possible selves to be deliberately used to improve motivation and behaviour

=== 4.1 possible-self interventions === 
*Discuss actual psychological interventions https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16834488/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20733212/ 10.1016/j.lmot.2019.101599 
*Oyserman's school to jobs intervention to demonstrate that possible selves can be deliberately manipulated and linked with strategies, with measurable effects of academic behaviour and outcomes
*Critically compare interventions, mini literature review maybe
*This section answers the question: can people deliberately construct more motivationally effective possible selves? (use this a focus question)

=== 4.2 possible selves to present action ===
*This section uses practical recommendations derived explicitly from the evidence: envision, connect, strategies, act, monitor.
*Could use a learning feature
*“Commitment to an intertemporal relationship with an ideal possible self has similar effects on its continuation as commitment to an interpersonal relationship” in section: functions of commitment to an ideal possible self https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12499

== Extra sources: ==
*Possible selves, self regulation and actual social goal progress (2014)
*Best possible self intervention and academic motivation/commitment (2020)
*Identity-based motivation (2015) 

== Conclusion == 
*Possible selves can motivate goal pursuit by giving people personally meaningful future identities to approach or avoid.
*Their influence on behaviour is conditional: possible selves are most effective when they feel attainable and are connected to concrete strategies and self-regulatory processes.
*Psychological interventions may therefore improve goal pursuit by helping people translate imagined future identities into realistic pathways and present action.


==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations
==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

Cross, S., &amp; Markus, H. (2010). Possible selves across the life span. Human Development, 34(4), 230–255. https://doi.org/10.1159/000277058

de Place, A.-L., &amp; Brunot, S. (2019). Motivational and behavioral impact of possible selves: When specificity matters. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 39(4), 329–247. https://doi.org/10.1177/0276236619864275

Frazier, L. D., Schwartz, B. L., &amp; Metcalfe, J. (2021). The MAPS model of self-regulation: Integrating metacognition, agency, and possible selves. Metacognition and Learning, 16(2). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-020-09255-3

Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493

Haskins, L. B., &amp; vanDellen, M. R. (2019). Self‐regulation as relating to one’s ideal possible self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 13(10). https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12499

Hoyle, R. H., &amp; Sherrill, M. R. (2006). Future orientation in the self-system: Possible selves, self-regulation, and behavior. Journal of Personality, 74(6), 1673–1696. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x

Murru, E. C., &amp; Martin Ginis, K. A. (2010). Imagining the possibilities: The effects of a possible selves intervention on self-regulatory efficacy and exercise behavior. Journal of Sport &amp; Exercise Psychology, 32(4), 537–554. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.32.4.537

Norman, C. C., &amp; Aron, A. (2003). Aspects of possible self that predict motivation to achieve or avoid it. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39(5), 500–507. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1031(03)00029-5

Oyserman, D., Bybee, D., &amp; Terry, K. (2006). Possible selves and academic outcomes: How and when possible selves impel action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(1), 188–204. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.188

Oyserman, D., Bybee, D., Terry, K., &amp; Hart-Johnson, T. (2004). Possible selves as roadmaps. Journal of Research in Personality, 38(2), 130–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0092-6566(03)00057-6

Oyserman, D., Destin, M., &amp; Novin, S. (2014). The context-sensitive future self: Possible selves motivate in context, not otherwise. Self and Identity, 14(2), 173–188. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2014.965733}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://www.hiddenbrain.org/podcast/you-2-0-your-future-is-now/ You 2.0: your future is now] (Hidden Brain)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XNbaR54Gpj4&amp;t=177s The psychology of you future self | Dan Gilbert] (Youtube)
* [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/philosophy-and-therapy/202401/the-philosophy-of-possible-selves Why to start considering your possible selves] (Psychology Today)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]]


__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Ueber-die-sammlung-19-jahrhundert-caspar-david-friedrich-wanderer-ueber-dem-nebelmeer.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Figure 1. Wanderer above the Sea of Fog]]

; Scenario

A university student has started their final year of their bachelor's degree, and the academic standards are higher than previous years. One may imagine their future as exciting: graduating, beginning a meaningful career, becoming financially independent, and becoming the capable and competent person they hope to be. Alternatively, they may imagine their future as unsettling: losing motivation, failing to make use of their opportunities, and becoming someone they once hoped to avoid.

Neither future exists, however, these imagined versions of the self can influence what the student does today – whether they attend lectures and tutorials, persist through difficult assignments and exams, or give up when progress feels slow.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A brief, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topic''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

[https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1037/1089-2680.11.4.348 Possible selves] are conceptions of who we may become in the future and involve, to some degree, imagining ourselves as agents within those future situations (Erikson, 2007). They can include versions of ourselves that we hope to become, as well as those we fear becoming. Markus and Nurius (1986) proposed that these future self-representations are motivationally important because they can provide incentives for behaviour and give personal meaning and direction to our goals.

In the opening scenario, the university student can imagine both a desired future of graduating and beginning a meaningful career, and an unwanted future characterised by lost opportunities and lack of direction. Yet imagining either future does not guarantee that the student will study, persist through setbacks, or take advantage of opportunities in the present. This illustrates a central problem in understanding possible selves: how does an imagined future identity become motivation and, ultimately, goal-directed behaviour?

Literature over the past two decades suggests that possible selves are better understood as components of self-regulation through which motivation and behaviour are influenced (Hoyle &amp; Sherrill, 2006; Frazier, Schwartz &amp; Metcalfe, 2021). Research therefore focuses on the conditions under which possible selves provide effective guidance for goal pursuit, including whether they are meaningful, attainable, and connected to realistic behavioural strategies. Examining these processes help to explain why imagined future identities can motivate present goal-directed behaviour in some circumstances, yet remain ineffective in others (Haskins &amp; vanDellen, 2019).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

*What are possible selves, and why can they have motivational significance?
*How do possible selves interact with self-regulatory processes involved in goal pursuit?
*Under what conditions do possible selves facilitate - or fail to facilitate - goal-directed behaviour?
* How can possible selves be used to strengthen motivation and translate future aspirations into present action?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
[[File:Teens sharing a song.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Adolescents enjoying spending time together.]]
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

== Possible selves ==
*what is the psychological construct that is doing the influencing?
*Establishing what they are and why they have motivational significance 
*Introduce Markus and Nurius (1986) Possible Selves theory. Specifically, explaining how possibles selves are future-oriented representations of the self
*Markus and Nurius argue that possible selves connect cognition and motivation because they embody hopes, fears, goals and threats and can provide incentives for behaviour.
*Possible selves: theory research and applications: Researchers have found that future possible selves also affect one's current identity (Markius &amp; Nurius, 1986). Possible selves are hypothetical images about one's future, including ideal selves that we would like to become, such as XXX. Theorists believe that possible selves are important because they help people to evaluate their current selves and because they serve to motivate people who behave in ways that will help them attain or avoid their hoped-for or feared possible selves. 
Insert examples. Research has shown that people imagine themselves in the future a great deal of the time and that people are more likely to endorse positive possible selves than negative ones. 


=== 1.1 Definition and theoretical origins ===
*Introduce markus and nurius (1986) and explain why possible selves were proposed as an extension of existing understanding of self knowledge
*Markus and nurius as fundamental literature, in which possible selves give self-relevant form to hopes, fears, goals and threats and provide a conceptual link between cognition and motivation
*Establish key propositions that will run throughout the chapter: possible selves may give motivation direction, but processing an imagined future identity does not necessarily produce goal-directed action. More recent literature challenges the idea that possible selves directly cause behaviour 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x

=== 1.2 forms and content of possible selves (could be combined into 1.1) ===
*Explain hoped-for possible selves as desirable future identities that people would like to approach i.e., becoming better a pickle ball, becoming thinner, or workplace success
*Explain feared possible selves as undesirable future identities people wish to avoid i.e., becoming unhealthy
*Maybe discuss expected possible selves
*Content of possible selves is shaped by people's experiences and sociocultural circumstances rather than being a manifestation of the isolated self. Cross and Markus found systemic differences in hoped for and feared possible selves across adulthood https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232436255_Possible_Selves_across_the_Life_Span 

=== 1.3 motivational properties of possible selves === 
*Explain how markus and nurius proposal that possible selves can function as incentives for future behavior, giving self-relevant meaning and direction to motives
*Introduce evidence that making possible selves salient can affect subsequent motivation or performance. Find recent research study that investigates the effect of self-relevant future imagery on performance
*Explain how characteristics such as the specificity, accessibility, perceived likelihood and elaboration of the possible self may influence how motivational it becomes. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022103103000295 

== Goal pursuit and self-regulation ==
*Establish why a motivating future identity is not enough by itself. Something must translate the representation into behaviour
*People must initiate, regulate, and sustain behaviour
*Introduce self-regulation as the set of processes through which people organise

=== 2.1 from goals to goal-directed behaviour ===
*Define goal pursuit and distinguish a desired endpoint from the behaviours required to move toward that endpoint.
*Establish the distinction between motivation/intention and action: wanting an outcome does not ensure the behaviours necessary to achieve it. Research on implementation intentions is useful background evidence that specifying how and when to act can help translate goal intentions into action. 10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493 
*Explain that successful goal pursuit involves processes such as planning, effort, behavioural initiation, persistence and responding to obstacles.
*Connect this immediately back to possible selves: imagining “becoming a psychologist,” for example, only becomes behaviourally consequential if it becomes connected to actions such as studying, seeking experience and completing required training.

=== 2.2 self-regulation in goal pursuit ===
*Define self-regulation, a social-cognitive process at the intersection of metacognition, motivation, and behaviour, encompasses how people conceptualize, strive for, and accomplish their goals. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11409-020-09255-3 
*Introduce hoyle and sherrills (2006) argument: Possible selves as a component in self-regulatory processes through which motivation and behaviour are influenced. Not simply to be understood as directly causing motivation and behaviour; instead, they can form part of the self-regulatory processes through which motivation and behavior are influenced. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x
*Explain that a future identity can provide a reference point or direction, while self-regulation provides mechanisms such as planning, behavioural strategies, monitoring and adjustment.
*Finish with the question that launches Section 3: what determines whether a possible self actually becomes an effective component of self-regulation?

== Possible selves in motivated goal pursuit ==
*Center of the chapter
*Investigating the relationship between possible selves in motivated goal pursuit
*Integrate the constructs established in sections 1 and 2 rather than introducing another independent theory
*How self-representations can affect present motivation, decisions and behaviour
*Look at evidence showing that the motivational effects of possible selves are conditional: their content alone is less important than whether they can become effective self-regulatory resources. https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/science/article/pii/S0092656603000576 

=== 3.1 modelling the relationships ===
*compare Makrus and Nurius and Hoyle and Sherrill self-regulatory interpretation, showing the development from possible selves as incentives toward a more process oriented explanation https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x
*Introduce the MAPS framework 10.1007/s11409-020-09255-3 (use image)
*Possible selves may provide direction and motivational meaning, while self-regulation provides mechanisms through which that imagined future can influence present behaviour
*Answer the question: how?

=== 3.2 when possible selves facilitate goal pursuit ===
*Possible selves are more effective when linked to plausible strategies. Possible selves were associated with better outcomes when they could function as self-regulators rather than merely a positive image 10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.188
*Visualising future selves. Indeed, visualizing a future general success or specific failure led to better performance on an attention task (Study 1) and higher academic motivation (Study 2) than imagining a future general failure or specific success. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0276236619864275 
*Attainability and agency https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33424511/ 
*Context https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2014.965733

=== 3.3  when possible selves fail to motivate (may be able to combine with 3.2) ===
*Oyserman roadmap study to explain possible self may not generate behaviour
*“Seeing the destination but not the path”
*Key concept: the motivational value of a possible self lies not merely in imagining the destination, but in whether that future representation can organise effective action in the present

== Harnessing possible selves for goal pursuit ==
*Building capacity for goal pursuit, how understanding these mechanisms allows possible selves to be deliberately used to improve motivation and behaviour

=== 4.1 possible-self interventions === 
*Discuss actual psychological interventions https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16834488/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20733212/ 10.1016/j.lmot.2019.101599 
*Oyserman's school to jobs intervention to demonstrate that possible selves can be deliberately manipulated and linked with strategies, with measurable effects of academic behaviour and outcomes
*Critically compare interventions, mini literature review maybe
*This section answers the question: can people deliberately construct more motivationally effective possible selves? (use this a focus question)

=== 4.2 possible selves to present action ===
*This section uses practical recommendations derived explicitly from the evidence: envision, connect, strategies, act, monitor.
*Could use a learning feature
*“Commitment to an intertemporal relationship with an ideal possible self has similar effects on its continuation as commitment to an interpersonal relationship” in section: functions of commitment to an ideal possible self https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12499

== Extra sources: ==
*Possible selves, self regulation and actual social goal progress (2014)
*Best possible self intervention and academic motivation/commitment (2020)
*Identity-based motivation (2015) 

== Conclusion == 
*Possible selves can motivate goal pursuit by giving people personally meaningful future identities to approach or avoid.
*Their influence on behaviour is conditional: possible selves are most effective when they feel attainable and are connected to concrete strategies and self-regulatory processes.
*Psychological interventions may therefore improve goal pursuit by helping people translate imagined future identities into realistic pathways and present action.


==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations
==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

Cross, S., &amp; Markus, H. (2010). Possible selves across the life span. Human Development, 34(4), 230–255. https://doi.org/10.1159/000277058

de Place, A.-L., &amp; Brunot, S. (2019). Motivational and behavioral impact of possible selves: When specificity matters. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 39(4), 329–247. https://doi.org/10.1177/0276236619864275

Frazier, L. D., Schwartz, B. L., &amp; Metcalfe, J. (2021). The MAPS model of self-regulation: Integrating metacognition, agency, and possible selves. Metacognition and Learning, 16(2). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-020-09255-3

Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.54.7.493

Haskins, L. B., &amp; vanDellen, M. R. (2019). Self‐regulation as relating to one’s ideal possible self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 13(10). https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12499

Hoyle, R. H., &amp; Sherrill, M. R. (2006). Future orientation in the self-system: Possible selves, self-regulation, and behavior. Journal of Personality, 74(6), 1673–1696. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00424.x

Murru, E. C., &amp; Martin Ginis, K. A. (2010). Imagining the possibilities: The effects of a possible selves intervention on self-regulatory efficacy and exercise behavior. Journal of Sport &amp; Exercise Psychology, 32(4), 537–554. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.32.4.537

Norman, C. C., &amp; Aron, A. (2003). Aspects of possible self that predict motivation to achieve or avoid it. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39(5), 500–507. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1031(03)00029-5

Oyserman, D., Bybee, D., &amp; Terry, K. (2006). Possible selves and academic outcomes: How and when possible selves impel action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(1), 188–204. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.188

Oyserman, D., Bybee, D., Terry, K., &amp; Hart-Johnson, T. (2004). Possible selves as roadmaps. Journal of Research in Personality, 38(2), 130–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0092-6566(03)00057-6

Oyserman, D., Destin, M., &amp; Novin, S. (2014). The context-sensitive future self: Possible selves motivate in context, not otherwise. Self and Identity, 14(2), 173–188. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2014.965733}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://www.hiddenbrain.org/podcast/you-2-0-your-future-is-now/ You 2.0: your future is now] (Hidden Brain)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XNbaR54Gpj4&amp;t=177s The psychology of you future self | Dan Gilbert] (Youtube)
* [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/philosophy-and-therapy/202401/the-philosophy-of-possible-selves Why to start considering your possible selves] (Psychology Today)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Jurors only]]
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels. Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. 


==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Jurors only]]
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels. Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. 


==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels. Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. 


==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels. Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. 


==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]]</text>
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        <id>3106320</id>
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      <text bytes="11943" sha1="t0l5fcejz1eq5kn5kkmebhwlkuk36wb" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Empathy and jury decision-making:&lt;br&gt;How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels (Kahhale et al., 2026). Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. 


==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only.]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels. Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. 


==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words
*
*
* Whilst there are unclear results across studies of the impact victim impact statements have on inducing empathy from juries and as such impacting decision making, 
It is unclear whether vi

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]]</text>
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        <id>3106320</id>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only.]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels (Kahhale et al., 2026). Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. 


==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words
*
*
* Whilst there are unclear results across studies of the impact victim impact statements have on inducing empathy from juries and as such impacting decision making, 
It is unclear whether vi

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only.]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels (Kahhale et al., 2026). Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. 


==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
Whilst jurors can feel empathy with both victims and defendants, Kahhale et al. (2026) found that the impact of a defendant's perspective on empathy tends to be significantly stronger than the impact of a victim's perspective. 

It is unclear whether victim impact statements influence empathy and sentencing, however having similar experiences to victims and being shown gruesome or graphic images clearly leads to higher empathy (Myers et al., 2002; Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad, 1995; Myers &amp; Arbuthnot, 1999; Kahhale et al., 2026; Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). When jurors feel empathy towards victims, they are more likely to emphasis harm suffered and pay less notice to mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996).  

Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors, associate lower culpability to the defendant and hand down more lenient verdicts (Garvey, 2000; Haegerich &amp; Bottoms, 2000; Plumm &amp; Terrance, 2009; Sundby, 2003; Sjoeberg, 2015). 

Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people they like who are similar to them, and this empathy can cause bias on how evidence and witnesses are interpreted (Phalen et al., 2025; Sjoeberg, 2015). Empathy is also influenced by individual differences, and can be considered a character trait (Kahhale et al., 2016; Garvey, 2000). 

Empathy clearly impacts juries decision-making, but empathy for defendants is often stronger than that for victims (Kahhale et al., 2015). This must be considered by the justice system if justice is to be fairly delivered. 

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only.]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels (Kahhale et al., 2026). Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. 


==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
Whilst jurors can feel empathy with both victims and defendants, Kahhale et al. (2026) found that the impact of a defendant's perspective on empathy tends to be significantly stronger than the impact of a victim's perspective. 

It is unclear whether victim impact statements influence empathy and sentencing, however having similar experiences to victims and being shown gruesome or graphic images clearly leads to higher empathy (Myers et al., 2002; Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad, 1995; Myers &amp; Arbuthnot, 1999; Kahhale et al., 2026; Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). When jurors feel empathy towards victims, they are more likely to emphasis harm suffered and pay less notice to mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996).  

Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors, associate lower culpability to the defendant and hand down more lenient verdicts (Garvey, 2000; Haegerich &amp; Bottoms, 2000; Plumm &amp; Terrance, 2009; Sundby, 2003; Sjoeberg, 2015). 

Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people they like who are similar to them, and this empathy can cause bias on how evidence and witnesses are interpreted (Phalen et al., 2025; Sjoeberg, 2015). Empathy is also influenced by individual differences, and can be considered a character trait (Kahhale et al., 2016; Garvey, 2000). 

Empathy clearly impacts juries decision-making, but empathy for defendants is often stronger than that for victims (Kahhale et al., 2015). This must be considered by the justice system if justice is to be fairly delivered. 

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only.]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).

&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels (Kahhale et al., 2026). Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. 


==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
Whilst jurors can feel empathy with both victims and defendants, Kahhale et al. (2026) found that the impact of a defendant's perspective on empathy tends to be significantly stronger than the impact of a victim's perspective. 

It is unclear whether victim impact statements influence empathy and sentencing, however having similar experiences to victims and being shown gruesome or graphic images clearly leads to higher empathy (Myers et al., 2002; Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad, 1995; Myers &amp; Arbuthnot, 1999; Kahhale et al., 2026; Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). When jurors feel empathy towards victims, they are more likely to emphasis harm suffered and pay less notice to mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996).  

Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors, associate lower culpability to the defendant and hand down more lenient verdicts (Garvey, 2000; Haegerich &amp; Bottoms, 2000; Plumm &amp; Terrance, 2009; Sundby, 2003; Sjoeberg, 2015). 

Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people they like who are similar to them, and this empathy can cause bias on how evidence and witnesses are interpreted (Phalen et al., 2025; Sjoeberg, 2015). Empathy is also influenced by individual differences, and can be considered a character trait (Kahhale et al., 2016; Garvey, 2000). 

Empathy clearly impacts juries decision-making, but empathy for defendants is often stronger than that for victims (Kahhale et al., 2015). This must be considered by the justice system if justice is to be fairly delivered. 

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]]</text>
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        <id>3106320</id>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only.]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).

&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).

&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels (Kahhale et al., 2026). Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. 


==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
Whilst jurors can feel empathy with both victims and defendants, Kahhale et al. (2026) found that the impact of a defendant's perspective on empathy tends to be significantly stronger than the impact of a victim's perspective. 

It is unclear whether victim impact statements influence empathy and sentencing, however having similar experiences to victims and being shown gruesome or graphic images clearly leads to higher empathy (Myers et al., 2002; Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad, 1995; Myers &amp; Arbuthnot, 1999; Kahhale et al., 2026; Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). When jurors feel empathy towards victims, they are more likely to emphasis harm suffered and pay less notice to mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996).  

Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors, associate lower culpability to the defendant and hand down more lenient verdicts (Garvey, 2000; Haegerich &amp; Bottoms, 2000; Plumm &amp; Terrance, 2009; Sundby, 2003; Sjoeberg, 2015). 

Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people they like who are similar to them, and this empathy can cause bias on how evidence and witnesses are interpreted (Phalen et al., 2025; Sjoeberg, 2015). Empathy is also influenced by individual differences, and can be considered a character trait (Kahhale et al., 2016; Garvey, 2000). 

Empathy clearly impacts juries decision-making, but empathy for defendants is often stronger than that for victims (Kahhale et al., 2015). This must be considered by the justice system if justice is to be fairly delivered. 

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only.]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).

&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels (Kahhale et al., 2026). Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. 


==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
Whilst jurors can feel empathy with both victims and defendants, Kahhale et al. (2026) found that the impact of a defendant's perspective on empathy tends to be significantly stronger than the impact of a victim's perspective. 

It is unclear whether victim impact statements influence empathy and sentencing, however having similar experiences to victims and being shown gruesome or graphic images clearly leads to higher empathy (Myers et al., 2002; Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad, 1995; Myers &amp; Arbuthnot, 1999; Kahhale et al., 2026; Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). When jurors feel empathy towards victims, they are more likely to emphasis harm suffered and pay less notice to mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996).  

Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors, associate lower culpability to the defendant and hand down more lenient verdicts (Garvey, 2000; Haegerich &amp; Bottoms, 2000; Plumm &amp; Terrance, 2009; Sundby, 2003; Sjoeberg, 2015). 

Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people they like who are similar to them, and this empathy can cause bias on how evidence and witnesses are interpreted (Phalen et al., 2025; Sjoeberg, 2015). Empathy is also influenced by individual differences, and can be considered a character trait (Kahhale et al., 2016; Garvey, 2000). 

Empathy clearly impacts juries decision-making, but empathy for defendants is often stronger than that for victims (Kahhale et al., 2015). This must be considered by the justice system if justice is to be fairly delivered. 

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only.]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).

&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Evidence shows that victim impact statements clearly induce empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ False
- True

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels (Kahhale et al., 2026). Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. 


==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
Whilst jurors can feel empathy with both victims and defendants, Kahhale et al. (2026) found that the impact of a defendant's perspective on empathy tends to be significantly stronger than the impact of a victim's perspective. 

It is unclear whether victim impact statements influence empathy and sentencing, however having similar experiences to victims and being shown gruesome or graphic images clearly leads to higher empathy (Myers et al., 2002; Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad, 1995; Myers &amp; Arbuthnot, 1999; Kahhale et al., 2026; Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). When jurors feel empathy towards victims, they are more likely to emphasis harm suffered and pay less notice to mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996).  

Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors, associate lower culpability to the defendant and hand down more lenient verdicts (Garvey, 2000; Haegerich &amp; Bottoms, 2000; Plumm &amp; Terrance, 2009; Sundby, 2003; Sjoeberg, 2015). 

Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people they like who are similar to them, and this empathy can cause bias on how evidence and witnesses are interpreted (Phalen et al., 2025; Sjoeberg, 2015). Empathy is also influenced by individual differences, and can be considered a character trait (Kahhale et al., 2016; Garvey, 2000). 

Empathy clearly impacts juries decision-making, but empathy for defendants is often stronger than that for victims (Kahhale et al., 2015). This must be considered by the justice system if justice is to be fairly delivered. 

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only.]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).

&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels (Kahhale et al., 2026). Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. 


==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
Whilst jurors can feel empathy with both victims and defendants, Kahhale et al. (2026) found that the impact of a defendant's perspective on empathy tends to be significantly stronger than the impact of a victim's perspective. 

It is unclear whether victim impact statements influence empathy and sentencing, however having similar experiences to victims and being shown gruesome or graphic images clearly leads to higher empathy (Myers et al., 2002; Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad, 1995; Myers &amp; Arbuthnot, 1999; Kahhale et al., 2026; Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). When jurors feel empathy towards victims, they are more likely to emphasis harm suffered and pay less notice to mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996).  

Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors, associate lower culpability to the defendant and hand down more lenient verdicts (Garvey, 2000; Haegerich &amp; Bottoms, 2000; Plumm &amp; Terrance, 2009; Sundby, 2003; Sjoeberg, 2015). 

Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people they like who are similar to them, and this empathy can cause bias on how evidence and witnesses are interpreted (Phalen et al., 2025; Sjoeberg, 2015). Empathy is also influenced by individual differences, and can be considered a character trait (Kahhale et al., 2016; Garvey, 2000). 

Empathy clearly impacts juries decision-making, but empathy for defendants is often stronger than that for victims (Kahhale et al., 2015). This must be considered by the justice system if justice is to be fairly delivered. 

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only.]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels (Kahhale et al., 2026). Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. 


==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
Whilst jurors can feel empathy with both victims and defendants, Kahhale et al. (2026) found that the impact of a defendant's perspective on empathy tends to be significantly stronger than the impact of a victim's perspective. 

It is unclear whether victim impact statements influence empathy and sentencing, however having similar experiences to victims and being shown gruesome or graphic images clearly leads to higher empathy (Myers et al., 2002; Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad, 1995; Myers &amp; Arbuthnot, 1999; Kahhale et al., 2026; Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). When jurors feel empathy towards victims, they are more likely to emphasis harm suffered and pay less notice to mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996).  

Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors, associate lower culpability to the defendant and hand down more lenient verdicts (Garvey, 2000; Haegerich &amp; Bottoms, 2000; Plumm &amp; Terrance, 2009; Sundby, 2003; Sjoeberg, 2015). 

Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people they like who are similar to them, and this empathy can cause bias on how evidence and witnesses are interpreted (Phalen et al., 2025; Sjoeberg, 2015). Empathy is also influenced by individual differences, and can be considered a character trait (Kahhale et al., 2016; Garvey, 2000). 

Empathy clearly impacts juries decision-making, but empathy for defendants is often stronger than that for victims (Kahhale et al., 2015). This must be considered by the justice system if justice is to be fairly delivered. 

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only.]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels (Kahhale et al., 2026). Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. 


&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False


{Evidence shows that victim impact statements clearly influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
Whilst jurors can feel empathy with both victims and defendants, Kahhale et al. (2026) found that the impact of a defendant's perspective on empathy tends to be significantly stronger than the impact of a victim's perspective. 

It is unclear whether victim impact statements influence empathy and sentencing, however having similar experiences to victims and being shown gruesome or graphic images clearly leads to higher empathy (Myers et al., 2002; Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad, 1995; Myers &amp; Arbuthnot, 1999; Kahhale et al., 2026; Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). When jurors feel empathy towards victims, they are more likely to emphasis harm suffered and pay less notice to mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996).  

Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors, associate lower culpability to the defendant and hand down more lenient verdicts (Garvey, 2000; Haegerich &amp; Bottoms, 2000; Plumm &amp; Terrance, 2009; Sundby, 2003; Sjoeberg, 2015). 

Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people they like who are similar to them, and this empathy can cause bias on how evidence and witnesses are interpreted (Phalen et al., 2025; Sjoeberg, 2015). Empathy is also influenced by individual differences, and can be considered a character trait (Kahhale et al., 2016; Garvey, 2000). 

Empathy clearly impacts juries decision-making, but empathy for defendants is often stronger than that for victims (Kahhale et al., 2015). This must be considered by the justice system if justice is to be fairly delivered. 

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only.]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels (Kahhale et al., 2026). Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. 


== Test your knowledge! ==
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False


{Evidence shows that victim impact statements clearly influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
Whilst jurors can feel empathy with both victims and defendants, Kahhale et al. (2026) found that the impact of a defendant's perspective on empathy tends to be significantly stronger than the impact of a victim's perspective. 

It is unclear whether victim impact statements influence empathy and sentencing, however having similar experiences to victims and being shown gruesome or graphic images clearly leads to higher empathy (Myers et al., 2002; Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad, 1995; Myers &amp; Arbuthnot, 1999; Kahhale et al., 2026; Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). When jurors feel empathy towards victims, they are more likely to emphasis harm suffered and pay less notice to mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996).  

Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors, associate lower culpability to the defendant and hand down more lenient verdicts (Garvey, 2000; Haegerich &amp; Bottoms, 2000; Plumm &amp; Terrance, 2009; Sundby, 2003; Sjoeberg, 2015). 

Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people they like who are similar to them, and this empathy can cause bias on how evidence and witnesses are interpreted (Phalen et al., 2025; Sjoeberg, 2015). Empathy is also influenced by individual differences, and can be considered a character trait (Kahhale et al., 2016; Garvey, 2000). 

Empathy clearly impacts juries decision-making, but empathy for defendants is often stronger than that for victims (Kahhale et al., 2015). This must be considered by the justice system if justice is to be fairly delivered. 

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only.]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).

== Test your knowledge! ==
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

{Evidence shows that victim impact statements clearly influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels (Kahhale et al., 2026). Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. 


== Test your knowledge! ==
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False


{Evidence shows that victim impact statements clearly influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
Whilst jurors can feel empathy with both victims and defendants, Kahhale et al. (2026) found that the impact of a defendant's perspective on empathy tends to be significantly stronger than the impact of a victim's perspective. 

It is unclear whether victim impact statements influence empathy and sentencing, however having similar experiences to victims and being shown gruesome or graphic images clearly leads to higher empathy (Myers et al., 2002; Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad, 1995; Myers &amp; Arbuthnot, 1999; Kahhale et al., 2026; Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). When jurors feel empathy towards victims, they are more likely to emphasis harm suffered and pay less notice to mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996).  

Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors, associate lower culpability to the defendant and hand down more lenient verdicts (Garvey, 2000; Haegerich &amp; Bottoms, 2000; Plumm &amp; Terrance, 2009; Sundby, 2003; Sjoeberg, 2015). 

Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people they like who are similar to them, and this empathy can cause bias on how evidence and witnesses are interpreted (Phalen et al., 2025; Sjoeberg, 2015). Empathy is also influenced by individual differences, and can be considered a character trait (Kahhale et al., 2016; Garvey, 2000). 

Empathy clearly impacts juries decision-making, but empathy for defendants is often stronger than that for victims (Kahhale et al., 2015). This must be considered by the justice system if justice is to be fairly delivered. 

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only.]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

{Evidence shows that victim impact statements clearly influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels (Kahhale et al., 2026). Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. 


== Test your knowledge! ==
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False


{Evidence shows that victim impact statements clearly influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
Whilst jurors can feel empathy with both victims and defendants, Kahhale et al. (2026) found that the impact of a defendant's perspective on empathy tends to be significantly stronger than the impact of a victim's perspective. 

It is unclear whether victim impact statements influence empathy and sentencing, however having similar experiences to victims and being shown gruesome or graphic images clearly leads to higher empathy (Myers et al., 2002; Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad, 1995; Myers &amp; Arbuthnot, 1999; Kahhale et al., 2026; Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). When jurors feel empathy towards victims, they are more likely to emphasis harm suffered and pay less notice to mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996).  

Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors, associate lower culpability to the defendant and hand down more lenient verdicts (Garvey, 2000; Haegerich &amp; Bottoms, 2000; Plumm &amp; Terrance, 2009; Sundby, 2003; Sjoeberg, 2015). 

Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people they like who are similar to them, and this empathy can cause bias on how evidence and witnesses are interpreted (Phalen et al., 2025; Sjoeberg, 2015). Empathy is also influenced by individual differences, and can be considered a character trait (Kahhale et al., 2016; Garvey, 2000). 

Empathy clearly impacts juries decision-making, but empathy for defendants is often stronger than that for victims (Kahhale et al., 2015). This must be considered by the justice system if justice is to be fairly delivered. 

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only.]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

{Evidence shows that victim impact statements clearly influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).

== Test your knowledge! ==
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels (Kahhale et al., 2026). Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. 


== Test your knowledge! ==
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False


{Evidence shows that victim impact statements clearly influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
Whilst jurors can feel empathy with both victims and defendants, Kahhale et al. (2026) found that the impact of a defendant's perspective on empathy tends to be significantly stronger than the impact of a victim's perspective. 

It is unclear whether victim impact statements influence empathy and sentencing, however having similar experiences to victims and being shown gruesome or graphic images clearly leads to higher empathy (Myers et al., 2002; Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad, 1995; Myers &amp; Arbuthnot, 1999; Kahhale et al., 2026; Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). When jurors feel empathy towards victims, they are more likely to emphasis harm suffered and pay less notice to mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996).  

Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors, associate lower culpability to the defendant and hand down more lenient verdicts (Garvey, 2000; Haegerich &amp; Bottoms, 2000; Plumm &amp; Terrance, 2009; Sundby, 2003; Sjoeberg, 2015). 

Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people they like who are similar to them, and this empathy can cause bias on how evidence and witnesses are interpreted (Phalen et al., 2025; Sjoeberg, 2015). Empathy is also influenced by individual differences, and can be considered a character trait (Kahhale et al., 2016; Garvey, 2000). 

Empathy clearly impacts juries decision-making, but empathy for defendants is often stronger than that for victims (Kahhale et al., 2015). This must be considered by the justice system if justice is to be fairly delivered. 

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]]</text>
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      <text bytes="10814" sha1="r7n7m1uvib3kxuawl84irda694lapch" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Empathy and jury decision-making:&lt;br&gt;How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only.]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

{Evidence clearly shows that victim impact statements influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).

== Test your knowledge! ==
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels (Kahhale et al., 2026). Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. 


== Test your knowledge! ==
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False


{Evidence shows that victim impact statements clearly influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
Whilst jurors can feel empathy with both victims and defendants, Kahhale et al. (2026) found that the impact of a defendant's perspective on empathy tends to be significantly stronger than the impact of a victim's perspective. 

It is unclear whether victim impact statements influence empathy and sentencing, however having similar experiences to victims and being shown gruesome or graphic images clearly leads to higher empathy (Myers et al., 2002; Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad, 1995; Myers &amp; Arbuthnot, 1999; Kahhale et al., 2026; Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). When jurors feel empathy towards victims, they are more likely to emphasis harm suffered and pay less notice to mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996).  

Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors, associate lower culpability to the defendant and hand down more lenient verdicts (Garvey, 2000; Haegerich &amp; Bottoms, 2000; Plumm &amp; Terrance, 2009; Sundby, 2003; Sjoeberg, 2015). 

Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people they like who are similar to them, and this empathy can cause bias on how evidence and witnesses are interpreted (Phalen et al., 2025; Sjoeberg, 2015). Empathy is also influenced by individual differences, and can be considered a character trait (Kahhale et al., 2016; Garvey, 2000). 

Empathy clearly impacts juries decision-making, but empathy for defendants is often stronger than that for victims (Kahhale et al., 2015). This must be considered by the justice system if justice is to be fairly delivered. 

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only.]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

{Evidence clearly shows that victim impact statements influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels (Kahhale et al., 2026). Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]]. 


== Test your knowledge! ==
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False


{Evidence shows that victim impact statements clearly influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
Whilst jurors can feel empathy with both victims and defendants, Kahhale et al. (2026) found that the impact of a defendant's perspective on empathy tends to be significantly stronger than the impact of a victim's perspective. 

It is unclear whether victim impact statements influence empathy and sentencing, however having similar experiences to victims and being shown gruesome or graphic images clearly leads to higher empathy (Myers et al., 2002; Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad, 1995; Myers &amp; Arbuthnot, 1999; Kahhale et al., 2026; Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). When jurors feel empathy towards victims, they are more likely to emphasis harm suffered and pay less notice to mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996).  

Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors, associate lower culpability to the defendant and hand down more lenient verdicts (Garvey, 2000; Haegerich &amp; Bottoms, 2000; Plumm &amp; Terrance, 2009; Sundby, 2003; Sjoeberg, 2015). 

Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people they like who are similar to them, and this empathy can cause bias on how evidence and witnesses are interpreted (Phalen et al., 2025; Sjoeberg, 2015). Empathy is also influenced by individual differences, and can be considered a character trait (Kahhale et al., 2016; Garvey, 2000). 

Empathy clearly impacts juries decision-making, but empathy for defendants is often stronger than that for victims (Kahhale et al., 2015). This must be considered by the justice system if justice is to be fairly delivered. 

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]]</text>
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        <id>3106320</id>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only.]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

{Evidence clearly shows that victim impact statements influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels (Kahhale et al., 2026). Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]].

== Test your knowledge! ==
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Test your knowledge! ==
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False


{Evidence shows that victim impact statements clearly influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
Whilst jurors can feel empathy with both victims and defendants, Kahhale et al. (2026) found that the impact of a defendant's perspective on empathy tends to be significantly stronger than the impact of a victim's perspective. 

It is unclear whether victim impact statements influence empathy and sentencing, however having similar experiences to victims and being shown gruesome or graphic images clearly leads to higher empathy (Myers et al., 2002; Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad, 1995; Myers &amp; Arbuthnot, 1999; Kahhale et al., 2026; Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). When jurors feel empathy towards victims, they are more likely to emphasis harm suffered and pay less notice to mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996).  

Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors, associate lower culpability to the defendant and hand down more lenient verdicts (Garvey, 2000; Haegerich &amp; Bottoms, 2000; Plumm &amp; Terrance, 2009; Sundby, 2003; Sjoeberg, 2015). 

Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people they like who are similar to them, and this empathy can cause bias on how evidence and witnesses are interpreted (Phalen et al., 2025; Sjoeberg, 2015). Empathy is also influenced by individual differences, and can be considered a character trait (Kahhale et al., 2016; Garvey, 2000). 

Empathy clearly impacts juries decision-making, but empathy for defendants is often stronger than that for victims (Kahhale et al., 2015). This must be considered by the justice system if justice is to be fairly delivered. 

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only.]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

{Evidence clearly shows that victim impact statements influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels (Kahhale et al., 2026). Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]].
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
Whilst jurors can feel empathy with both victims and defendants, Kahhale et al. (2026) found that the impact of a defendant's perspective on empathy tends to be significantly stronger than the impact of a victim's perspective. 

It is unclear whether victim impact statements influence empathy and sentencing, however having similar experiences to victims and being shown gruesome or graphic images clearly leads to higher empathy (Myers et al., 2002; Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad, 1995; Myers &amp; Arbuthnot, 1999; Kahhale et al., 2026; Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). When jurors feel empathy towards victims, they are more likely to emphasis harm suffered and pay less notice to mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996).  

Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors, associate lower culpability to the defendant and hand down more lenient verdicts (Garvey, 2000; Haegerich &amp; Bottoms, 2000; Plumm &amp; Terrance, 2009; Sundby, 2003; Sjoeberg, 2015). 

Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people they like who are similar to them, and this empathy can cause bias on how evidence and witnesses are interpreted (Phalen et al., 2025; Sjoeberg, 2015). Empathy is also influenced by individual differences, and can be considered a character trait (Kahhale et al., 2016; Garvey, 2000). 

Empathy clearly impacts juries decision-making, but empathy for defendants is often stronger than that for victims (Kahhale et al., 2015). This must be considered by the justice system if justice is to be fairly delivered. 

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. University of Chicago Law Review, 63(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and human behavior, 30(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. New York University Law Review, 75(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior, 24(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The Effects of Victim Impact Evidence on the Verdicts and Sentencing Judgments of Mock Jurors. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but Guilty: Deliberation and the Physical Attractiveness Bias. Psychological Reports, 102(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen Seldom Rule Against a Person That They Like: The Relationship Between Emotions Towards a Defendant, the Understanding of Case Facts, and Juror Judgments in Civil Trials. Behavioral Sciences, 15(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered Women Who Kill: The Impact of Expert Testimony and Empathy Induction in the Courtroom. Violence Against Women, 15(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. Cornell Law Review, 88(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only.]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

{Evidence clearly shows that victim impact statements influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels (Kahhale et al., 2026). Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]].
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
Whilst jurors can feel empathy with both victims and defendants, Kahhale et al. (2026) found that the impact of a defendant's perspective on empathy tends to be significantly stronger than the impact of a victim's perspective. 

It is unclear whether victim impact statements influence empathy and sentencing, however having similar experiences to victims and being shown gruesome or graphic images clearly leads to higher empathy (Myers et al., 2002; Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad, 1995; Myers &amp; Arbuthnot, 1999; Kahhale et al., 2026; Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). When jurors feel empathy towards victims, they are more likely to emphasis harm suffered and pay less notice to mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996).  

Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors, associate lower culpability to the defendant and hand down more lenient verdicts (Garvey, 2000; Haegerich &amp; Bottoms, 2000; Plumm &amp; Terrance, 2009; Sundby, 2003; Sjoeberg, 2015). 

Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people they like who are similar to them, and this empathy can cause bias on how evidence and witnesses are interpreted (Phalen et al., 2025; Sjoeberg, 2015). Empathy is also influenced by individual differences, and can be considered a character trait (Kahhale et al., 2016; Garvey, 2000). 

Empathy clearly impacts juries decision-making, but empathy for defendants is often stronger than that for victims (Kahhale et al., 2015). This must be considered by the justice system if justice is to be fairly delivered. 

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. ''University of Chicago Law Review, 63''(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. ''Law and human behavior, 30''(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44''(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. ''New York University Law Review, 75''(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. ''Law and Human Behavior, 24''(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. ''American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20'', 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The effects of victim impact evidence on the verdicts and sentencing judgments of mock jurors. ''Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29''(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but guilty: Deliberation and the physical attractiveness bias. ''Psychological Reports, 102''(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen seldom rule against a person that they like: The relationship between emotions towards a defendant, the understanding of case facts, and juror judgments in civil trials. ''Behavioral Sciences, 15''(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered women who kill: The impact of expert testimony and empathy induction in the courtroom. ''Violence Against Women, 15''(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. ''Cornell Law Review, 88''(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]]</text>
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      <text bytes="10860" sha1="42firp6xw6o7n0lw7lchhyn0a12crdy" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Empathy and jury decision-making:&lt;br&gt;How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only.]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

{Evidence clearly shows that victim impact statements influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels (Kahhale et al., 2026). Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]].
* Empathy can warp the principle of justice by establishing bias towards an individual which is problematic when one considers that empathy is more likely to be experienced towards people who are familiar, to favour in-group members and further privilege (Decety, 2021). 
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
Whilst jurors can feel empathy with both victims and defendants, Kahhale et al. (2026) found that the impact of a defendant's perspective on empathy tends to be significantly stronger than the impact of a victim's perspective. 

It is unclear whether victim impact statements influence empathy and sentencing, however having similar experiences to victims and being shown gruesome or graphic images clearly leads to higher empathy (Myers et al., 2002; Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad, 1995; Myers &amp; Arbuthnot, 1999; Kahhale et al., 2026; Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). When jurors feel empathy towards victims, they are more likely to emphasis harm suffered and pay less notice to mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996).  

Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors, associate lower culpability to the defendant and hand down more lenient verdicts (Garvey, 2000; Haegerich &amp; Bottoms, 2000; Plumm &amp; Terrance, 2009; Sundby, 2003; Sjoeberg, 2015). 

Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people they like who are similar to them, and this empathy can cause bias on how evidence and witnesses are interpreted (Phalen et al., 2025; Sjoeberg, 2015). Empathy is also influenced by individual differences, and can be considered a character trait (Kahhale et al., 2016; Garvey, 2000). 

Empathy clearly impacts juries decision-making, but empathy for defendants is often stronger than that for victims (Kahhale et al., 2015). This must be considered by the justice system if justice is to be fairly delivered. 

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. ''University of Chicago Law Review, 63''(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. ''Law and human behavior, 30''(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44''(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. ''New York University Law Review, 75''(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. ''Law and Human Behavior, 24''(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. ''American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20'', 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The effects of victim impact evidence on the verdicts and sentencing judgments of mock jurors. ''Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29''(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but guilty: Deliberation and the physical attractiveness bias. ''Psychological Reports, 102''(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen seldom rule against a person that they like: The relationship between emotions towards a defendant, the understanding of case facts, and juror judgments in civil trials. ''Behavioral Sciences, 15''(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered women who kill: The impact of expert testimony and empathy induction in the courtroom. ''Violence Against Women, 15''(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. ''Cornell Law Review, 88''(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only.]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

{Evidence clearly shows that victim impact statements influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels (Kahhale et al., 2026). Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]].
* Empathy can warp the principle of justice by establishing bias towards an individual which is problematic when one considers that empathy is more likely to be experienced towards people who are familiar, to favour in-group members and further privilege (Decety, 2021). 
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Through a practical lens: autism spectrum disorder ==
Approximately 0.8% of the population has autism spectrum disorder (ASD) (World Health Organisation, 2025). Exact statistics of the amount of autistic people in the criminal justice system is unclear, but is estimated to be between 1%-23% (Chester et al., 2025). This begs the question of whether disclosure of an ASD diagnosis influences empathy in jury members. This has immense practical influence as to whether autistic people are judged fairly by jurors in the criminal justice system. 

A study by Blackhurst et al. in 2022 examined whether disclosure of an ASD diagnosis influenced jury empathy and culpability rates. The study found that disclosure of an ASD diagnosis increased empathy in jurors. Interestingly, the effect of this empathy on decision-making had the biggest influence among people who had a limited understanding of ASD. These people tended to associate lower culpability, perhaps due to stereotypical misconceptions that people with ASD are not responsible for their actions. Contrastingly, people with deeper understandings of ASD were less likely to associate lower culpability due to the presence of ASD, presumably due to an understanding that ASD is a spectrum and does not necessarily mean that autistic people cannot control their behaviours. 

==Conclusion==
Whilst jurors can feel empathy with both victims and defendants, Kahhale et al. (2026) found that the impact of a defendant's perspective on empathy tends to be significantly stronger than the impact of a victim's perspective. 

It is unclear whether victim impact statements influence empathy and sentencing, however having similar experiences to victims and being shown gruesome or graphic images clearly leads to higher empathy (Myers et al., 2002; Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad, 1995; Myers &amp; Arbuthnot, 1999; Kahhale et al., 2026; Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). When jurors feel empathy towards victims, they are more likely to emphasis harm suffered and pay less notice to mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996).  

Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors, associate lower culpability to the defendant and hand down more lenient verdicts (Garvey, 2000; Haegerich &amp; Bottoms, 2000; Plumm &amp; Terrance, 2009; Sundby, 2003; Sjoeberg, 2015). 

Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people they like who are similar to them, and this empathy can cause bias on how evidence and witnesses are interpreted (Phalen et al., 2025; Sjoeberg, 2015). Empathy is also influenced by individual differences, and can be considered a character trait (Kahhale et al., 2016; Garvey, 2000). 

Empathy clearly impacts juries decision-making, but empathy for defendants is often stronger than that for victims (Kahhale et al., 2015). This must be considered by the justice system if justice is to be fairly delivered. 

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. ''University of Chicago Law Review, 63''(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. ''Law and human behavior, 30''(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44''(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. ''New York University Law Review, 75''(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. ''Law and Human Behavior, 24''(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. ''American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20'', 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The effects of victim impact evidence on the verdicts and sentencing judgments of mock jurors. ''Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29''(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but guilty: Deliberation and the physical attractiveness bias. ''Psychological Reports, 102''(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen seldom rule against a person that they like: The relationship between emotions towards a defendant, the understanding of case facts, and juror judgments in civil trials. ''Behavioral Sciences, 15''(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered women who kill: The impact of expert testimony and empathy induction in the courtroom. ''Violence Against Women, 15''(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. ''Cornell Law Review, 88''(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only.]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

{Evidence clearly shows that victim impact statements influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels (Kahhale et al., 2026). Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]].
* Empathy can warp the principle of justice by establishing bias towards an individual which is problematic when one considers that empathy is more likely to be experienced towards people who are familiar, to favour in-group members and further privilege (Decety, 2021). 
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

&lt;/quiz&gt;


{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
== Through a practical lens: autism spectrum disorder ==
Approximately 0.8% of the population has autism spectrum disorder (ASD) (World Health Organisation, 2025). Exact statistics of the amount of autistic people in the criminal justice system is unclear, but is estimated to be between 1%-23% (Chester et al., 2025). This begs the question of whether disclosure of an ASD diagnosis influences empathy in jury members. This has immense practical influence as to whether autistic people are judged fairly by jurors in the criminal justice system. 

A study by Blackhurst et al. in 2022 examined whether disclosure of an ASD diagnosis influenced jury empathy and culpability rates. The study found that disclosure of an ASD diagnosis increased empathy in jurors. Interestingly, the effect of this empathy on decision-making had the biggest influence among people who had a limited understanding of ASD. These people tended to associate lower culpability, perhaps due to stereotypical misconceptions that people with ASD are not responsible for their actions. Contrastingly, people with deeper understandings of ASD were less likely to associate lower culpability due to the presence of ASD, presumably due to an understanding that ASD is a spectrum and does not necessarily mean that autistic people cannot control their behaviours.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Conclusion==
Whilst jurors can feel empathy with both victims and defendants, Kahhale et al. (2026) found that the impact of a defendant's perspective on empathy tends to be significantly stronger than the impact of a victim's perspective. 

It is unclear whether victim impact statements influence empathy and sentencing, however having similar experiences to victims and being shown gruesome or graphic images clearly leads to higher empathy (Myers et al., 2002; Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad, 1995; Myers &amp; Arbuthnot, 1999; Kahhale et al., 2026; Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). When jurors feel empathy towards victims, they are more likely to emphasis harm suffered and pay less notice to mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996).  

Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors, associate lower culpability to the defendant and hand down more lenient verdicts (Garvey, 2000; Haegerich &amp; Bottoms, 2000; Plumm &amp; Terrance, 2009; Sundby, 2003; Sjoeberg, 2015). 

Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people they like who are similar to them, and this empathy can cause bias on how evidence and witnesses are interpreted (Phalen et al., 2025; Sjoeberg, 2015). Empathy is also influenced by individual differences, and can be considered a character trait (Kahhale et al., 2016; Garvey, 2000). 

Empathy clearly impacts juries decision-making, but empathy for defendants is often stronger than that for victims (Kahhale et al., 2015). This must be considered by the justice system if justice is to be fairly delivered. 

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. ''University of Chicago Law Review, 63''(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. ''Law and human behavior, 30''(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44''(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. ''New York University Law Review, 75''(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. ''Law and Human Behavior, 24''(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. ''American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20'', 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The effects of victim impact evidence on the verdicts and sentencing judgments of mock jurors. ''Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29''(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but guilty: Deliberation and the physical attractiveness bias. ''Psychological Reports, 102''(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen seldom rule against a person that they like: The relationship between emotions towards a defendant, the understanding of case facts, and juror judgments in civil trials. ''Behavioral Sciences, 15''(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered women who kill: The impact of expert testimony and empathy induction in the courtroom. ''Violence Against Women, 15''(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. ''Cornell Law Review, 88''(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only.]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

{Evidence clearly shows that victim impact statements influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels (Kahhale et al., 2026). Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]].
* Empathy can warp the principle of justice by establishing bias towards an individual which is problematic when one considers that empathy is more likely to be experienced towards people who are familiar, to favour in-group members and further privilege (Decety, 2021). 
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

&lt;/quiz&gt;

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
== Through a practical lens: autism spectrum disorder ==
Approximately 0.8% of the population has autism spectrum disorder (ASD) (World Health Organisation, 2025). Exact statistics of the amount of autistic people in the criminal justice system is unclear, but is estimated to be between 1%-23% (Chester et al., 2025). This begs the question of whether disclosure of an ASD diagnosis influences empathy in jury members. This has immense practical influence as to whether autistic people are judged fairly by jurors in the criminal justice system. 

A study by Blackhurst et al. in 2022 examined whether disclosure of an ASD diagnosis influenced jury empathy and culpability rates. The study found that disclosure of an ASD diagnosis increased empathy in jurors. Interestingly, the effect of this empathy on decision-making had the biggest influence among people who had a limited understanding of ASD. These people tended to associate lower culpability, perhaps due to stereotypical misconceptions that people with ASD are not responsible for their actions. Contrastingly, people with deeper understandings of ASD were less likely to associate lower culpability due to the presence of ASD, presumably due to an understanding that ASD is a spectrum and does not necessarily mean that autistic people cannot control their behaviours.

This provides an interesting perspective on the influence of an ASD diagnosis on jury empathy, and suggests that in cases with autistic defendants, it may be beneficial to educate the jurors on ASD to allow for empathetic consideration without bias.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Conclusion==
Whilst jurors can feel empathy with both victims and defendants, Kahhale et al. (2026) found that the impact of a defendant's perspective on empathy tends to be significantly stronger than the impact of a victim's perspective. 

It is unclear whether victim impact statements influence empathy and sentencing, however having similar experiences to victims and being shown gruesome or graphic images clearly leads to higher empathy (Myers et al., 2002; Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad, 1995; Myers &amp; Arbuthnot, 1999; Kahhale et al., 2026; Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). When jurors feel empathy towards victims, they are more likely to emphasis harm suffered and pay less notice to mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996).  

Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors, associate lower culpability to the defendant and hand down more lenient verdicts (Garvey, 2000; Haegerich &amp; Bottoms, 2000; Plumm &amp; Terrance, 2009; Sundby, 2003; Sjoeberg, 2015). 

Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people they like who are similar to them, and this empathy can cause bias on how evidence and witnesses are interpreted (Phalen et al., 2025; Sjoeberg, 2015). Empathy is also influenced by individual differences, and can be considered a character trait (Kahhale et al., 2016; Garvey, 2000). 

Empathy clearly impacts juries decision-making, but empathy for defendants is often stronger than that for victims (Kahhale et al., 2015). This must be considered by the justice system if justice is to be fairly delivered. 

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. ''University of Chicago Law Review, 63''(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. ''Law and human behavior, 30''(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44''(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. ''New York University Law Review, 75''(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. ''Law and Human Behavior, 24''(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. ''American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20'', 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The effects of victim impact evidence on the verdicts and sentencing judgments of mock jurors. ''Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29''(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but guilty: Deliberation and the physical attractiveness bias. ''Psychological Reports, 102''(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen seldom rule against a person that they like: The relationship between emotions towards a defendant, the understanding of case facts, and juror judgments in civil trials. ''Behavioral Sciences, 15''(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered women who kill: The impact of expert testimony and empathy induction in the courtroom. ''Violence Against Women, 15''(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. ''Cornell Law Review, 88''(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr     

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only.]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

{Evidence clearly shows that victim impact statements influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels (Kahhale et al., 2026). Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]].
* Empathy can warp the principle of justice by establishing bias towards an individual which is problematic when one considers that empathy is more likely to be experienced towards people who are familiar, to favour in-group members and further privilege (Decety, 2021). 
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

&lt;/quiz&gt;

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
== Through a practical lens: autism spectrum disorder ==
Approximately 0.8% of the population has autism spectrum disorder (ASD) (World Health Organisation, 2025). Exact statistics of the amount of autistic people in the criminal justice system is unclear, but is estimated to be between 1%-23% (Chester et al., 2025). This begs the question of whether disclosure of an ASD diagnosis influences empathy in jury members. This has immense practical influence as to whether autistic people are judged fairly by jurors in the criminal justice system. 

A study by Blackhurst et al. in 2022 examined whether disclosure of an ASD diagnosis influenced jury empathy and culpability rates. The study found that disclosure of an ASD diagnosis increased empathy in jurors. Interestingly, the effect of this empathy on decision-making had the biggest influence among people who had a limited understanding of ASD. These people tended to associate lower culpability, perhaps due to stereotypical misconceptions that people with ASD are not responsible for their actions. Contrastingly, people with deeper understandings of ASD were less likely to associate lower culpability due to the presence of ASD, presumably due to an understanding that ASD is a spectrum and does not necessarily mean that autistic people cannot control their behaviours.

This provides an interesting perspective on the influence of an ASD diagnosis on jury empathy, and suggests that in cases with autistic defendants, it may be beneficial to educate the jurors on ASD to allow for empathetic consideration without bias.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Conclusion==
Whilst jurors can feel empathy with both victims and defendants, Kahhale et al. (2026) found that the impact of a defendant's perspective on empathy tends to be significantly stronger than the impact of a victim's perspective. 

It is unclear whether victim impact statements influence empathy and sentencing, however having similar experiences to victims and being shown gruesome or graphic images clearly leads to higher empathy (Myers et al., 2002; Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad, 1995; Myers &amp; Arbuthnot, 1999; Kahhale et al., 2026; Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). When jurors feel empathy towards victims, they are more likely to emphasis harm suffered and pay less notice to mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996).  

Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors, associate lower culpability to the defendant and hand down more lenient verdicts (Garvey, 2000; Haegerich &amp; Bottoms, 2000; Plumm &amp; Terrance, 2009; Sundby, 2003; Sjoeberg, 2015). 

Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people they like who are similar to them, and this empathy can cause bias on how evidence and witnesses are interpreted (Phalen et al., 2025; Sjoeberg, 2015). Empathy is also influenced by individual differences, and can be considered a character trait (Kahhale et al., 2016; Garvey, 2000). 

Empathy clearly impacts juries decision-making, but empathy for defendants is often stronger than that for victims (Kahhale et al., 2015). This must be considered by the justice system if justice is to be fairly delivered. 

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. ''University of Chicago Law Review, 63''(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Blackhurst, T., Hartley, C., Turner, P., &amp; Warmelink, L. (2022). Jurors’ judgements of an autistic defendant are influenced by awareness of autism, knowledge of psychological conditions and trait-empathy. ''Journal of Intellectual Disabilities and Offending Behaviour, 13''(3), 90-101. doi:https://doi.org/10.1108/JIDOB-09-2022-0007

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. ''Law and human behavior, 30''(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Chester, V., Melvin, C., Bunning, K., Alexander, R., &amp; Langdon, P. E. (2025). Autistic people within forensic psychiatric services and the criminal justice system: A systematic review. ''The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry &amp; Psychology, 36''(5), 711–773. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789949.2025.2558833

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44''(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Decety, J. (2021). Why empathy is not a reliable source of information in moral decision making. ''Current Directions in Psychological Science, 30''(5), 425-430.

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. ''New York University Law Review, 75''(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. ''Law and Human Behavior, 24''(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. ''American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20'', 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The effects of victim impact evidence on the verdicts and sentencing judgments of mock jurors. ''Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29''(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but guilty: Deliberation and the physical attractiveness bias. ''Psychological Reports, 102''(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen seldom rule against a person that they like: The relationship between emotions towards a defendant, the understanding of case facts, and juror judgments in civil trials. ''Behavioral Sciences, 15''(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered women who kill: The impact of expert testimony and empathy induction in the courtroom. ''Violence Against Women, 15''(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. ''Cornell Law Review, 88''(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr    

World Health Organisation. (2025). ''Autism''. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/autism-spectrum-disorders

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
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      <text bytes="13480" sha1="aaby1ojprzkfcxkf8oe06uzb3zu9h79" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Empathy and jury decision-making:&lt;br&gt;How does empathy toward defendants and victims influence jurors' reasoning and verdict decisions?}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only.]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjoeberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

{Evidence clearly shows that victim impact statements influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjoeberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place. 
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjoeberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime. 
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjoeberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1). 
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels (Kahhale et al., 2026). Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]].
* Empathy can warp the principle of justice by establishing bias towards an individual which is problematic when one considers that empathy is more likely to be experienced towards people who are familiar, to favour in-group members and further privilege (Decety, 2021). 
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

&lt;/quiz&gt;

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
== Through a practical lens: autism spectrum disorder ==
Approximately 0.8% of the population has autism spectrum disorder (ASD) (World Health Organisation, 2025). Exact statistics of the amount of autistic people in the criminal justice system is unclear, but is estimated to be between 1%-23% (Chester et al., 2025). This begs the question of whether disclosure of an ASD diagnosis influences empathy in jury members. This has immense practical influence as to whether autistic people are judged fairly by jurors in the criminal justice system. 

A study by Blackhurst et al. in 2022 examined whether disclosure of an ASD diagnosis influenced jury empathy and culpability rates. The study found that disclosure of an ASD diagnosis increased empathy in jurors. Interestingly, the effect of this empathy on decision-making had the biggest influence among people who had a limited understanding of ASD. These people tended to associate lower culpability, perhaps due to stereotypical misconceptions that people with ASD are not responsible for their actions. Contrastingly, people with deeper understandings of ASD were less likely to associate lower culpability due to the presence of ASD, presumably due to an understanding that ASD is a spectrum and does not necessarily mean that autistic people cannot control their behaviours.

This provides an interesting perspective on the influence of an ASD diagnosis on jury empathy, and suggests that in cases with autistic defendants, it may be beneficial to educate the jurors on ASD to allow for empathetic consideration without bias.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Conclusion==
Whilst jurors can feel empathy with both victims and defendants, Kahhale et al. (2026) found that the impact of a defendant's perspective on empathy tends to be significantly stronger than the impact of a victim's perspective. 

It is unclear whether victim impact statements influence empathy and sentencing (Myers et al., 2002; Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad, 1995; Myers &amp; Arbuthnot, 1999; Kahhale et al., 2026), however having similar experiences to victims and being shown gruesome or graphic images clearly leads to higher empathy (Kahhale et al., 2026; Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). When jurors feel empathy towards victims, they are more likely to emphasis harm suffered and pay less notice to mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996).  

Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors (Sjöberg, 2015), associate lower culpability to the defendant (Haegerich &amp; Bottoms, 2000; Plumm &amp; Terrance, 2009) and hand down more lenient verdicts (Garvey, 2000; Sundby, 2003). 

Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people they like who are similar to them (Phalen et al., 2025) and who are in the same in-group as them (Decety, 2021). This can cause bias on how evidence and witnesses are interpreted (Sjöberg, 2015). Empathy is also influenced by individual differences (Kahhale et al., 2026) and can be considered a character trait (Garvey, 2000). 

Empathy clearly impacts juries decision-making, but empathy for defendants is often stronger than that for victims (Kahhale et al., 2015). This must be considered by the justice system if justice is to be fairly delivered. 

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. ''University of Chicago Law Review, 63''(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Blackhurst, T., Hartley, C., Turner, P., &amp; Warmelink, L. (2022). Jurors’ judgements of an autistic defendant are influenced by awareness of autism, knowledge of psychological conditions and trait-empathy. ''Journal of Intellectual Disabilities and Offending Behaviour, 13''(3), 90-101. doi:https://doi.org/10.1108/JIDOB-09-2022-0007

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. ''Law and human behavior, 30''(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Chester, V., Melvin, C., Bunning, K., Alexander, R., &amp; Langdon, P. E. (2025). Autistic people within forensic psychiatric services and the criminal justice system: A systematic review. ''The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry &amp; Psychology, 36''(5), 711–773. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789949.2025.2558833

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44''(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Decety, J. (2021). Why empathy is not a reliable source of information in moral decision making. ''Current Directions in Psychological Science, 30''(5), 425-430.

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. ''New York University Law Review, 75''(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. ''Law and Human Behavior, 24''(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. ''American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20'', 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The effects of victim impact evidence on the verdicts and sentencing judgments of mock jurors. ''Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29''(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but guilty: Deliberation and the physical attractiveness bias. ''Psychological Reports, 102''(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen seldom rule against a person that they like: The relationship between emotions towards a defendant, the understanding of case facts, and juror judgments in civil trials. ''Behavioral Sciences, 15''(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered women who kill: The impact of expert testimony and empathy induction in the courtroom. ''Violence Against Women, 15''(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. ''Cornell Law Review, 88''(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr    

World Health Organisation. (2025). ''Autism''. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/autism-spectrum-disorders

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Empathy]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Group]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Legal]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Jurors Only (490613967).jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Jurors only.]]

; Imagine this ... 

You have been summoned for jury duty. The defendant is accused of committing armed robbery in the presence of a shopkeeper. During the trial, you are presented with emotional perspectives of both the victim and the defendant. The victim has developed PTSD and is unable to return to work. The defendant had a traumatic childhood where their parents put immense pressure on them to continue the generational life of crime. Which will have a stronger impact on you? Keep reading to find out...{{RoundBoxBottom}}
#
This chapter will discuss the influence of empathy, both towards [[wikipedia:Jury|jurors]] and victims and how this influences jurors reasoning and in particular, verdict decisions. This is essential to understand as if empathy influences juror decision-making, then this will impact jurors neutrality in the courtroom (Sjöberg, 2015). Understanding the psychology behind the influence this has on decision-making is essential to ensure that jury trials remain as unbiased as possible.  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* How does empathy with victims influence jury decision-making?
* How does empathy with defendants influence jury decision-making?
* How do jurors balance empathy with victims and defendants as well as their role to remain neutral through emotional reasoning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
*

== Empathy with victims ==

* Evidence of the influence of victim impact statements is inconsistent. In studies conducted by Myers et al. (2002) and Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad (1995), victim impact statements influenced sentencing. In studies conducted by Myers &amp; Arbuthnot (1999) and Kahhale et al. (2026) they did not influence sentencing.
* Having similar experiences to victims, such as sexual abuse, leads to higher empathy, a higher likelihood of finding the defendant guilty and harsher sentences (Kahhale et al., 2026). 
* Having empathy with victims can lead to a higher emphasis on the harm suffered, and less notice taken of mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996). 
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards the victim when shown gruesome and graphic images (Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006).
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

{Evidence clearly shows that victim impact statements influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Empathy with defendants ==

* When jurors have higher levels of empathy with defendants, they are more likely to hand down more lenient verdicts. For example, seminal studies by Garvey (2000) and Sundby (2003) found that jurors who empathised with a defendant were more likely to hand out a life sentence rather than a death sentence. This was reiterated in Sjöberg's (2015) study, which despite finding weaker correlations than the earlier studies, deemed this to be explained by the fact that the study was conducted with a mock jury who did not get much information about the defendant's life and no information about what led the defendant to commit the crime in the first place.
* Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors and associate lower culpability with the defendant (Sjöberg, 2015). In Plumm &amp; Terrance's (2009) study, jurors perceptions of defendants changed when they were presented with empathy inducing statements. Haegerich &amp; Bottoms (2000) found that where empathy was induced in a group of mock jurors, they found the defendant guilty less times than the control group. In fact, 30% of jurors in the first control group went so far as to say that the defendant's traumatic life justified that no punishment be given despite determining they had committed the crime.
* Interestingly, when being exposed to both the defendant ''and'' the victim's perspective, the impact of the defendant's perspective was significantly stronger than that of the victim and led to humanisation of the defendant (Kahhale et al., 2026).
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Jurors are more likely to have stronger empathy with the defendant's perspective:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Emotional reasoning ==
[[File:Balanced justice scale silhouette, small.svg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Jurors must balance their emotions and neutrality to come to a decision.]]
* Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people that they like and people who are like them (Phalen et al., 2025).
* Empathy shapes how people interpret the evidence presented, determine credibility of witnesses and can cause bias (Sjöberg, 2015). Jurors must balance their emotions with instructions to remain neutral (see Figure 1).
* Individual differences can influence how much empathy a person feels (Kahhale et al., 2026). Garvey (2000) proposed empathy as a [[wiktionary:character_trait|character trait]].
* Empathy can warp the principle of justice by establishing bias towards an individual which is problematic when one considers that empathy is more likely to be experienced towards people who are familiar, to favour in-group members and further privilege (Decety, 2021). 
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

{Individual differences do not influence empathy:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

&lt;/quiz&gt;

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
== Through a practical lens: autism spectrum disorder ==
Approximately 0.8% of the population has autism spectrum disorder (ASD) (World Health Organisation, 2025). Exact statistics of the amount of autistic people in the criminal justice system is unclear, but is estimated to be between 1%-23% (Chester et al., 2025). This begs the question of whether disclosure of an ASD diagnosis influences empathy in jury members. This has immense practical influence as to whether autistic people are judged fairly by jurors in the criminal justice system. 

A study by Blackhurst et al. in 2022 examined whether disclosure of an ASD diagnosis influenced jury empathy and culpability rates. The study found that disclosure of an ASD diagnosis increased empathy in jurors. Interestingly, the effect of this empathy on decision-making had the biggest influence among people who had a limited understanding of ASD. These people tended to associate lower culpability, perhaps due to stereotypical misconceptions that people with ASD are not responsible for their actions. Contrastingly, people with deeper understandings of ASD were less likely to associate lower culpability due to the presence of ASD, presumably due to an understanding that ASD is a spectrum and does not necessarily mean that autistic people cannot control their behaviours.

This provides an interesting perspective on the influence of an ASD diagnosis on jury empathy, and suggests that in cases with autistic defendants, it may be beneficial to educate the jurors on ASD to allow for empathetic consideration without bias.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Conclusion==
Whilst jurors can feel empathy with both victims and defendants, Kahhale et al. (2026) found that the impact of a defendant's perspective on empathy tends to be significantly stronger than the impact of a victim's perspective. 

It is unclear whether victim impact statements influence empathy and sentencing (Myers et al., 2002; Luginbuhl &amp; Burkhad, 1995; Myers &amp; Arbuthnot, 1999; Kahhale et al., 2026), however having similar experiences to victims and being shown gruesome or graphic images clearly leads to higher empathy (Kahhale et al., 2026; Bright &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, 2006). When jurors feel empathy towards victims, they are more likely to emphasis harm suffered and pay less notice to mitigating factors (Bandes, 1996).  

Jurors who have empathy with defendants are more likely to consider mitigating factors (Sjöberg, 2015), associate lower culpability to the defendant (Haegerich &amp; Bottoms, 2000; Plumm &amp; Terrance, 2009) and hand down more lenient verdicts (Garvey, 2000; Sundby, 2003). 

Jurors are more likely to feel empathy towards people they like who are similar to them (Phalen et al., 2025) and who are in the same in-group as them (Decety, 2021). This can cause bias on how evidence and witnesses are interpreted (Sjöberg, 2015). Empathy is also influenced by individual differences (Kahhale et al., 2026) and can be considered a character trait (Garvey, 2000). 

Empathy clearly impacts juries decision-making, but empathy for defendants is often stronger than that for victims (Kahhale et al., 2015). This must be considered by the justice system if justice is to be fairly delivered. 

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death penalty motivation|Death penalty motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral disgust and jury decision-making|Moral disgust and juror decision making]] (Book chapter, 2026)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Risky shift motivation|Risky shift motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
Bandes, S. A. (1996). Empathy, narrative and victim impact statements. ''University of Chicago Law Review, 63''(2), 361- 412. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1248284

Blackhurst, T., Hartley, C., Turner, P., &amp; Warmelink, L. (2022). Jurors’ judgements of an autistic defendant are influenced by awareness of autism, knowledge of psychological conditions and trait-empathy. ''Journal of Intellectual Disabilities and Offending Behaviour, 13''(3), 90-101. doi:https://doi.org/10.1108/JIDOB-09-2022-0007

Bright, D. A., &amp; Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: anger, blame, and jury decision-making. ''Law and human behavior, 30''(2), 183–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y

Chester, V., Melvin, C., Bunning, K., Alexander, R., &amp; Langdon, P. E. (2025). Autistic people within forensic psychiatric services and the criminal justice system: A systematic review. ''The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry &amp; Psychology, 36''(5), 711–773. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789949.2025.2558833

Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44''(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

Decety, J. (2021). Why empathy is not a reliable source of information in moral decision making. ''Current Directions in Psychological Science, 30''(5), 425-430.

Garvey, S. P. (2000). The emotional economy of capital sentencing. ''New York University Law Review, 75''(26), 26-73. https://nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/NYULawReview-75-1-Garvey.pdf

Haegerich, T. M., &amp; Bottoms, B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors' decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. ''Law and Human Behavior, 24''(4), 421–448. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005592213294

Jones, T. M., Bottoms, B. L., &amp; Stevenson, M. C. (2020). Child victim empathy mediates the influence of jurors’ sexual abuse experiences on child sexual abuse case judgments: Meta-analyses. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law'', ''26''(3), 312–332. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/law0000231

Kahhale, I., Hackel, L., &amp; Zaki, J. (2026). Balancing emotional scales: Empathy and dehumanization in legal contexts. ''Emotion'', ''26''(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0001559

Luginbuhl, J. &amp; Burkhead, M. (1995). Victim impact evidence in a capital trial: Encouraging votes for death. ''American Journal of Criminal Justice, 20'', 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02886115

Myers, B., &amp; Arbuthnot, J. (1999). The effects of victim impact evidence on the verdicts and sentencing judgments of mock jurors. ''Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 29''(3–4), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1300/J076v29n03_05

Patry, M. W. (2008). Attractive but guilty: Deliberation and the physical attractiveness bias. ''Psychological Reports, 102''(3), 727-733. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.102.3.727-733

Phalen, H. J., Bettis, T. C., Bean, S. R., &amp; Salerno, J. M. (2025). Jurymen seldom rule against a person that they like: The relationship between emotions towards a defendant, the understanding of case facts, and juror judgments in civil trials. ''Behavioral Sciences, 15''(7), 965. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15070965

Plumm, K. M., &amp; Terrance, C. A. (2009). Battered women who kill: The impact of expert testimony and empathy induction in the courtroom. ''Violence Against Women, 15''(2), 186-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208329145

Sjöberg, M. P. (2015). The relationship between empathy and stringency of punishment in mock jurors. ''Journal of European Psychology Students, 6''(1), 37-44. https://doi.org/10.5334/jeps.cr

Sundbey, S. E., (2003). The capital jury and empathy: The problem of worthy and unworthy victims. ''Cornell Law Review, 88''(2), 343-381. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2906&amp;context=clr    

World Health Organisation. (2025). ''Autism''. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/autism-spectrum-disorders

}}

==External links==

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmydcWCacTw Jury decision making]

* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9DqVyM-KyQ What happens during jury deliberation?]

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      <comment>added points to behavioural responses</comment>
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      <text bytes="27371" sha1="bpsrqlqoqb75xbl9ptexbbtsag0t2qu" xml:space="preserve"> {{title|Romantic jealousy:&lt;br&gt;Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are it's impacts, and how can It be managed?}}
__TOC__

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

[[File:Man using smartphone outdoors.jpg|Man_using_smartphone_outdoors|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Person viewing an ambiguous message on a phone]]

;  Scenario

Maya is in a committed romantic relationship of 3 years. Her partner, Alex, has recently started spending more time with a new colleague, Joan. 

One evening, Maya notices that Alex has been messaging Joan more often. She sees a message that, while not showing clear evidence of infidelity, could be interpreted in multiple ways.

Maya experiences a sudden feeling of jealousy.

She starts thinking: '' Why are they messaging so much? Is there something going on? Does Alex find Joan more interesting than me? Am I overreacting? '' 

Maya feels anxious and has an urge to check Alex's messages or ask what is happening.

Maya's situation shows how an ambiguous even can become psychologically significant when interpreted as a potential threat (see Figure 1.)

What is happening to Maya, and what should she do with this feeling?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Romantic jealousy is an emotional response that can arise when a person perceives a threat to a valued romantic relationship. The experience and consequences of jealousy can vary substantially across people and situations.

* What is [[wikipedia:Jealousy|jealousy]]?

(Discuss that romantic jealousy involves an emotional response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship. The threat does not have to be real. Interpretation and perception matter) use source that gives a definition of romantic jealousy: (Karakoçoğlu &amp; Hasdağ, 2025) 

* Why does jealousy vary?

(Discuss how people can experience levels of jealous in similar situations. This suggests that jealousy cannot be explained by only external factors. individual and relationship factors may influence how situations are interpreted) find research showing individual differences in jealousy: (Valentova et al., 2020)

* Why does jealousy matter?

(Jealousy can influence thoughts, emotions and behavior. The feeling alone doesn't necessarily determine behaviour. Different responses may have different consequences for romantic relationships.) research connecting jealousy with cognitive/ emotional responses, behavioural responses, relationship outcomes: (Guerrero &amp; Andersen, 1996) and (Elphinston et al., 2013)

* Why management matters

(Understanding jealousy may help people distinguish emotional reactions from assumptions and actions. Psychological science can provide evidence informed ways of responding to jealousy. Managing jealousy doesn't necessarily mean eliminating the emotion or ignoring genuine relationship concerns.)  Research establishing why psychological understanding and regulation and relationship management is relevant: (Duckworth &amp; Gross, 2020)  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is romantic jealousy, and how can it be understood as an emotional and motivational response?
* Why does romantic jealousy occur, and why might people experience it differently?
* What are the cognitive, emotional, behavioural, and relationship impacts of romantic jealousy?
* How can romantic jealousy be managed in ways that support healthy functioning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What Is Romantic Jealousy? ==
Romantic jealousy is a complex psychological response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship, involving interacting emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes (Sharpsteen &amp; Kirkpatrick, 1997)

* define more
* jealousy isn't just a single feeling
* introduce how people can interpret similar situations differently 
* preview sections 

=== Defining Romantic Jealousy ===
Romantic jealousy can be understood, similar to regular jealousy, as a psychological response that occurs when a person perceives a threat to an important romantic relationship.

* define it (what is it, what makes it romantic jealousy in particular, what is being threatened, why does the relationship need to be valued for it to be jealousy) cite: (Miller &amp; Benz, 2013) information on jealousy
* talk about perceived threat (the situation doesn't necessarily have to involve an objectively confirmed threat. establish difference between the event and situation and the jealousy) cite: (Scherer et al., 2001)
* explain components (establish that jealousy may involve cognition, emotional, motivation. then say that behaviour can follow from these but isn't same as emotion)
* add case study scenario briefly (maybe no feature box?) (Maya's reaction can therefore be understood not simply as a response to Alex's message, but as a response to what the messages may mean for her relationship. the message is the situation, maya interprets it, the interpretation created perceived threat, the perceived threat contributes to jealousy.) 

=== Jealousy and Related Emotional Experiences ===
Although romantic jealousy can involve emotions such as [[wikipedia:Fear|fear]], [[wikipedia:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]], and [[wikipedia:Insecurity|insecurity]], it should be distinguished from related psychological experiences such as [[wikipedia:Envy|envy]]. 

* say what jealousy generally is (a valued relationship plus a perceived threat involving another person)
* envy generally is (wanting something another person has)
* jealous may be accompanied by other emotions said above but they aren't necessarily interchangeable with jealousy 
* can cite old jealousy source from above section
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1. Distinguishing Romantic Jealousy from Related Experiences 
!Experience
!Central Concern
!Example
|-
|Romantic Jealousy 
|Perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship
|Partner appears unusually close to another person 
|-
|Envy
|Wanting something another person has
|Another person has a relationship you want 
|-
|Fear/Anxiety
|Anticipated or perceived threat/danger
|Worry that a relationship may end 
|}

=== Is Jealousy Inherently Harmful ===
experiencing romantic jealousy does not necessarily mean you are experiencing a harmful relationship event or outcome. the significance of jealousy may depend partly on how the experience is interpreted and how it is expressed. 

* emotions don't equal behaviour (feeling jealous is not the same as acting on jealousy) 
* potential information/ signaling function (research if jealousy can signal perceived relationship threat, motivate attention to relationship concern, motivate relationship protective behaviour, prompt communication) cite: (Dillon, 2013)
* reasons why jealousy may be bad/ maladaptive (conflict, suspicion, controlling behaviour, relationship distress. difference between jealousy and response to it again) cite jealousy source again potentially 
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Which statement best describes romantic jealousy?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}


- It only occurs when a partner has definitely been unfaithful. 
- It is the same as envy. 
+ It can involve a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship and may involve emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes. 
- It always results in harmful behaviour.
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? ==
Romantic jealousy is unlikely to be explained by relationship events alone. Instead, the experience can come from the interaction between perceived threat, cognitive appraisal, relationship characteristics, and individual differences. 

* talk about case study maya again (don't know if it needs to be a scenario box?) say Alex's messages to Joan weren't obviously something to be jealous over (was ambiguous),message alone doesn't explain Maya's reaction, why did maya interpret situation as threatening? 
* introduce topics discussed below

=== Perceived Relationship Threat and Cognitive Appraisal ===
A central explanation for romantic jealousy is that situations become emotionally significant when the yare appraised as threatening to a valued relationship. 

* A potential threat isnt automatically a psychological threat (a partner interacting with anohter person is not inherently jealousy provoking. the interaction becomes important when it is interpreted as potentially threatening.threat could concern: loss of relationship, exclusivity, emotional intimacy, trust, ones sense of self worth. percived threat cite: (Martínez-León et al., 2017) 
* talk about cognitive appraisal (people evaluate what an event means for their relationships, they assess if something important is at stake. they interpret significance of events. appraisal contributes to emotional response. appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009)
* case study (?) what happened: Alex sent text to other person. what did maya perceive: potential romantic threat. what might she have appraised?: Alex might prefer this person, my relationship might be at risk, I might lose something important, I don't know what is happening. (only possibilities not concrete) 

=== Attachment and Relationship Security ===
Attachment theory provides one explanation for why individuals may differ in their sensitivity to relationship threat and in the ways they experience and express jealousy 

* introduce attachment (romantic relationship can function as important attachments, people differ in attachment related expectations about themselves and others. brief overview of styles these expectations can influence responses to relationship threat) sources about attachment (Shaver &amp; Mikulincer, 2008) and (Sharpsteen &amp; Kirkpatrick, 1997) again
* attachment anxiety (explain the anxious attachment style, concern about rejection or abandonment may increase sensitivity to relationship threat. avoidant partner behaviour be made more salient. this attachment stle can contribute to stronger jealousy) cite: (Campbell &amp; Marshall, 2011) 
* avoidant attachment style (avoidance may also shape jealousy, may influence expression or management of jealousy differently. individual difference isnt about more or less jealousy) cite: (Bartholomew, 1990)
* case study: maya, could mayas reaction be partly influenced by how secure she generally feels in close relationships 

=== Relationship Context and Uncertainty ===
jealousy is also shaped by characteristics of the relationship and immediate context, particularly when information about the relationship or a potential rival is uncertain.

* uncertainty (people may be uncertain about where their relationship stands, how committed their partner is, what boundaries exist, what a partners behaviour means. uncertainty can make unclear information harder to interpret. cite: (KNOBLOCH et al., 2001)
* relationship factors like intimacy, commitment, trust, relationship satisfaction, perceived exclusivity, communication clarity, shape jealousy. 
* context of relationship shapes reactions (interactions, transitions, perceptions about rivals, previous breaches of trust, digital communication) context determines what information is available and how ambiguous that information may be. 
* maya situation: ambiguity plus incomplete information and new person and uncertain meaning, jealousy cannot be explained only by internal trait. relationship situation itself matters. 

=== Individual Differences ===
beyond attachment and relationship characteristics, individual differences can influence how strongly people perceive and respond to potential romantic threats. 

lightly talk about some or all (?)

* self esteem
* previous relationship experiences
* rejection sensitivity
* personality tendances
* these things may increase sensitivity to threats or how situations are interpreted

=== Integrated Explanations ===
taken together, the evidence suggests that romantic jealousy is best understood as an interaction between relationship circumstances, perceived threat, cognitive appraisal and individual characteristics rather than just as the product of a signal cause.

* add figure (1. for maya, alex messages another person, 2 potential threat, could threaten security, exclusivity and relationship continuity. 3, appraisal, maya interprets what the event means. 4, individual factors, her interpretation may be influenced by attachment related expectations, self worth, previous experiences, expectations of rejection. 5, relationship context factors like commitment, trust, context. 6, jealousy, these processes contribute to emotional, cognitive, behavioral responses. 7, maya now has choices about what she does with that emotional experience) 
* caption: model of romantic jealousy going from event, to appraisal, to emotional and behavioral responses. as discussed in figure 2. jealousy arises within an interaction between the situation and how that situation is interpreted (omg how do i add diagrams someone hellppp)

* add learning feature 
* feature box: maya receives the same message from alex in two different circumstances. In scenairo A, Maya feels secure in her relationship and knows how alex has openly discussed the friendship. in scenario B, Maya and Alex have recently experienced conflict and have not discussed relationship boundaries
* quiz: why might the same message produce different levels of jealousy: 1. the message automatically creates jealousy. 2, jealousy depends only on personality. 3, (correct) the meaning of the message may be shaped by appraisal, relationship security and contextual uncertainty. 4, one person must be irrational. 

== What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? ==
Once romantic jealousy is experienced, it can influence how people think, feel and behave, with consequences that may extend beyond the individual to the relationship itself.

* connect back to last section
* say jealousy doesn't produce one universal outcome
* consequences depend partly on how jealousy is experiences and responded to (can have adaptive responses and harmful responses)
* briefly overview subheadings

(don't know if i need a source here, as i am being general, maybe i can just reuse a source about jealousy having impacts in general from above )

=== Cognitive Impacts ===
Romantic jealousy can influence cognitive processing by increasing attention to potential relationship threats and shaping how individuals interpret ambiguous information about their partner and relationship.

* cognitive jealousy is what you think/ suspect cite (Leite et al., 2024) 
* jealousy can heighten attention towards relationship information, people may be focused on factors mentioned above (rival, behavior, signs of rejection, evidence confirmation or contradiction)
* interpretation of ambiguous information (a partner talking closely with someone else does not automatically show romantic interest, but someone experiencing strong jealousy may interpret ambiguous information through the lens of a perceived threat. possible negative assumptions, suspicion, threat focused) cite (Brenner, 2018)
* repetitive thinking and information seeking (rumination, repeatedly thinking about threat, checking for evidence, mental replaying) reuse (Elphinston et al., 2013) for rumination 
* cognitive effects (effects on thoughts) 

the appraisal processes discussed in (a previous section) do not necessarily end once jealousy is experienced. they may continue as people attempt to interpret and evaluate relationship relevant information. if ambiguous behaviour is interpreted as threatening, a person may become more suspicious or seek reassurance, which can influence their emotional and behavioural responses. 

=== Emotional Impacts ===
The emotional impact of romantic jealous can extend beyond the experience of jealousy itself, with individuals potentially experiencing anxiety, fear, anger, sadness, or insecurity in response to perceived relationship threat. 

* jealousy can involve multiple emotional experiences (it can co-occur with other emotions, different people can experience this differently, and may experience multiple emotions at the same time) cite (Guerrero et al., 2005)
* emotional intensity can vary (the intensity of emotional experiences may be related to context, uncertainty, threat, individual differences discussed before) 
* emotional distress (intense or persistent jealousy may contribute to emotional distress) cite (Bush et al., 1988)
* emotion isnt automatically dysfunctional (unpleaseent emotions can still serve psychological functions and draw attention to something important, therefore feeling jealousy does not automatically mean the person or relationship is unhealthy) cite (Attridge, 2013)

the experince of an unpleasent emotion does not. by itself, mean that the emotion is dysfunctional

=== Behavioural Responses ===
The experience of jealousy does not create a single behavioural response. Individuals may respond through constructive communication and relationship maintenance, or through behaviours that increase conflict, control or harm. 

* jealousy can motivate action (emotions can motivate behaviours, jealousy signals that relationship may be threatened so people may be motivated to respond.) cite (Fiske, 2002)
* constructive responses (jealousy can be followed by constructive behaviours link communicating feelings, discussing expectations, seeking reassurance, setting boundaries, and getting clarification. these constructive responses may allow someone to respond to an underlying concern without escalating the situation) maybe use (Attridge, 2013) again 
* less constructive responses ( MAY cause rumination, monitoring, accusations, withdrawal, testing partner, restrictive behaviour on partner.) cite (Yoshimura, 2004) 
* these behaviours can lead into more harmful behaviours. 

experiencing jealousy and acting on jealousy are not the same psychological process. emotions can influence behaviour, but people arent necessarily compelled to act on them. 

=== Relationship Consequences ===

=== When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? ===

== How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? ==

=== Recognising the Emotional Response ===

=== Evaluating the Perceived Threat ===

=== Communication and Relationship Management ===

=== Emotion Regulation ===

=== When the Threat is Real ===

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? ==

=== Perceived Relationship Threat ===

=== Cognitive Appraisal ===

=== Attachment and Relationship Security ===

=== Relationship Context and Uncertainty ===

=== Individual Differences and Integrated Explanations ===

== What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? ==

=== Cognitive Impacts ===

=== Emotional Impacts ===

=== Behavioural Responses ===

=== Relationship Consequences ===

=== When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? ===

== How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? ==

=== Recognising the Emotional Response ===

=== Evaluating the Perceived Threat ===

=== Communication and Relationship Management ===

=== Emotion Regulation ===

=== When the Threat is Real ===

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
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* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
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** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

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Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Jealousy]]</text>
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      <text bytes="28098" sha1="hbxfuh6rctthakqpfbdoisrjmo7f1xd" xml:space="preserve"> {{title|Romantic jealousy:&lt;br&gt;Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are it's impacts, and how can It be managed?}}
__TOC__

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

[[File:Man using smartphone outdoors.jpg|Man_using_smartphone_outdoors|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Person viewing an ambiguous message on a phone]]

;  Scenario

Maya is in a committed romantic relationship of 3 years. Her partner, Alex, has recently started spending more time with a new colleague, Joan. 

One evening, Maya notices that Alex has been messaging Joan more often. She sees a message that, while not showing clear evidence of infidelity, could be interpreted in multiple ways.

Maya experiences a sudden feeling of jealousy.

She starts thinking: '' Why are they messaging so much? Is there something going on? Does Alex find Joan more interesting than me? Am I overreacting? '' 

Maya feels anxious and has an urge to check Alex's messages or ask what is happening.

Maya's situation shows how an ambiguous even can become psychologically significant when interpreted as a potential threat (see Figure 1.)

What is happening to Maya, and what should she do with this feeling?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Romantic jealousy is an emotional response that can arise when a person perceives a threat to a valued romantic relationship. The experience and consequences of jealousy can vary substantially across people and situations.

* What is [[wikipedia:Jealousy|jealousy]]?

(Discuss that romantic jealousy involves an emotional response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship. The threat does not have to be real. Interpretation and perception matter) use source that gives a definition of romantic jealousy: (Karakoçoğlu &amp; Hasdağ, 2025) 

* Why does jealousy vary?

(Discuss how people can experience levels of jealous in similar situations. This suggests that jealousy cannot be explained by only external factors. individual and relationship factors may influence how situations are interpreted) find research showing individual differences in jealousy: (Valentova et al., 2020)

* Why does jealousy matter?

(Jealousy can influence thoughts, emotions and behavior. The feeling alone doesn't necessarily determine behaviour. Different responses may have different consequences for romantic relationships.) research connecting jealousy with cognitive/ emotional responses, behavioural responses, relationship outcomes: (Guerrero &amp; Andersen, 1996) and (Elphinston et al., 2013)

* Why management matters

(Understanding jealousy may help people distinguish emotional reactions from assumptions and actions. Psychological science can provide evidence informed ways of responding to jealousy. Managing jealousy doesn't necessarily mean eliminating the emotion or ignoring genuine relationship concerns.)  Research establishing why psychological understanding and regulation and relationship management is relevant: (Duckworth &amp; Gross, 2020)  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is romantic jealousy, and how can it be understood as an emotional and motivational response?
* Why does romantic jealousy occur, and why might people experience it differently?
* What are the cognitive, emotional, behavioural, and relationship impacts of romantic jealousy?
* How can romantic jealousy be managed in ways that support healthy functioning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What Is Romantic Jealousy? ==
Romantic jealousy is a complex psychological response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship, involving interacting emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes (Sharpsteen &amp; Kirkpatrick, 1997)

* define more
* jealousy isn't just a single feeling
* introduce how people can interpret similar situations differently 
* preview sections 

=== Defining Romantic Jealousy ===
Romantic jealousy can be understood, similar to regular jealousy, as a psychological response that occurs when a person perceives a threat to an important romantic relationship.

* define it (what is it, what makes it romantic jealousy in particular, what is being threatened, why does the relationship need to be valued for it to be jealousy) cite: (Miller &amp; Benz, 2013) information on jealousy
* talk about perceived threat (the situation doesn't necessarily have to involve an objectively confirmed threat. establish difference between the event and situation and the jealousy) cite: (Scherer et al., 2001)
* explain components (establish that jealousy may involve cognition, emotional, motivation. then say that behaviour can follow from these but isn't same as emotion)
* add case study scenario briefly (maybe no feature box?) (Maya's reaction can therefore be understood not simply as a response to Alex's message, but as a response to what the messages may mean for her relationship. the message is the situation, maya interprets it, the interpretation created perceived threat, the perceived threat contributes to jealousy.) 

=== Jealousy and Related Emotional Experiences ===
Although romantic jealousy can involve emotions such as [[wikipedia:Fear|fear]], [[wikipedia:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]], and [[wikipedia:Insecurity|insecurity]], it should be distinguished from related psychological experiences such as [[wikipedia:Envy|envy]]. 

* say what jealousy generally is (a valued relationship plus a perceived threat involving another person)
* envy generally is (wanting something another person has)
* jealous may be accompanied by other emotions said above but they aren't necessarily interchangeable with jealousy 
* can cite old jealousy source from above section
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1. Distinguishing Romantic Jealousy from Related Experiences 
!Experience
!Central Concern
!Example
|-
|Romantic Jealousy 
|Perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship
|Partner appears unusually close to another person 
|-
|Envy
|Wanting something another person has
|Another person has a relationship you want 
|-
|Fear/Anxiety
|Anticipated or perceived threat/danger
|Worry that a relationship may end 
|}

=== Is Jealousy Inherently Harmful ===
experiencing romantic jealousy does not necessarily mean you are experiencing a harmful relationship event or outcome. the significance of jealousy may depend partly on how the experience is interpreted and how it is expressed. 

* emotions don't equal behaviour (feeling jealous is not the same as acting on jealousy) 
* potential information/ signaling function (research if jealousy can signal perceived relationship threat, motivate attention to relationship concern, motivate relationship protective behaviour, prompt communication) cite: (Dillon, 2013)
* reasons why jealousy may be bad/ maladaptive (conflict, suspicion, controlling behaviour, relationship distress. difference between jealousy and response to it again) cite jealousy source again potentially 
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Which statement best describes romantic jealousy?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}


- It only occurs when a partner has definitely been unfaithful. 
- It is the same as envy. 
+ It can involve a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship and may involve emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes. 
- It always results in harmful behaviour.
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? ==
Romantic jealousy is unlikely to be explained by relationship events alone. Instead, the experience can come from the interaction between perceived threat, cognitive appraisal, relationship characteristics, and individual differences. 

* talk about case study maya again (don't know if it needs to be a scenario box?) say Alex's messages to Joan weren't obviously something to be jealous over (was ambiguous),message alone doesn't explain Maya's reaction, why did maya interpret situation as threatening? 
* introduce topics discussed below

=== Perceived Relationship Threat and Cognitive Appraisal ===
A central explanation for romantic jealousy is that situations become emotionally significant when the yare appraised as threatening to a valued relationship. 

* A potential threat isnt automatically a psychological threat (a partner interacting with anohter person is not inherently jealousy provoking. the interaction becomes important when it is interpreted as potentially threatening.threat could concern: loss of relationship, exclusivity, emotional intimacy, trust, ones sense of self worth. percived threat cite: (Martínez-León et al., 2017) 
* talk about cognitive appraisal (people evaluate what an event means for their relationships, they assess if something important is at stake. they interpret significance of events. appraisal contributes to emotional response. appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009)
* case study (?) what happened: Alex sent text to other person. what did maya perceive: potential romantic threat. what might she have appraised?: Alex might prefer this person, my relationship might be at risk, I might lose something important, I don't know what is happening. (only possibilities not concrete) 

=== Attachment and Relationship Security ===
Attachment theory provides one explanation for why individuals may differ in their sensitivity to relationship threat and in the ways they experience and express jealousy 

* introduce attachment (romantic relationship can function as important attachments, people differ in attachment related expectations about themselves and others. brief overview of styles these expectations can influence responses to relationship threat) sources about attachment (Shaver &amp; Mikulincer, 2008) and (Sharpsteen &amp; Kirkpatrick, 1997) again
* attachment anxiety (explain the anxious attachment style, concern about rejection or abandonment may increase sensitivity to relationship threat. avoidant partner behaviour be made more salient. this attachment stle can contribute to stronger jealousy) cite: (Campbell &amp; Marshall, 2011) 
* avoidant attachment style (avoidance may also shape jealousy, may influence expression or management of jealousy differently. individual difference isnt about more or less jealousy) cite: (Bartholomew, 1990)
* case study: maya, could mayas reaction be partly influenced by how secure she generally feels in close relationships 

=== Relationship Context and Uncertainty ===
jealousy is also shaped by characteristics of the relationship and immediate context, particularly when information about the relationship or a potential rival is uncertain.

* uncertainty (people may be uncertain about where their relationship stands, how committed their partner is, what boundaries exist, what a partners behaviour means. uncertainty can make unclear information harder to interpret. cite: (KNOBLOCH et al., 2001)
* relationship factors like intimacy, commitment, trust, relationship satisfaction, perceived exclusivity, communication clarity, shape jealousy. 
* context of relationship shapes reactions (interactions, transitions, perceptions about rivals, previous breaches of trust, digital communication) context determines what information is available and how ambiguous that information may be. 
* maya situation: ambiguity plus incomplete information and new person and uncertain meaning, jealousy cannot be explained only by internal trait. relationship situation itself matters. 

=== Individual Differences ===
beyond attachment and relationship characteristics, individual differences can influence how strongly people perceive and respond to potential romantic threats. 

lightly talk about some or all (?)

* self esteem
* previous relationship experiences
* rejection sensitivity
* personality tendances
* these things may increase sensitivity to threats or how situations are interpreted

=== Integrated Explanations ===
taken together, the evidence suggests that romantic jealousy is best understood as an interaction between relationship circumstances, perceived threat, cognitive appraisal and individual characteristics rather than just as the product of a signal cause.

* add figure (1. for maya, alex messages another person, 2 potential threat, could threaten security, exclusivity and relationship continuity. 3, appraisal, maya interprets what the event means. 4, individual factors, her interpretation may be influenced by attachment related expectations, self worth, previous experiences, expectations of rejection. 5, relationship context factors like commitment, trust, context. 6, jealousy, these processes contribute to emotional, cognitive, behavioral responses. 7, maya now has choices about what she does with that emotional experience) 
* caption: model of romantic jealousy going from event, to appraisal, to emotional and behavioral responses. as discussed in figure 2. jealousy arises within an interaction between the situation and how that situation is interpreted (omg how do i add diagrams someone hellppp)

* add learning feature 
* feature box: maya receives the same message from alex in two different circumstances. In scenairo A, Maya feels secure in her relationship and knows how alex has openly discussed the friendship. in scenario B, Maya and Alex have recently experienced conflict and have not discussed relationship boundaries
* quiz: why might the same message produce different levels of jealousy: 1. the message automatically creates jealousy. 2, jealousy depends only on personality. 3, (correct) the meaning of the message may be shaped by appraisal, relationship security and contextual uncertainty. 4, one person must be irrational. 

== What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? ==
Once romantic jealousy is experienced, it can influence how people think, feel and behave, with consequences that may extend beyond the individual to the relationship itself.

* connect back to last section
* say jealousy doesn't produce one universal outcome
* consequences depend partly on how jealousy is experiences and responded to (can have adaptive responses and harmful responses)
* briefly overview subheadings

(don't know if i need a source here, as i am being general, maybe i can just reuse a source about jealousy having impacts in general from above )

=== Cognitive Impacts ===
Romantic jealousy can influence cognitive processing by increasing attention to potential relationship threats and shaping how individuals interpret ambiguous information about their partner and relationship.

* cognitive jealousy is what you think/ suspect cite (Leite et al., 2024) 
* jealousy can heighten attention towards relationship information, people may be focused on factors mentioned above (rival, behavior, signs of rejection, evidence confirmation or contradiction)
* interpretation of ambiguous information (a partner talking closely with someone else does not automatically show romantic interest, but someone experiencing strong jealousy may interpret ambiguous information through the lens of a perceived threat. possible negative assumptions, suspicion, threat focused) cite (Brenner, 2018)
* repetitive thinking and information seeking (rumination, repeatedly thinking about threat, checking for evidence, mental replaying) reuse (Elphinston et al., 2013) for rumination 
* cognitive effects (effects on thoughts) 

the appraisal processes discussed in (a previous section) do not necessarily end once jealousy is experienced. they may continue as people attempt to interpret and evaluate relationship relevant information. if ambiguous behaviour is interpreted as threatening, a person may become more suspicious or seek reassurance, which can influence their emotional and behavioural responses. 

=== Emotional Impacts ===
The emotional impact of romantic jealous can extend beyond the experience of jealousy itself, with individuals potentially experiencing anxiety, fear, anger, sadness, or insecurity in response to perceived relationship threat. 

* jealousy can involve multiple emotional experiences (it can co-occur with other emotions, different people can experience this differently, and may experience multiple emotions at the same time) cite (Guerrero et al., 2005)
* emotional intensity can vary (the intensity of emotional experiences may be related to context, uncertainty, threat, individual differences discussed before) 
* emotional distress (intense or persistent jealousy may contribute to emotional distress) cite (Bush et al., 1988)
* emotion isnt automatically dysfunctional (unpleaseent emotions can still serve psychological functions and draw attention to something important, therefore feeling jealousy does not automatically mean the person or relationship is unhealthy) cite (Attridge, 2013)

the experince of an unpleasent emotion does not. by itself, mean that the emotion is dysfunctional

=== Behavioural Responses ===
The experience of jealousy does not create a single behavioural response. Individuals may respond through constructive communication and relationship maintenance, or through behaviours that increase conflict, control or harm. 

* jealousy can motivate action (emotions can motivate behaviours, jealousy signals that relationship may be threatened so people may be motivated to respond.) cite (Fiske, 2002)
* constructive responses (jealousy can be followed by constructive behaviours link communicating feelings, discussing expectations, seeking reassurance, setting boundaries, and getting clarification. these constructive responses may allow someone to respond to an underlying concern without escalating the situation) maybe use (Attridge, 2013) again 
* less constructive responses ( MAY cause rumination, monitoring, accusations, withdrawal, testing partner, restrictive behaviour on partner.) cite (Yoshimura, 2004) 
* these behaviours can lead into more harmful behaviours. 

experiencing jealousy and acting on jealousy are not the same psychological process. emotions can influence behaviour, but people arent necessarily compelled to act on them.  

Feature box/ quiz. scenario: Maya sees Alex talking closely with Joan at a work party. she experiences jealousy .  

response A: Maya notices that she feels threatened, pauses before responding, and later tells Alex that the interaction makes her feel insecure. They discuss what happened. 

Response B: Maya becomes angry, repeatedly checks Alex's phone and accuses him of being unfaithful 

question: which statement best explains the difference between Maya's two responses. 

# jealousy was only present in response b
# the emotional experience can be similar, while the behavioural response differs (correct)
# constructive responses require people to suppress jealousy
# jealousy always produces controlling behaiviour

=== Relationship Consequences ===

=== When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? ===

== How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? ==

=== Recognising the Emotional Response ===

=== Evaluating the Perceived Threat ===

=== Communication and Relationship Management ===

=== Emotion Regulation ===

=== When the Threat is Real ===

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? ==

=== Perceived Relationship Threat ===

=== Cognitive Appraisal ===

=== Attachment and Relationship Security ===

=== Relationship Context and Uncertainty ===

=== Individual Differences and Integrated Explanations ===

== What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? ==

=== Cognitive Impacts ===

=== Emotional Impacts ===

=== Behavioural Responses ===

=== Relationship Consequences ===

=== When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? ===

== How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? ==

=== Recognising the Emotional Response ===

=== Evaluating the Perceived Threat ===

=== Communication and Relationship Management ===

=== Emotion Regulation ===

=== When the Threat is Real ===

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
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* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
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* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
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;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
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** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
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** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

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Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
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__TOC__

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

[[File:Man using smartphone outdoors.jpg|Man_using_smartphone_outdoors|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Person viewing an ambiguous message on a phone]]

;  Scenario

Maya is in a committed romantic relationship of 3 years. Her partner, Alex, has recently started spending more time with a new colleague, Joan. 

One evening, Maya notices that Alex has been messaging Joan more often. She sees a message that, while not showing clear evidence of infidelity, could be interpreted in multiple ways.

Maya experiences a sudden feeling of jealousy.

She starts thinking: '' Why are they messaging so much? Is there something going on? Does Alex find Joan more interesting than me? Am I overreacting? '' 

Maya feels anxious and has an urge to check Alex's messages or ask what is happening.

Maya's situation shows how an ambiguous even can become psychologically significant when interpreted as a potential threat (see Figure 1.)

What is happening to Maya, and what should she do with this feeling?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Romantic jealousy is an emotional response that can arise when a person perceives a threat to a valued romantic relationship. The experience and consequences of jealousy can vary substantially across people and situations.

* What is [[wikipedia:Jealousy|jealousy]]?

(Discuss that romantic jealousy involves an emotional response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship. The threat does not have to be real. Interpretation and perception matter) use source that gives a definition of romantic jealousy: (Karakoçoğlu &amp; Hasdağ, 2025) 

* Why does jealousy vary?

(Discuss how people can experience levels of jealous in similar situations. This suggests that jealousy cannot be explained by only external factors. individual and relationship factors may influence how situations are interpreted) find research showing individual differences in jealousy: (Valentova et al., 2020)

* Why does jealousy matter?

(Jealousy can influence thoughts, emotions and behavior. The feeling alone doesn't necessarily determine behaviour. Different responses may have different consequences for romantic relationships.) research connecting jealousy with cognitive/ emotional responses, behavioural responses, relationship outcomes: (Guerrero &amp; Andersen, 1996) and (Elphinston et al., 2013)

* Why management matters

(Understanding jealousy may help people distinguish emotional reactions from assumptions and actions. Psychological science can provide evidence informed ways of responding to jealousy. Managing jealousy doesn't necessarily mean eliminating the emotion or ignoring genuine relationship concerns.)  Research establishing why psychological understanding and regulation and relationship management is relevant: (Duckworth &amp; Gross, 2020)  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is romantic jealousy, and how can it be understood as an emotional and motivational response?
* Why does romantic jealousy occur, and why might people experience it differently?
* What are the cognitive, emotional, behavioural, and relationship impacts of romantic jealousy?
* How can romantic jealousy be managed in ways that support healthy functioning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What Is Romantic Jealousy? ==
Romantic jealousy is a complex psychological response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship, involving interacting emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes (Sharpsteen &amp; Kirkpatrick, 1997)

* define more
* jealousy isn't just a single feeling
* introduce how people can interpret similar situations differently 
* preview sections 

=== Defining Romantic Jealousy ===
Romantic jealousy can be understood, similar to regular jealousy, as a psychological response that occurs when a person perceives a threat to an important romantic relationship.

* define it (what is it, what makes it romantic jealousy in particular, what is being threatened, why does the relationship need to be valued for it to be jealousy) cite: (Miller &amp; Benz, 2013) information on jealousy
* talk about perceived threat (the situation doesn't necessarily have to involve an objectively confirmed threat. establish difference between the event and situation and the jealousy) cite: (Scherer et al., 2001)
* explain components (establish that jealousy may involve cognition, emotional, motivation. then say that behaviour can follow from these but isn't same as emotion)
* add case study scenario briefly (maybe no feature box?) (Maya's reaction can therefore be understood not simply as a response to Alex's message, but as a response to what the messages may mean for her relationship. the message is the situation, maya interprets it, the interpretation created perceived threat, the perceived threat contributes to jealousy.) 

=== Jealousy and Related Emotional Experiences ===
Although romantic jealousy can involve emotions such as [[wikipedia:Fear|fear]], [[wikipedia:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]], and [[wikipedia:Insecurity|insecurity]], it should be distinguished from related psychological experiences such as [[wikipedia:Envy|envy]]. 

* say what jealousy generally is (a valued relationship plus a perceived threat involving another person)
* envy generally is (wanting something another person has)
* jealous may be accompanied by other emotions said above but they aren't necessarily interchangeable with jealousy 
* can cite old jealousy source from above section
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1. Distinguishing Romantic Jealousy from Related Experiences 
!Experience
!Central Concern
!Example
|-
|Romantic Jealousy 
|Perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship
|Partner appears unusually close to another person 
|-
|Envy
|Wanting something another person has
|Another person has a relationship you want 
|-
|Fear/Anxiety
|Anticipated or perceived threat/danger
|Worry that a relationship may end 
|}

=== Is Jealousy Inherently Harmful ===
experiencing romantic jealousy does not necessarily mean you are experiencing a harmful relationship event or outcome. the significance of jealousy may depend partly on how the experience is interpreted and how it is expressed. 

* emotions don't equal behaviour (feeling jealous is not the same as acting on jealousy) 
* potential information/ signaling function (research if jealousy can signal perceived relationship threat, motivate attention to relationship concern, motivate relationship protective behaviour, prompt communication) cite: (Dillon, 2013)
* reasons why jealousy may be bad/ maladaptive (conflict, suspicion, controlling behaviour, relationship distress. difference between jealousy and response to it again) cite jealousy source again potentially 
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Which statement best describes romantic jealousy?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}


- It only occurs when a partner has definitely been unfaithful. 
- It is the same as envy. 
+ It can involve a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship and may involve emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes. 
- It always results in harmful behaviour.
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? ==
Romantic jealousy is unlikely to be explained by relationship events alone. Instead, the experience can come from the interaction between perceived threat, cognitive appraisal, relationship characteristics, and individual differences. 

* talk about case study maya again (don't know if it needs to be a scenario box?) say Alex's messages to Joan weren't obviously something to be jealous over (was ambiguous),message alone doesn't explain Maya's reaction, why did maya interpret situation as threatening? 
* introduce topics discussed below

=== Perceived Relationship Threat and Cognitive Appraisal ===
A central explanation for romantic jealousy is that situations become emotionally significant when the yare appraised as threatening to a valued relationship. 

* A potential threat isnt automatically a psychological threat (a partner interacting with anohter person is not inherently jealousy provoking. the interaction becomes important when it is interpreted as potentially threatening.threat could concern: loss of relationship, exclusivity, emotional intimacy, trust, ones sense of self worth. percived threat cite: (Martínez-León et al., 2017) 
* talk about cognitive appraisal (people evaluate what an event means for their relationships, they assess if something important is at stake. they interpret significance of events. appraisal contributes to emotional response. appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009)
* case study (?) what happened: Alex sent text to other person. what did maya perceive: potential romantic threat. what might she have appraised?: Alex might prefer this person, my relationship might be at risk, I might lose something important, I don't know what is happening. (only possibilities not concrete) 

=== Attachment and Relationship Security ===
Attachment theory provides one explanation for why individuals may differ in their sensitivity to relationship threat and in the ways they experience and express jealousy 

* introduce attachment (romantic relationship can function as important attachments, people differ in attachment related expectations about themselves and others. brief overview of styles these expectations can influence responses to relationship threat) sources about attachment (Shaver &amp; Mikulincer, 2008) and (Sharpsteen &amp; Kirkpatrick, 1997) again
* attachment anxiety (explain the anxious attachment style, concern about rejection or abandonment may increase sensitivity to relationship threat. avoidant partner behaviour be made more salient. this attachment stle can contribute to stronger jealousy) cite: (Campbell &amp; Marshall, 2011) 
* avoidant attachment style (avoidance may also shape jealousy, may influence expression or management of jealousy differently. individual difference isnt about more or less jealousy) cite: (Bartholomew, 1990)
* case study: maya, could mayas reaction be partly influenced by how secure she generally feels in close relationships 

=== Relationship Context and Uncertainty ===
jealousy is also shaped by characteristics of the relationship and immediate context, particularly when information about the relationship or a potential rival is uncertain.

* uncertainty (people may be uncertain about where their relationship stands, how committed their partner is, what boundaries exist, what a partners behaviour means. uncertainty can make unclear information harder to interpret. cite: (KNOBLOCH et al., 2001)
* relationship factors like intimacy, commitment, trust, relationship satisfaction, perceived exclusivity, communication clarity, shape jealousy. 
* context of relationship shapes reactions (interactions, transitions, perceptions about rivals, previous breaches of trust, digital communication) context determines what information is available and how ambiguous that information may be. 
* maya situation: ambiguity plus incomplete information and new person and uncertain meaning, jealousy cannot be explained only by internal trait. relationship situation itself matters. 

=== Individual Differences ===
beyond attachment and relationship characteristics, individual differences can influence how strongly people perceive and respond to potential romantic threats. 

lightly talk about some or all (?)

* self esteem
* previous relationship experiences
* rejection sensitivity
* personality tendances
* these things may increase sensitivity to threats or how situations are interpreted

=== Integrated Explanations ===
taken together, the evidence suggests that romantic jealousy is best understood as an interaction between relationship circumstances, perceived threat, cognitive appraisal and individual characteristics rather than just as the product of a signal cause.

* add figure (1. for maya, alex messages another person, 2 potential threat, could threaten security, exclusivity and relationship continuity. 3, appraisal, maya interprets what the event means. 4, individual factors, her interpretation may be influenced by attachment related expectations, self worth, previous experiences, expectations of rejection. 5, relationship context factors like commitment, trust, context. 6, jealousy, these processes contribute to emotional, cognitive, behavioral responses. 7, maya now has choices about what she does with that emotional experience) 
* caption: model of romantic jealousy going from event, to appraisal, to emotional and behavioral responses. as discussed in figure 2. jealousy arises within an interaction between the situation and how that situation is interpreted (omg how do i add diagrams someone hellppp)

* add learning feature 
* feature box: maya receives the same message from alex in two different circumstances. In scenairo A, Maya feels secure in her relationship and knows how alex has openly discussed the friendship. in scenario B, Maya and Alex have recently experienced conflict and have not discussed relationship boundaries
* quiz: why might the same message produce different levels of jealousy: 1. the message automatically creates jealousy. 2, jealousy depends only on personality. 3, (correct) the meaning of the message may be shaped by appraisal, relationship security and contextual uncertainty. 4, one person must be irrational. 

== What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? ==
Once romantic jealousy is experienced, it can influence how people think, feel and behave, with consequences that may extend beyond the individual to the relationship itself.

* connect back to last section
* say jealousy doesn't produce one universal outcome
* consequences depend partly on how jealousy is experiences and responded to (can have adaptive responses and harmful responses)
* briefly overview subheadings

(don't know if i need a source here, as i am being general, maybe i can just reuse a source about jealousy having impacts in general from above )

=== Cognitive Impacts ===
Romantic jealousy can influence cognitive processing by increasing attention to potential relationship threats and shaping how individuals interpret ambiguous information about their partner and relationship.

* cognitive jealousy is what you think/ suspect cite (Leite et al., 2024) 
* jealousy can heighten attention towards relationship information, people may be focused on factors mentioned above (rival, behavior, signs of rejection, evidence confirmation or contradiction)
* interpretation of ambiguous information (a partner talking closely with someone else does not automatically show romantic interest, but someone experiencing strong jealousy may interpret ambiguous information through the lens of a perceived threat. possible negative assumptions, suspicion, threat focused) cite (Brenner, 2018)
* repetitive thinking and information seeking (rumination, repeatedly thinking about threat, checking for evidence, mental replaying) reuse (Elphinston et al., 2013) for rumination 
* cognitive effects (effects on thoughts) 

the appraisal processes discussed in (a previous section) do not necessarily end once jealousy is experienced. they may continue as people attempt to interpret and evaluate relationship relevant information. if ambiguous behaviour is interpreted as threatening, a person may become more suspicious or seek reassurance, which can influence their emotional and behavioural responses. 

=== Emotional Impacts ===
The emotional impact of romantic jealous can extend beyond the experience of jealousy itself, with individuals potentially experiencing anxiety, fear, anger, sadness, or insecurity in response to perceived relationship threat. 

* jealousy can involve multiple emotional experiences (it can co-occur with other emotions, different people can experience this differently, and may experience multiple emotions at the same time) cite (Guerrero et al., 2005)
* emotional intensity can vary (the intensity of emotional experiences may be related to context, uncertainty, threat, individual differences discussed before) 
* emotional distress (intense or persistent jealousy may contribute to emotional distress) cite (Bush et al., 1988)
* emotion isnt automatically dysfunctional (unpleaseent emotions can still serve psychological functions and draw attention to something important, therefore feeling jealousy does not automatically mean the person or relationship is unhealthy) cite (Attridge, 2013)

the experience of an unpleasant emotion does not. by itself, mean that the emotion is dysfunctional

=== Behavioural Responses ===
The experience of jealousy does not create a single behavioural response. Individuals may respond through constructive communication and relationship maintenance, or through behaviours that increase conflict, control or harm. 

* jealousy can motivate action (emotions can motivate behaviours, jealousy signals that relationship may be threatened so people may be motivated to respond.) cite (Fiske, 2002)
* constructive responses (jealousy can be followed by constructive behaviours link communicating feelings, discussing expectations, seeking reassurance, setting boundaries, and getting clarification. these constructive responses may allow someone to respond to an underlying concern without escalating the situation) maybe use (Attridge, 2013) again 
* less constructive responses ( MAY cause rumination, monitoring, accusations, withdrawal, testing partner, restrictive behaviour on partner.) cite (Yoshimura, 2004) 
* these behaviours can lead into more harmful behaviours. 

experiencing jealousy and acting on jealousy are not the same psychological process. emotions can influence behaviour, but people arent necessarily compelled to act on them.  

Feature box/ quiz. scenario: Maya sees Alex talking closely with Joan at a work party. she experiences jealousy .  

response A: Maya notices that she feels threatened, pauses before responding, and later tells Alex that the interaction makes her feel insecure. They discuss what happened. 

Response B: Maya becomes angry, repeatedly checks Alex's phone and accuses him of being unfaithful 

question: which statement best explains the difference between Maya's two responses. 

# jealousy was only present in response b
# the emotional experience can be similar, while the behavioural response differs (correct)
# constructive responses require people to suppress jealousy
# jealousy always produces controlling behaiviour

=== Relationship Consequences ===
Because romantic jealousy occurs withing an interpersonal relationship, its consequences can extend beyond the individual to influence communication, trust, satisfaction and relationship stability. 

* communication (can prompt constructive typos and less constructive types. the effects depend partly on how the jealousy is communicated) 
* trust (jealousy related suspicion and monitory can be related to lower trust in relationships) can use source about what jealousy is, maybe (Karakoçoğlu &amp; Hasdağ, 2025) again
* relationship satisfaction (problematic jealousy with jealousy related behaviours and poorer relationship quality) cite  (Elphinston et al., 2013)  again

jealousy may prompt behaviours intended to maintain or protect eh relationship, or it may prompt behaviours that can harm trust and communication. therefore, relationship consequences depend not only on whether jealousy occurs, but on how it is interpreted and expressed 

=== When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? ===

== How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? ==

=== Recognising the Emotional Response ===

=== Evaluating the Perceived Threat ===

=== Communication and Relationship Management ===

=== Emotion Regulation ===

=== When the Threat is Real ===

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? ==

=== Perceived Relationship Threat ===

=== Cognitive Appraisal ===

=== Attachment and Relationship Security ===

=== Relationship Context and Uncertainty ===

=== Individual Differences and Integrated Explanations ===

== What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? ==

=== Cognitive Impacts ===

=== Emotional Impacts ===

=== Behavioural Responses ===

=== Relationship Consequences ===

=== When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? ===

== How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? ==

=== Recognising the Emotional Response ===

=== Evaluating the Perceived Threat ===

=== Communication and Relationship Management ===

=== Emotion Regulation ===

=== When the Threat is Real ===

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
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* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
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;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
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** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
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** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

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Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Jealousy]]</text>
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      <text bytes="30339" sha1="5hvswh6j9mw01jd4fcyufb2l4siljqn" xml:space="preserve"> {{title|Romantic jealousy:&lt;br&gt;Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are it's impacts, and how can It be managed?}}
__TOC__

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

[[File:Man using smartphone outdoors.jpg|Man_using_smartphone_outdoors|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Person viewing an ambiguous message on a phone]]

;  Scenario

Maya is in a committed romantic relationship of 3 years. Her partner, Alex, has recently started spending more time with a new colleague, Joan. 

One evening, Maya notices that Alex has been messaging Joan more often. She sees a message that, while not showing clear evidence of infidelity, could be interpreted in multiple ways.

Maya experiences a sudden feeling of jealousy.

She starts thinking: '' Why are they messaging so much? Is there something going on? Does Alex find Joan more interesting than me? Am I overreacting? '' 

Maya feels anxious and has an urge to check Alex's messages or ask what is happening.

Maya's situation shows how an ambiguous even can become psychologically significant when interpreted as a potential threat (see Figure 1.)

What is happening to Maya, and what should she do with this feeling?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Romantic jealousy is an emotional response that can arise when a person perceives a threat to a valued romantic relationship. The experience and consequences of jealousy can vary substantially across people and situations.

* What is [[wikipedia:Jealousy|jealousy]]?

(Discuss that romantic jealousy involves an emotional response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship. The threat does not have to be real. Interpretation and perception matter) use source that gives a definition of romantic jealousy: (Karakoçoğlu &amp; Hasdağ, 2025) 

* Why does jealousy vary?

(Discuss how people can experience levels of jealous in similar situations. This suggests that jealousy cannot be explained by only external factors. individual and relationship factors may influence how situations are interpreted) find research showing individual differences in jealousy: (Valentova et al., 2020)

* Why does jealousy matter?

(Jealousy can influence thoughts, emotions and behavior. The feeling alone doesn't necessarily determine behaviour. Different responses may have different consequences for romantic relationships.) research connecting jealousy with cognitive/ emotional responses, behavioural responses, relationship outcomes: (Guerrero &amp; Andersen, 1996) and (Elphinston et al., 2013)

* Why management matters

(Understanding jealousy may help people distinguish emotional reactions from assumptions and actions. Psychological science can provide evidence informed ways of responding to jealousy. Managing jealousy doesn't necessarily mean eliminating the emotion or ignoring genuine relationship concerns.)  Research establishing why psychological understanding and regulation and relationship management is relevant: (Duckworth &amp; Gross, 2020)  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is romantic jealousy, and how can it be understood as an emotional and motivational response?
* Why does romantic jealousy occur, and why might people experience it differently?
* What are the cognitive, emotional, behavioural, and relationship impacts of romantic jealousy?
* How can romantic jealousy be managed in ways that support healthy functioning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What Is Romantic Jealousy? ==
Romantic jealousy is a complex psychological response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship, involving interacting emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes (Sharpsteen &amp; Kirkpatrick, 1997)

* define more
* jealousy isn't just a single feeling
* introduce how people can interpret similar situations differently 
* preview sections 

=== Defining Romantic Jealousy ===
Romantic jealousy can be understood, similar to regular jealousy, as a psychological response that occurs when a person perceives a threat to an important romantic relationship.

* define it (what is it, what makes it romantic jealousy in particular, what is being threatened, why does the relationship need to be valued for it to be jealousy) cite: (Miller &amp; Benz, 2013) information on jealousy
* talk about perceived threat (the situation doesn't necessarily have to involve an objectively confirmed threat. establish difference between the event and situation and the jealousy) cite: (Scherer et al., 2001)
* explain components (establish that jealousy may involve cognition, emotional, motivation. then say that behaviour can follow from these but isn't same as emotion)
* add case study scenario briefly (maybe no feature box?) (Maya's reaction can therefore be understood not simply as a response to Alex's message, but as a response to what the messages may mean for her relationship. the message is the situation, maya interprets it, the interpretation created perceived threat, the perceived threat contributes to jealousy.) 

=== Jealousy and Related Emotional Experiences ===
Although romantic jealousy can involve emotions such as [[wikipedia:Fear|fear]], [[wikipedia:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]], and [[wikipedia:Insecurity|insecurity]], it should be distinguished from related psychological experiences such as [[wikipedia:Envy|envy]]. 

* say what jealousy generally is (a valued relationship plus a perceived threat involving another person)
* envy generally is (wanting something another person has)
* jealous may be accompanied by other emotions said above but they aren't necessarily interchangeable with jealousy 
* can cite old jealousy source from above section
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1. Distinguishing Romantic Jealousy from Related Experiences 
!Experience
!Central Concern
!Example
|-
|Romantic Jealousy 
|Perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship
|Partner appears unusually close to another person 
|-
|Envy
|Wanting something another person has
|Another person has a relationship you want 
|-
|Fear/Anxiety
|Anticipated or perceived threat/danger
|Worry that a relationship may end 
|}

=== Is Jealousy Inherently Harmful ===
experiencing romantic jealousy does not necessarily mean you are experiencing a harmful relationship event or outcome. the significance of jealousy may depend partly on how the experience is interpreted and how it is expressed. 

* emotions don't equal behaviour (feeling jealous is not the same as acting on jealousy) 
* potential information/ signaling function (research if jealousy can signal perceived relationship threat, motivate attention to relationship concern, motivate relationship protective behaviour, prompt communication) cite: (Dillon, 2013)
* reasons why jealousy may be bad/ maladaptive (conflict, suspicion, controlling behaviour, relationship distress. difference between jealousy and response to it again) cite jealousy source again potentially 
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Which statement best describes romantic jealousy?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}


- It only occurs when a partner has definitely been unfaithful. 
- It is the same as envy. 
+ It can involve a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship and may involve emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes. 
- It always results in harmful behaviour.
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? ==
Romantic jealousy is unlikely to be explained by relationship events alone. Instead, the experience can come from the interaction between perceived threat, cognitive appraisal, relationship characteristics, and individual differences. 

* talk about case study maya again (don't know if it needs to be a scenario box?) say Alex's messages to Joan weren't obviously something to be jealous over (was ambiguous),message alone doesn't explain Maya's reaction, why did maya interpret situation as threatening? 
* introduce topics discussed below

=== Perceived Relationship Threat and Cognitive Appraisal ===
A central explanation for romantic jealousy is that situations become emotionally significant when the yare appraised as threatening to a valued relationship. 

* A potential threat isnt automatically a psychological threat (a partner interacting with anohter person is not inherently jealousy provoking. the interaction becomes important when it is interpreted as potentially threatening.threat could concern: loss of relationship, exclusivity, emotional intimacy, trust, ones sense of self worth. percived threat cite: (Martínez-León et al., 2017) 
* talk about cognitive appraisal (people evaluate what an event means for their relationships, they assess if something important is at stake. they interpret significance of events. appraisal contributes to emotional response. appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009)
* case study (?) what happened: Alex sent text to other person. what did maya perceive: potential romantic threat. what might she have appraised?: Alex might prefer this person, my relationship might be at risk, I might lose something important, I don't know what is happening. (only possibilities not concrete) 

=== Attachment and Relationship Security ===
Attachment theory provides one explanation for why individuals may differ in their sensitivity to relationship threat and in the ways they experience and express jealousy 

* introduce attachment (romantic relationship can function as important attachments, people differ in attachment related expectations about themselves and others. brief overview of styles these expectations can influence responses to relationship threat) sources about attachment (Shaver &amp; Mikulincer, 2008) and (Sharpsteen &amp; Kirkpatrick, 1997) again
* attachment anxiety (explain the anxious attachment style, concern about rejection or abandonment may increase sensitivity to relationship threat. avoidant partner behaviour be made more salient. this attachment stle can contribute to stronger jealousy) cite: (Campbell &amp; Marshall, 2011) 
* avoidant attachment style (avoidance may also shape jealousy, may influence expression or management of jealousy differently. individual difference isnt about more or less jealousy) cite: (Bartholomew, 1990)
* case study: maya, could mayas reaction be partly influenced by how secure she generally feels in close relationships 

=== Relationship Context and Uncertainty ===
jealousy is also shaped by characteristics of the relationship and immediate context, particularly when information about the relationship or a potential rival is uncertain.

* uncertainty (people may be uncertain about where their relationship stands, how committed their partner is, what boundaries exist, what a partners behaviour means. uncertainty can make unclear information harder to interpret. cite: (KNOBLOCH et al., 2001)
* relationship factors like intimacy, commitment, trust, relationship satisfaction, perceived exclusivity, communication clarity, shape jealousy. 
* context of relationship shapes reactions (interactions, transitions, perceptions about rivals, previous breaches of trust, digital communication) context determines what information is available and how ambiguous that information may be. 
* maya situation: ambiguity plus incomplete information and new person and uncertain meaning, jealousy cannot be explained only by internal trait. relationship situation itself matters. 

=== Individual Differences ===
beyond attachment and relationship characteristics, individual differences can influence how strongly people perceive and respond to potential romantic threats. 

lightly talk about some or all (?)

* self esteem
* previous relationship experiences
* rejection sensitivity
* personality tendances
* these things may increase sensitivity to threats or how situations are interpreted

=== Integrated Explanations ===
taken together, the evidence suggests that romantic jealousy is best understood as an interaction between relationship circumstances, perceived threat, cognitive appraisal and individual characteristics rather than just as the product of a signal cause.

* add figure (1. for maya, alex messages another person, 2 potential threat, could threaten security, exclusivity and relationship continuity. 3, appraisal, maya interprets what the event means. 4, individual factors, her interpretation may be influenced by attachment related expectations, self worth, previous experiences, expectations of rejection. 5, relationship context factors like commitment, trust, context. 6, jealousy, these processes contribute to emotional, cognitive, behavioral responses. 7, maya now has choices about what she does with that emotional experience) 
* caption: model of romantic jealousy going from event, to appraisal, to emotional and behavioral responses. as discussed in figure 2. jealousy arises within an interaction between the situation and how that situation is interpreted (omg how do i add diagrams someone hellppp)

* add learning feature 
* feature box: maya receives the same message from alex in two different circumstances. In scenairo A, Maya feels secure in her relationship and knows how alex has openly discussed the friendship. in scenario B, Maya and Alex have recently experienced conflict and have not discussed relationship boundaries
* quiz: why might the same message produce different levels of jealousy: 1. the message automatically creates jealousy. 2, jealousy depends only on personality. 3, (correct) the meaning of the message may be shaped by appraisal, relationship security and contextual uncertainty. 4, one person must be irrational. 

== What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? ==
Once romantic jealousy is experienced, it can influence how people think, feel and behave, with consequences that may extend beyond the individual to the relationship itself.

* connect back to last section
* say jealousy doesn't produce one universal outcome
* consequences depend partly on how jealousy is experiences and responded to (can have adaptive responses and harmful responses)
* briefly overview subheadings

(don't know if i need a source here, as i am being general, maybe i can just reuse a source about jealousy having impacts in general from above )

=== Cognitive Impacts ===
Romantic jealousy can influence cognitive processing by increasing attention to potential relationship threats and shaping how individuals interpret ambiguous information about their partner and relationship.

* cognitive jealousy is what you think/ suspect cite (Leite et al., 2024) 
* jealousy can heighten attention towards relationship information, people may be focused on factors mentioned above (rival, behavior, signs of rejection, evidence confirmation or contradiction)
* interpretation of ambiguous information (a partner talking closely with someone else does not automatically show romantic interest, but someone experiencing strong jealousy may interpret ambiguous information through the lens of a perceived threat. possible negative assumptions, suspicion, threat focused) cite (Brenner, 2018)
* repetitive thinking and information seeking (rumination, repeatedly thinking about threat, checking for evidence, mental replaying) reuse (Elphinston et al., 2013) for rumination 
* cognitive effects (effects on thoughts) 

the appraisal processes discussed in (a previous section) do not necessarily end once jealousy is experienced. they may continue as people attempt to interpret and evaluate relationship relevant information. if ambiguous behaviour is interpreted as threatening, a person may become more suspicious or seek reassurance, which can influence their emotional and behavioural responses. 

=== Emotional Impacts ===
The emotional impact of romantic jealous can extend beyond the experience of jealousy itself, with individuals potentially experiencing anxiety, fear, anger, sadness, or insecurity in response to perceived relationship threat. 

* jealousy can involve multiple emotional experiences (it can co-occur with other emotions, different people can experience this differently, and may experience multiple emotions at the same time) cite (Guerrero et al., 2005)
* emotional intensity can vary (the intensity of emotional experiences may be related to context, uncertainty, threat, individual differences discussed before) 
* emotional distress (intense or persistent jealousy may contribute to emotional distress) cite (Bush et al., 1988)
* emotion isnt automatically dysfunctional (unpleaseent emotions can still serve psychological functions and draw attention to something important, therefore feeling jealousy does not automatically mean the person or relationship is unhealthy) cite (Attridge, 2013)

the experience of an unpleasant emotion does not. by itself, mean that the emotion is dysfunctional

=== Behavioural Responses ===
The experience of jealousy does not create a single behavioural response. Individuals may respond through constructive communication and relationship maintenance, or through behaviours that increase conflict, control or harm. 

* jealousy can motivate action (emotions can motivate behaviours, jealousy signals that relationship may be threatened so people may be motivated to respond.) cite (Fiske, 2002)
* constructive responses (jealousy can be followed by constructive behaviours link communicating feelings, discussing expectations, seeking reassurance, setting boundaries, and getting clarification. these constructive responses may allow someone to respond to an underlying concern without escalating the situation) maybe use (Attridge, 2013) again 
* less constructive responses ( MAY cause rumination, monitoring, accusations, withdrawal, testing partner, restrictive behaviour on partner.) cite (Yoshimura, 2004) 
* these behaviours can lead into more harmful behaviours. 

experiencing jealousy and acting on jealousy are not the same psychological process. emotions can influence behaviour, but people arent necessarily compelled to act on them.  

Feature box/ quiz. scenario: Maya sees Alex talking closely with Joan at a work party. she experiences jealousy .  

response A: Maya notices that she feels threatened, pauses before responding, and later tells Alex that the interaction makes her feel insecure. They discuss what happened. 

Response B: Maya becomes angry, repeatedly checks Alex's phone and accuses him of being unfaithful 

question: which statement best explains the difference between Maya's two responses. 

# jealousy was only present in response b
# the emotional experience can be similar, while the behavioural response differs (correct)
# constructive responses require people to suppress jealousy
# jealousy always produces controlling behaiviour

=== Relationship Consequences ===
Because romantic jealousy occurs withing an interpersonal relationship, its consequences can extend beyond the individual to influence communication, trust, satisfaction and relationship stability. 

* communication (can prompt constructive typos and less constructive types. the effects depend partly on how the jealousy is communicated) 
* trust (jealousy related suspicion and monitory can be related to lower trust in relationships) can use source about what jealousy is, maybe (Karakoçoğlu &amp; Hasdağ, 2025) again
* relationship satisfaction (problematic jealousy with jealousy related behaviours and poorer relationship quality) cite  (Elphinston et al., 2013)  again

jealousy may prompt behaviours intended to maintain or protect eh relationship, or it may prompt behaviours that can harm trust and communication. therefore, relationship consequences depend not only on whether jealousy occurs, but on how it is interpreted and expressed 

=== When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? ===
romantic jealousy becomes particularly concerning when it is intense, persistent or difficult to regulate, especially when it is expressed through behaviours that undermine autonomy, wellbeing, trust, or relationship functioning. 

* intensity cite maybe (Bush et al., 1988) (response proportionate to situation and if it overwhelms a persons ability to respond effectively, can determine if jealousy can be harmful)
* persistence (does jealousy resolve after the concern is address or does it continue, and does the person remain preoccupied with perceived threat) 
* behavioural expression (the presence of jealousy is not enough to label a relationship unhealthy, but the behavioural expression and consequences of jealousy are important factors to investigate. 
* impact on wellbeing (emotional distress, conflict, loss of trust, harm to both partners) cite (Mindful Health Solutions, 2023)
* jealousy exists on a continuum, so problematic jealousy is better understood in terms of pattern, intensity, regulation, expression, and consequences. 

effective management of jealousy should not necessarily involve eliminating the emotion, but it may involve recognising the emotion, evaluating the perceived threat, and choosing responses that support individual and relationship wellbeing. 

== How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? ==

=== Recognising the Emotional Response ===

=== Evaluating the Perceived Threat ===

=== Communication and Relationship Management ===

=== Emotion Regulation ===

=== When the Threat is Real ===

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? ==

=== Perceived Relationship Threat ===

=== Cognitive Appraisal ===

=== Attachment and Relationship Security ===

=== Relationship Context and Uncertainty ===

=== Individual Differences and Integrated Explanations ===

== What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? ==

=== Cognitive Impacts ===

=== Emotional Impacts ===

=== Behavioural Responses ===

=== Relationship Consequences ===

=== When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? ===

== How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? ==

=== Recognising the Emotional Response ===

=== Evaluating the Perceived Threat ===

=== Communication and Relationship Management ===

=== Emotion Regulation ===

=== When the Threat is Real ===

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
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==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
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{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
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;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
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** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
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** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
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** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

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Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Jealousy]]</text>
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      <text bytes="31568" sha1="js40wbeubzk3ydfqbo0f9e4m8dscsqo" xml:space="preserve"> {{title|Romantic jealousy:&lt;br&gt;Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are it's impacts, and how can It be managed?}}
__TOC__

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

[[File:Man using smartphone outdoors.jpg|Man_using_smartphone_outdoors|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Person viewing an ambiguous message on a phone]]

;  Scenario

Maya is in a committed romantic relationship of 3 years. Her partner, Alex, has recently started spending more time with a new colleague, Joan. 

One evening, Maya notices that Alex has been messaging Joan more often. She sees a message that, while not showing clear evidence of infidelity, could be interpreted in multiple ways.

Maya experiences a sudden feeling of jealousy.

She starts thinking: '' Why are they messaging so much? Is there something going on? Does Alex find Joan more interesting than me? Am I overreacting? '' 

Maya feels anxious and has an urge to check Alex's messages or ask what is happening.

Maya's situation shows how an ambiguous even can become psychologically significant when interpreted as a potential threat (see Figure 1.)

What is happening to Maya, and what should she do with this feeling?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Romantic jealousy is an emotional response that can arise when a person perceives a threat to a valued romantic relationship. The experience and consequences of jealousy can vary substantially across people and situations.

* What is [[wikipedia:Jealousy|jealousy]]?

(Discuss that romantic jealousy involves an emotional response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship. The threat does not have to be real. Interpretation and perception matter) use source that gives a definition of romantic jealousy: (Karakoçoğlu &amp; Hasdağ, 2025) 

* Why does jealousy vary?

(Discuss how people can experience levels of jealous in similar situations. This suggests that jealousy cannot be explained by only external factors. individual and relationship factors may influence how situations are interpreted) find research showing individual differences in jealousy: (Valentova et al., 2020)

* Why does jealousy matter?

(Jealousy can influence thoughts, emotions and behavior. The feeling alone doesn't necessarily determine behaviour. Different responses may have different consequences for romantic relationships.) research connecting jealousy with cognitive/ emotional responses, behavioural responses, relationship outcomes: (Guerrero &amp; Andersen, 1996) and (Elphinston et al., 2013)

* Why management matters

(Understanding jealousy may help people distinguish emotional reactions from assumptions and actions. Psychological science can provide evidence informed ways of responding to jealousy. Managing jealousy doesn't necessarily mean eliminating the emotion or ignoring genuine relationship concerns.)  Research establishing why psychological understanding and regulation and relationship management is relevant: (Duckworth &amp; Gross, 2020)  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is romantic jealousy, and how can it be understood as an emotional and motivational response?
* Why does romantic jealousy occur, and why might people experience it differently?
* What are the cognitive, emotional, behavioural, and relationship impacts of romantic jealousy?
* How can romantic jealousy be managed in ways that support healthy functioning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What Is Romantic Jealousy? ==
Romantic jealousy is a complex psychological response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship, involving interacting emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes (Sharpsteen &amp; Kirkpatrick, 1997)

* define more
* jealousy isn't just a single feeling
* introduce how people can interpret similar situations differently 
* preview sections 

=== Defining Romantic Jealousy ===
Romantic jealousy can be understood, similar to regular jealousy, as a psychological response that occurs when a person perceives a threat to an important romantic relationship.

* define it (what is it, what makes it romantic jealousy in particular, what is being threatened, why does the relationship need to be valued for it to be jealousy) cite: (Miller &amp; Benz, 2013) information on jealousy
* talk about perceived threat (the situation doesn't necessarily have to involve an objectively confirmed threat. establish difference between the event and situation and the jealousy) cite: (Scherer et al., 2001)
* explain components (establish that jealousy may involve cognition, emotional, motivation. then say that behaviour can follow from these but isn't same as emotion)
* add case study scenario briefly (maybe no feature box?) (Maya's reaction can therefore be understood not simply as a response to Alex's message, but as a response to what the messages may mean for her relationship. the message is the situation, maya interprets it, the interpretation created perceived threat, the perceived threat contributes to jealousy.) 

=== Jealousy and Related Emotional Experiences ===
Although romantic jealousy can involve emotions such as [[wikipedia:Fear|fear]], [[wikipedia:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]], and [[wikipedia:Insecurity|insecurity]], it should be distinguished from related psychological experiences such as [[wikipedia:Envy|envy]]. 

* say what jealousy generally is (a valued relationship plus a perceived threat involving another person)
* envy generally is (wanting something another person has)
* jealous may be accompanied by other emotions said above but they aren't necessarily interchangeable with jealousy 
* can cite old jealousy source from above section
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1. Distinguishing Romantic Jealousy from Related Experiences 
!Experience
!Central Concern
!Example
|-
|Romantic Jealousy 
|Perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship
|Partner appears unusually close to another person 
|-
|Envy
|Wanting something another person has
|Another person has a relationship you want 
|-
|Fear/Anxiety
|Anticipated or perceived threat/danger
|Worry that a relationship may end 
|}

=== Is Jealousy Inherently Harmful ===
experiencing romantic jealousy does not necessarily mean you are experiencing a harmful relationship event or outcome. the significance of jealousy may depend partly on how the experience is interpreted and how it is expressed. 

* emotions don't equal behaviour (feeling jealous is not the same as acting on jealousy) 
* potential information/ signaling function (research if jealousy can signal perceived relationship threat, motivate attention to relationship concern, motivate relationship protective behaviour, prompt communication) cite: (Dillon, 2013)
* reasons why jealousy may be bad/ maladaptive (conflict, suspicion, controlling behaviour, relationship distress. difference between jealousy and response to it again) cite jealousy source again potentially 
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Which statement best describes romantic jealousy?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}


- It only occurs when a partner has definitely been unfaithful. 
- It is the same as envy. 
+ It can involve a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship and may involve emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes. 
- It always results in harmful behaviour.
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? ==
Romantic jealousy is unlikely to be explained by relationship events alone. Instead, the experience can come from the interaction between perceived threat, cognitive appraisal, relationship characteristics, and individual differences. 

* talk about case study maya again (don't know if it needs to be a scenario box?) say Alex's messages to Joan weren't obviously something to be jealous over (was ambiguous),message alone doesn't explain Maya's reaction, why did maya interpret situation as threatening? 
* introduce topics discussed below

=== Perceived Relationship Threat and Cognitive Appraisal ===
A central explanation for romantic jealousy is that situations become emotionally significant when the yare appraised as threatening to a valued relationship. 

* A potential threat isnt automatically a psychological threat (a partner interacting with anohter person is not inherently jealousy provoking. the interaction becomes important when it is interpreted as potentially threatening.threat could concern: loss of relationship, exclusivity, emotional intimacy, trust, ones sense of self worth. percived threat cite: (Martínez-León et al., 2017) 
* talk about cognitive appraisal (people evaluate what an event means for their relationships, they assess if something important is at stake. they interpret significance of events. appraisal contributes to emotional response. appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009)
* case study (?) what happened: Alex sent text to other person. what did maya perceive: potential romantic threat. what might she have appraised?: Alex might prefer this person, my relationship might be at risk, I might lose something important, I don't know what is happening. (only possibilities not concrete) 

=== Attachment and Relationship Security ===
Attachment theory provides one explanation for why individuals may differ in their sensitivity to relationship threat and in the ways they experience and express jealousy 

* introduce attachment (romantic relationship can function as important attachments, people differ in attachment related expectations about themselves and others. brief overview of styles these expectations can influence responses to relationship threat) sources about attachment (Shaver &amp; Mikulincer, 2008) and (Sharpsteen &amp; Kirkpatrick, 1997) again
* attachment anxiety (explain the anxious attachment style, concern about rejection or abandonment may increase sensitivity to relationship threat. avoidant partner behaviour be made more salient. this attachment stle can contribute to stronger jealousy) cite: (Campbell &amp; Marshall, 2011) 
* avoidant attachment style (avoidance may also shape jealousy, may influence expression or management of jealousy differently. individual difference isnt about more or less jealousy) cite: (Bartholomew, 1990)
* case study: maya, could mayas reaction be partly influenced by how secure she generally feels in close relationships 

=== Relationship Context and Uncertainty ===
jealousy is also shaped by characteristics of the relationship and immediate context, particularly when information about the relationship or a potential rival is uncertain.

* uncertainty (people may be uncertain about where their relationship stands, how committed their partner is, what boundaries exist, what a partners behaviour means. uncertainty can make unclear information harder to interpret. cite: (KNOBLOCH et al., 2001)
* relationship factors like intimacy, commitment, trust, relationship satisfaction, perceived exclusivity, communication clarity, shape jealousy. 
* context of relationship shapes reactions (interactions, transitions, perceptions about rivals, previous breaches of trust, digital communication) context determines what information is available and how ambiguous that information may be. 
* maya situation: ambiguity plus incomplete information and new person and uncertain meaning, jealousy cannot be explained only by internal trait. relationship situation itself matters. 

=== Individual Differences ===
beyond attachment and relationship characteristics, individual differences can influence how strongly people perceive and respond to potential romantic threats. 

lightly talk about some or all (?)

* self esteem
* previous relationship experiences
* rejection sensitivity
* personality tendances
* these things may increase sensitivity to threats or how situations are interpreted

=== Integrated Explanations ===
taken together, the evidence suggests that romantic jealousy is best understood as an interaction between relationship circumstances, perceived threat, cognitive appraisal and individual characteristics rather than just as the product of a signal cause.

* add figure (1. for maya, alex messages another person, 2 potential threat, could threaten security, exclusivity and relationship continuity. 3, appraisal, maya interprets what the event means. 4, individual factors, her interpretation may be influenced by attachment related expectations, self worth, previous experiences, expectations of rejection. 5, relationship context factors like commitment, trust, context. 6, jealousy, these processes contribute to emotional, cognitive, behavioral responses. 7, maya now has choices about what she does with that emotional experience) 
* caption: model of romantic jealousy going from event, to appraisal, to emotional and behavioral responses. as discussed in figure 2. jealousy arises within an interaction between the situation and how that situation is interpreted (omg how do i add diagrams someone hellppp)

* add learning feature 
* feature box: maya receives the same message from alex in two different circumstances. In scenairo A, Maya feels secure in her relationship and knows how alex has openly discussed the friendship. in scenario B, Maya and Alex have recently experienced conflict and have not discussed relationship boundaries
* quiz: why might the same message produce different levels of jealousy: 1. the message automatically creates jealousy. 2, jealousy depends only on personality. 3, (correct) the meaning of the message may be shaped by appraisal, relationship security and contextual uncertainty. 4, one person must be irrational. 

== What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? ==
Once romantic jealousy is experienced, it can influence how people think, feel and behave, with consequences that may extend beyond the individual to the relationship itself.

* connect back to last section
* say jealousy doesn't produce one universal outcome
* consequences depend partly on how jealousy is experiences and responded to (can have adaptive responses and harmful responses)
* briefly overview subheadings

(don't know if i need a source here, as i am being general, maybe i can just reuse a source about jealousy having impacts in general from above )

=== Cognitive Impacts ===
Romantic jealousy can influence cognitive processing by increasing attention to potential relationship threats and shaping how individuals interpret ambiguous information about their partner and relationship.

* cognitive jealousy is what you think/ suspect cite (Leite et al., 2024) 
* jealousy can heighten attention towards relationship information, people may be focused on factors mentioned above (rival, behavior, signs of rejection, evidence confirmation or contradiction)
* interpretation of ambiguous information (a partner talking closely with someone else does not automatically show romantic interest, but someone experiencing strong jealousy may interpret ambiguous information through the lens of a perceived threat. possible negative assumptions, suspicion, threat focused) cite (Brenner, 2018)
* repetitive thinking and information seeking (rumination, repeatedly thinking about threat, checking for evidence, mental replaying) reuse (Elphinston et al., 2013) for rumination 
* cognitive effects (effects on thoughts) 

the appraisal processes discussed in (a previous section) do not necessarily end once jealousy is experienced. they may continue as people attempt to interpret and evaluate relationship relevant information. if ambiguous behaviour is interpreted as threatening, a person may become more suspicious or seek reassurance, which can influence their emotional and behavioural responses. 

=== Emotional Impacts ===
The emotional impact of romantic jealous can extend beyond the experience of jealousy itself, with individuals potentially experiencing anxiety, fear, anger, sadness, or insecurity in response to perceived relationship threat. 

* jealousy can involve multiple emotional experiences (it can co-occur with other emotions, different people can experience this differently, and may experience multiple emotions at the same time) cite (Guerrero et al., 2005)
* emotional intensity can vary (the intensity of emotional experiences may be related to context, uncertainty, threat, individual differences discussed before) 
* emotional distress (intense or persistent jealousy may contribute to emotional distress) cite (Bush et al., 1988)
* emotion isnt automatically dysfunctional (unpleaseent emotions can still serve psychological functions and draw attention to something important, therefore feeling jealousy does not automatically mean the person or relationship is unhealthy) cite (Attridge, 2013)

the experience of an unpleasant emotion does not. by itself, mean that the emotion is dysfunctional

=== Behavioural Responses ===
The experience of jealousy does not create a single behavioural response. Individuals may respond through constructive communication and relationship maintenance, or through behaviours that increase conflict, control or harm. 

* jealousy can motivate action (emotions can motivate behaviours, jealousy signals that relationship may be threatened so people may be motivated to respond.) cite (Fiske, 2002)
* constructive responses (jealousy can be followed by constructive behaviours link communicating feelings, discussing expectations, seeking reassurance, setting boundaries, and getting clarification. these constructive responses may allow someone to respond to an underlying concern without escalating the situation) maybe use (Attridge, 2013) again 
* less constructive responses ( MAY cause rumination, monitoring, accusations, withdrawal, testing partner, restrictive behaviour on partner.) cite (Yoshimura, 2004) 
* these behaviours can lead into more harmful behaviours. 

experiencing jealousy and acting on jealousy are not the same psychological process. emotions can influence behaviour, but people arent necessarily compelled to act on them.  

Feature box/ quiz. scenario: Maya sees Alex talking closely with Joan at a work party. she experiences jealousy .  

response A: Maya notices that she feels threatened, pauses before responding, and later tells Alex that the interaction makes her feel insecure. They discuss what happened. 

Response B: Maya becomes angry, repeatedly checks Alex's phone and accuses him of being unfaithful 

question: which statement best explains the difference between Maya's two responses. 

# jealousy was only present in response b
# the emotional experience can be similar, while the behavioural response differs (correct)
# constructive responses require people to suppress jealousy
# jealousy always produces controlling behaiviour

=== Relationship Consequences ===
Because romantic jealousy occurs withing an interpersonal relationship, its consequences can extend beyond the individual to influence communication, trust, satisfaction and relationship stability. 

* communication (can prompt constructive typos and less constructive types. the effects depend partly on how the jealousy is communicated) 
* trust (jealousy related suspicion and monitory can be related to lower trust in relationships) can use source about what jealousy is, maybe (Karakoçoğlu &amp; Hasdağ, 2025) again
* relationship satisfaction (problematic jealousy with jealousy related behaviours and poorer relationship quality) cite  (Elphinston et al., 2013)  again

jealousy may prompt behaviours intended to maintain or protect eh relationship, or it may prompt behaviours that can harm trust and communication. therefore, relationship consequences depend not only on whether jealousy occurs, but on how it is interpreted and expressed 

=== When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? ===
romantic jealousy becomes particularly concerning when it is intense, persistent or difficult to regulate, especially when it is expressed through behaviours that undermine autonomy, wellbeing, trust, or relationship functioning. 

* intensity cite maybe (Bush et al., 1988) (response proportionate to situation and if it overwhelms a persons ability to respond effectively, can determine if jealousy can be harmful)
* persistence (does jealousy resolve after the concern is address or does it continue, and does the person remain preoccupied with perceived threat) 
* behavioural expression (the presence of jealousy is not enough to label a relationship unhealthy, but the behavioural expression and consequences of jealousy are important factors to investigate. 
* impact on wellbeing (emotional distress, conflict, loss of trust, harm to both partners) cite (Mindful Health Solutions, 2023)
* jealousy exists on a continuum, so problematic jealousy is better understood in terms of pattern, intensity, regulation, expression, and consequences. 

effective management of jealousy should not necessarily involve eliminating the emotion, but it may involve recognising the emotion, evaluating the perceived threat, and choosing responses that support individual and relationship wellbeing. 

== How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? ==
managing romantic jealousy involves more than suppressing an uncomfortable emotion. individuals can benefit from recognising their emotional response, evaluating the perceived threat and choosing responses that support both personal wellbeing and relationship functioning. jealousy can produce multiple emotional and behavioural responses, therefore, management needs to occur at several points in the process. 

=== Recognising the Emotional Response ===
the first step in managing jealousy is recognising and acknowledging the emotional response without automatically treating the feeling itself as evidence that the perceived threat is real. 

* identify the emotion (jelaosy may come with a mixture of uncomfortable emotions. the person needs to be able to recognise tha thtey are feeling jealous adn but not that it must mean that their partner is doing something wrong) cite (Szczygieł et al., 2012)
* validate the emotion without validating the interpretation (acknowledging the emotion is real does not mean assuming that the interpretation producing it is accurate. for example, Maya can genuinely feel jealous without that meaning that Alex has actually been unfaithful 
* cite (Leahy &amp; Tirch, 2008) distinguishes between experiencing jealousy and acting on it 

=== Evaluating the Perceived Threat ===

=== Communication and Relationship Management ===

=== Emotion Regulation ===

=== When the Threat is Real ===

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? ==

=== Perceived Relationship Threat ===

=== Cognitive Appraisal ===

=== Attachment and Relationship Security ===

=== Relationship Context and Uncertainty ===

=== Individual Differences and Integrated Explanations ===

== What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? ==

=== Cognitive Impacts ===

=== Emotional Impacts ===

=== Behavioural Responses ===

=== Relationship Consequences ===

=== When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? ===

== How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? ==

=== Recognising the Emotional Response ===

=== Evaluating the Perceived Threat ===

=== Communication and Relationship Management ===

=== Emotion Regulation ===

=== When the Threat is Real ===

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Jealousy]]</text>
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      <text bytes="32843" sha1="54g3f2m2i9qhi42b4x30mnw2l7nal8f" xml:space="preserve"> {{title|Romantic jealousy:&lt;br&gt;Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are it's impacts, and how can It be managed?}}
__TOC__

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

[[File:Man using smartphone outdoors.jpg|Man_using_smartphone_outdoors|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Person viewing an ambiguous message on a phone]]

;  Scenario

Maya is in a committed romantic relationship of 3 years. Her partner, Alex, has recently started spending more time with a new colleague, Joan. 

One evening, Maya notices that Alex has been messaging Joan more often. She sees a message that, while not showing clear evidence of infidelity, could be interpreted in multiple ways.

Maya experiences a sudden feeling of jealousy.

She starts thinking: '' Why are they messaging so much? Is there something going on? Does Alex find Joan more interesting than me? Am I overreacting? '' 

Maya feels anxious and has an urge to check Alex's messages or ask what is happening.

Maya's situation shows how an ambiguous even can become psychologically significant when interpreted as a potential threat (see Figure 1.)

What is happening to Maya, and what should she do with this feeling?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Romantic jealousy is an emotional response that can arise when a person perceives a threat to a valued romantic relationship. The experience and consequences of jealousy can vary substantially across people and situations.

* What is [[wikipedia:Jealousy|jealousy]]?

(Discuss that romantic jealousy involves an emotional response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship. The threat does not have to be real. Interpretation and perception matter) use source that gives a definition of romantic jealousy: (Karakoçoğlu &amp; Hasdağ, 2025) 

* Why does jealousy vary?

(Discuss how people can experience levels of jealous in similar situations. This suggests that jealousy cannot be explained by only external factors. individual and relationship factors may influence how situations are interpreted) find research showing individual differences in jealousy: (Valentova et al., 2020)

* Why does jealousy matter?

(Jealousy can influence thoughts, emotions and behavior. The feeling alone doesn't necessarily determine behaviour. Different responses may have different consequences for romantic relationships.) research connecting jealousy with cognitive/ emotional responses, behavioural responses, relationship outcomes: (Guerrero &amp; Andersen, 1996) and (Elphinston et al., 2013)

* Why management matters

(Understanding jealousy may help people distinguish emotional reactions from assumptions and actions. Psychological science can provide evidence informed ways of responding to jealousy. Managing jealousy doesn't necessarily mean eliminating the emotion or ignoring genuine relationship concerns.)  Research establishing why psychological understanding and regulation and relationship management is relevant: (Duckworth &amp; Gross, 2020)  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is romantic jealousy, and how can it be understood as an emotional and motivational response?
* Why does romantic jealousy occur, and why might people experience it differently?
* What are the cognitive, emotional, behavioural, and relationship impacts of romantic jealousy?
* How can romantic jealousy be managed in ways that support healthy functioning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What Is Romantic Jealousy? ==
Romantic jealousy is a complex psychological response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship, involving interacting emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes (Sharpsteen &amp; Kirkpatrick, 1997)

* define more
* jealousy isn't just a single feeling
* introduce how people can interpret similar situations differently 
* preview sections 

=== Defining Romantic Jealousy ===
Romantic jealousy can be understood, similar to regular jealousy, as a psychological response that occurs when a person perceives a threat to an important romantic relationship.

* define it (what is it, what makes it romantic jealousy in particular, what is being threatened, why does the relationship need to be valued for it to be jealousy) cite: (Miller &amp; Benz, 2013) information on jealousy
* talk about perceived threat (the situation doesn't necessarily have to involve an objectively confirmed threat. establish difference between the event and situation and the jealousy) cite: (Scherer et al., 2001)
* explain components (establish that jealousy may involve cognition, emotional, motivation. then say that behaviour can follow from these but isn't same as emotion)
* add case study scenario briefly (maybe no feature box?) (Maya's reaction can therefore be understood not simply as a response to Alex's message, but as a response to what the messages may mean for her relationship. the message is the situation, maya interprets it, the interpretation created perceived threat, the perceived threat contributes to jealousy.) 

=== Jealousy and Related Emotional Experiences ===
Although romantic jealousy can involve emotions such as [[wikipedia:Fear|fear]], [[wikipedia:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]], and [[wikipedia:Insecurity|insecurity]], it should be distinguished from related psychological experiences such as [[wikipedia:Envy|envy]]. 

* say what jealousy generally is (a valued relationship plus a perceived threat involving another person)
* envy generally is (wanting something another person has)
* jealous may be accompanied by other emotions said above but they aren't necessarily interchangeable with jealousy 
* can cite old jealousy source from above section
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1. Distinguishing Romantic Jealousy from Related Experiences 
!Experience
!Central Concern
!Example
|-
|Romantic Jealousy 
|Perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship
|Partner appears unusually close to another person 
|-
|Envy
|Wanting something another person has
|Another person has a relationship you want 
|-
|Fear/Anxiety
|Anticipated or perceived threat/danger
|Worry that a relationship may end 
|}

=== Is Jealousy Inherently Harmful ===
experiencing romantic jealousy does not necessarily mean you are experiencing a harmful relationship event or outcome. the significance of jealousy may depend partly on how the experience is interpreted and how it is expressed. 

* emotions don't equal behaviour (feeling jealous is not the same as acting on jealousy) 
* potential information/ signaling function (research if jealousy can signal perceived relationship threat, motivate attention to relationship concern, motivate relationship protective behaviour, prompt communication) cite: (Dillon, 2013)
* reasons why jealousy may be bad/ maladaptive (conflict, suspicion, controlling behaviour, relationship distress. difference between jealousy and response to it again) cite jealousy source again potentially 
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Which statement best describes romantic jealousy?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}


- It only occurs when a partner has definitely been unfaithful. 
- It is the same as envy. 
+ It can involve a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship and may involve emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes. 
- It always results in harmful behaviour.
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? ==
Romantic jealousy is unlikely to be explained by relationship events alone. Instead, the experience can come from the interaction between perceived threat, cognitive appraisal, relationship characteristics, and individual differences. 

* talk about case study maya again (don't know if it needs to be a scenario box?) say Alex's messages to Joan weren't obviously something to be jealous over (was ambiguous),message alone doesn't explain Maya's reaction, why did maya interpret situation as threatening? 
* introduce topics discussed below

=== Perceived Relationship Threat and Cognitive Appraisal ===
A central explanation for romantic jealousy is that situations become emotionally significant when the yare appraised as threatening to a valued relationship. 

* A potential threat isnt automatically a psychological threat (a partner interacting with anohter person is not inherently jealousy provoking. the interaction becomes important when it is interpreted as potentially threatening.threat could concern: loss of relationship, exclusivity, emotional intimacy, trust, ones sense of self worth. percived threat cite: (Martínez-León et al., 2017) 
* talk about cognitive appraisal (people evaluate what an event means for their relationships, they assess if something important is at stake. they interpret significance of events. appraisal contributes to emotional response. appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009)
* case study (?) what happened: Alex sent text to other person. what did maya perceive: potential romantic threat. what might she have appraised?: Alex might prefer this person, my relationship might be at risk, I might lose something important, I don't know what is happening. (only possibilities not concrete) 

=== Attachment and Relationship Security ===
Attachment theory provides one explanation for why individuals may differ in their sensitivity to relationship threat and in the ways they experience and express jealousy 

* introduce attachment (romantic relationship can function as important attachments, people differ in attachment related expectations about themselves and others. brief overview of styles these expectations can influence responses to relationship threat) sources about attachment (Shaver &amp; Mikulincer, 2008) and (Sharpsteen &amp; Kirkpatrick, 1997) again
* attachment anxiety (explain the anxious attachment style, concern about rejection or abandonment may increase sensitivity to relationship threat. avoidant partner behaviour be made more salient. this attachment stle can contribute to stronger jealousy) cite: (Campbell &amp; Marshall, 2011) 
* avoidant attachment style (avoidance may also shape jealousy, may influence expression or management of jealousy differently. individual difference isnt about more or less jealousy) cite: (Bartholomew, 1990)
* case study: maya, could mayas reaction be partly influenced by how secure she generally feels in close relationships 

=== Relationship Context and Uncertainty ===
jealousy is also shaped by characteristics of the relationship and immediate context, particularly when information about the relationship or a potential rival is uncertain.

* uncertainty (people may be uncertain about where their relationship stands, how committed their partner is, what boundaries exist, what a partners behaviour means. uncertainty can make unclear information harder to interpret. cite: (KNOBLOCH et al., 2001)
* relationship factors like intimacy, commitment, trust, relationship satisfaction, perceived exclusivity, communication clarity, shape jealousy. 
* context of relationship shapes reactions (interactions, transitions, perceptions about rivals, previous breaches of trust, digital communication) context determines what information is available and how ambiguous that information may be. 
* maya situation: ambiguity plus incomplete information and new person and uncertain meaning, jealousy cannot be explained only by internal trait. relationship situation itself matters. 

=== Individual Differences ===
beyond attachment and relationship characteristics, individual differences can influence how strongly people perceive and respond to potential romantic threats. 

lightly talk about some or all (?)

* self esteem
* previous relationship experiences
* rejection sensitivity
* personality tendances
* these things may increase sensitivity to threats or how situations are interpreted

=== Integrated Explanations ===
taken together, the evidence suggests that romantic jealousy is best understood as an interaction between relationship circumstances, perceived threat, cognitive appraisal and individual characteristics rather than just as the product of a signal cause.

* add figure (1. for maya, alex messages another person, 2 potential threat, could threaten security, exclusivity and relationship continuity. 3, appraisal, maya interprets what the event means. 4, individual factors, her interpretation may be influenced by attachment related expectations, self worth, previous experiences, expectations of rejection. 5, relationship context factors like commitment, trust, context. 6, jealousy, these processes contribute to emotional, cognitive, behavioral responses. 7, maya now has choices about what she does with that emotional experience) 
* caption: model of romantic jealousy going from event, to appraisal, to emotional and behavioral responses. as discussed in figure 2. jealousy arises within an interaction between the situation and how that situation is interpreted (omg how do i add diagrams someone hellppp)

* add learning feature 
* feature box: maya receives the same message from alex in two different circumstances. In scenairo A, Maya feels secure in her relationship and knows how alex has openly discussed the friendship. in scenario B, Maya and Alex have recently experienced conflict and have not discussed relationship boundaries
* quiz: why might the same message produce different levels of jealousy: 1. the message automatically creates jealousy. 2, jealousy depends only on personality. 3, (correct) the meaning of the message may be shaped by appraisal, relationship security and contextual uncertainty. 4, one person must be irrational. 

== What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? ==
Once romantic jealousy is experienced, it can influence how people think, feel and behave, with consequences that may extend beyond the individual to the relationship itself.

* connect back to last section
* say jealousy doesn't produce one universal outcome
* consequences depend partly on how jealousy is experiences and responded to (can have adaptive responses and harmful responses)
* briefly overview subheadings

(don't know if i need a source here, as i am being general, maybe i can just reuse a source about jealousy having impacts in general from above )

=== Cognitive Impacts ===
Romantic jealousy can influence cognitive processing by increasing attention to potential relationship threats and shaping how individuals interpret ambiguous information about their partner and relationship.

* cognitive jealousy is what you think/ suspect cite (Leite et al., 2024) 
* jealousy can heighten attention towards relationship information, people may be focused on factors mentioned above (rival, behavior, signs of rejection, evidence confirmation or contradiction)
* interpretation of ambiguous information (a partner talking closely with someone else does not automatically show romantic interest, but someone experiencing strong jealousy may interpret ambiguous information through the lens of a perceived threat. possible negative assumptions, suspicion, threat focused) cite (Brenner, 2018)
* repetitive thinking and information seeking (rumination, repeatedly thinking about threat, checking for evidence, mental replaying) reuse (Elphinston et al., 2013) for rumination 
* cognitive effects (effects on thoughts) 

the appraisal processes discussed in (a previous section) do not necessarily end once jealousy is experienced. they may continue as people attempt to interpret and evaluate relationship relevant information. if ambiguous behaviour is interpreted as threatening, a person may become more suspicious or seek reassurance, which can influence their emotional and behavioural responses. 

=== Emotional Impacts ===
The emotional impact of romantic jealous can extend beyond the experience of jealousy itself, with individuals potentially experiencing anxiety, fear, anger, sadness, or insecurity in response to perceived relationship threat. 

* jealousy can involve multiple emotional experiences (it can co-occur with other emotions, different people can experience this differently, and may experience multiple emotions at the same time) cite (Guerrero et al., 2005)
* emotional intensity can vary (the intensity of emotional experiences may be related to context, uncertainty, threat, individual differences discussed before) 
* emotional distress (intense or persistent jealousy may contribute to emotional distress) cite (Bush et al., 1988)
* emotion isnt automatically dysfunctional (unpleaseent emotions can still serve psychological functions and draw attention to something important, therefore feeling jealousy does not automatically mean the person or relationship is unhealthy) cite (Attridge, 2013)

the experience of an unpleasant emotion does not. by itself, mean that the emotion is dysfunctional

=== Behavioural Responses ===
The experience of jealousy does not create a single behavioural response. Individuals may respond through constructive communication and relationship maintenance, or through behaviours that increase conflict, control or harm. 

* jealousy can motivate action (emotions can motivate behaviours, jealousy signals that relationship may be threatened so people may be motivated to respond.) cite (Fiske, 2002)
* constructive responses (jealousy can be followed by constructive behaviours link communicating feelings, discussing expectations, seeking reassurance, setting boundaries, and getting clarification. these constructive responses may allow someone to respond to an underlying concern without escalating the situation) maybe use (Attridge, 2013) again 
* less constructive responses ( MAY cause rumination, monitoring, accusations, withdrawal, testing partner, restrictive behaviour on partner.) cite (Yoshimura, 2004) 
* these behaviours can lead into more harmful behaviours. 

experiencing jealousy and acting on jealousy are not the same psychological process. emotions can influence behaviour, but people arent necessarily compelled to act on them.  

Feature box/ quiz. scenario: Maya sees Alex talking closely with Joan at a work party. she experiences jealousy .  

response A: Maya notices that she feels threatened, pauses before responding, and later tells Alex that the interaction makes her feel insecure. They discuss what happened. 

Response B: Maya becomes angry, repeatedly checks Alex's phone and accuses him of being unfaithful 

question: which statement best explains the difference between Maya's two responses. 

# jealousy was only present in response b
# the emotional experience can be similar, while the behavioural response differs (correct)
# constructive responses require people to suppress jealousy
# jealousy always produces controlling behaiviour

=== Relationship Consequences ===
Because romantic jealousy occurs withing an interpersonal relationship, its consequences can extend beyond the individual to influence communication, trust, satisfaction and relationship stability. 

* communication (can prompt constructive typos and less constructive types. the effects depend partly on how the jealousy is communicated) 
* trust (jealousy related suspicion and monitory can be related to lower trust in relationships) can use source about what jealousy is, maybe (Karakoçoğlu &amp; Hasdağ, 2025) again
* relationship satisfaction (problematic jealousy with jealousy related behaviours and poorer relationship quality) cite  (Elphinston et al., 2013)  again

jealousy may prompt behaviours intended to maintain or protect eh relationship, or it may prompt behaviours that can harm trust and communication. therefore, relationship consequences depend not only on whether jealousy occurs, but on how it is interpreted and expressed 

=== When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? ===
romantic jealousy becomes particularly concerning when it is intense, persistent or difficult to regulate, especially when it is expressed through behaviours that undermine autonomy, wellbeing, trust, or relationship functioning. 

* intensity cite maybe (Bush et al., 1988) (response proportionate to situation and if it overwhelms a persons ability to respond effectively, can determine if jealousy can be harmful)
* persistence (does jealousy resolve after the concern is address or does it continue, and does the person remain preoccupied with perceived threat) 
* behavioural expression (the presence of jealousy is not enough to label a relationship unhealthy, but the behavioural expression and consequences of jealousy are important factors to investigate. 
* impact on wellbeing (emotional distress, conflict, loss of trust, harm to both partners) cite (Mindful Health Solutions, 2023)
* jealousy exists on a continuum, so problematic jealousy is better understood in terms of pattern, intensity, regulation, expression, and consequences. 

effective management of jealousy should not necessarily involve eliminating the emotion, but it may involve recognising the emotion, evaluating the perceived threat, and choosing responses that support individual and relationship wellbeing. 

== How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? ==
managing romantic jealousy involves more than suppressing an uncomfortable emotion. individuals can benefit from recognising their emotional response, evaluating the perceived threat and choosing responses that support both personal wellbeing and relationship functioning. jealousy can produce multiple emotional and behavioural responses, therefore, management needs to occur at several points in the process. 

=== Recognising the Emotional Response ===
the first step in managing jealousy is recognising and acknowledging the emotional response without automatically treating the feeling itself as evidence that the perceived threat is real. 

* identify the emotion (jelaosy may come with a mixture of uncomfortable emotions. the person needs to be able to recognise tha thtey are feeling jealous adn but not that it must mean that their partner is doing something wrong) cite (Szczygieł et al., 2012)
* validate the emotion without validating the interpretation (acknowledging the emotion is real does not mean assuming that the interpretation producing it is accurate. for example, Maya can genuinely feel jealous without that meaning that Alex has actually been unfaithful 
* cite (Leahy &amp; Tirch, 2008) distinguishes between experiencing jealousy and acting on it 

=== Evaluating the Perceived Threat ===
after recognising jealousy, individuals can evaluate whether the perceived threat is supported by available evidence rather than assuming that the emotional response itself confirms the threat.  

* cognitive appraisal (acknowledge cognitve appraisal and bring back information from previous section, the person can ask themself what why and how things are happening in their mental processes) appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009)
* distinguish evidence from assumption (maya situation, example: observation, Alex was talking with another woman, interpretation: Alex is attracted to her, predication: Alex will leave me for her. these are three different things, and jealousy can become more difficult to manage when interpretations and predictions are treated as facts. 
* consider uncertainty (sometimes there genuinely isn't enough information, so management may include tolerating some uncertainty rather than attempting to eliminate it through repeated checking or reassurance seeking) bring back source with  (Brenner, 2018) about uncertainty bring jealousy 
* avoid turning evaluation into surveillance (healthy evaluation involves reflection and open communication but does not mean checking phones, monitoring, tracking, or interrogating) 

=== Communication and Relationship Management ===

=== Emotion Regulation ===

=== When the Threat is Real ===

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? ==

=== Perceived Relationship Threat ===

=== Cognitive Appraisal ===

=== Attachment and Relationship Security ===

=== Relationship Context and Uncertainty ===

=== Individual Differences and Integrated Explanations ===

== What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? ==

=== Cognitive Impacts ===

=== Emotional Impacts ===

=== Behavioural Responses ===

=== Relationship Consequences ===

=== When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? ===

== How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? ==

=== Recognising the Emotional Response ===

=== Evaluating the Perceived Threat ===

=== Communication and Relationship Management ===

=== Emotion Regulation ===

=== When the Threat is Real ===

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
* Can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
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;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
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Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
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[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Jealousy]]</text>
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      <text bytes="33948" sha1="4k2ndukvzapsmjvmb0upvvvo4bak1fy" xml:space="preserve"> {{title|Romantic jealousy:&lt;br&gt;Why does romantic jealousy occur, what are it's impacts, and how can It be managed?}}
__TOC__

== Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}

[[File:Man using smartphone outdoors.jpg|Man_using_smartphone_outdoors|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Person viewing an ambiguous message on a phone]]

;  Scenario

Maya is in a committed romantic relationship of 3 years. Her partner, Alex, has recently started spending more time with a new colleague, Joan. 

One evening, Maya notices that Alex has been messaging Joan more often. She sees a message that, while not showing clear evidence of infidelity, could be interpreted in multiple ways.

Maya experiences a sudden feeling of jealousy.

She starts thinking: '' Why are they messaging so much? Is there something going on? Does Alex find Joan more interesting than me? Am I overreacting? '' 

Maya feels anxious and has an urge to check Alex's messages or ask what is happening.

Maya's situation shows how an ambiguous even can become psychologically significant when interpreted as a potential threat (see Figure 1.)

What is happening to Maya, and what should she do with this feeling?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Romantic jealousy is an emotional response that can arise when a person perceives a threat to a valued romantic relationship. The experience and consequences of jealousy can vary substantially across people and situations.

* What is [[wikipedia:Jealousy|jealousy]]?

(Discuss that romantic jealousy involves an emotional response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship. The threat does not have to be real. Interpretation and perception matter) use source that gives a definition of romantic jealousy: (Karakoçoğlu &amp; Hasdağ, 2025) 

* Why does jealousy vary?

(Discuss how people can experience levels of jealous in similar situations. This suggests that jealousy cannot be explained by only external factors. individual and relationship factors may influence how situations are interpreted) find research showing individual differences in jealousy: (Valentova et al., 2020)

* Why does jealousy matter?

(Jealousy can influence thoughts, emotions and behavior. The feeling alone doesn't necessarily determine behaviour. Different responses may have different consequences for romantic relationships.) research connecting jealousy with cognitive/ emotional responses, behavioural responses, relationship outcomes: (Guerrero &amp; Andersen, 1996) and (Elphinston et al., 2013)

* Why management matters

(Understanding jealousy may help people distinguish emotional reactions from assumptions and actions. Psychological science can provide evidence informed ways of responding to jealousy. Managing jealousy doesn't necessarily mean eliminating the emotion or ignoring genuine relationship concerns.)  Research establishing why psychological understanding and regulation and relationship management is relevant: (Duckworth &amp; Gross, 2020)  

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is romantic jealousy, and how can it be understood as an emotional and motivational response?
* Why does romantic jealousy occur, and why might people experience it differently?
* What are the cognitive, emotional, behavioural, and relationship impacts of romantic jealousy?
* How can romantic jealousy be managed in ways that support healthy functioning?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What Is Romantic Jealousy? ==
Romantic jealousy is a complex psychological response to a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship, involving interacting emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes (Sharpsteen &amp; Kirkpatrick, 1997)

* define more
* jealousy isn't just a single feeling
* introduce how people can interpret similar situations differently 
* preview sections 

=== Defining Romantic Jealousy ===
Romantic jealousy can be understood, similar to regular jealousy, as a psychological response that occurs when a person perceives a threat to an important romantic relationship.

* define it (what is it, what makes it romantic jealousy in particular, what is being threatened, why does the relationship need to be valued for it to be jealousy) cite: (Miller &amp; Benz, 2013) information on jealousy
* talk about perceived threat (the situation doesn't necessarily have to involve an objectively confirmed threat. establish difference between the event and situation and the jealousy) cite: (Scherer et al., 2001)
* explain components (establish that jealousy may involve cognition, emotional, motivation. then say that behaviour can follow from these but isn't same as emotion)
* add case study scenario briefly (maybe no feature box?) (Maya's reaction can therefore be understood not simply as a response to Alex's message, but as a response to what the messages may mean for her relationship. the message is the situation, maya interprets it, the interpretation created perceived threat, the perceived threat contributes to jealousy.) 

=== Jealousy and Related Emotional Experiences ===
Although romantic jealousy can involve emotions such as [[wikipedia:Fear|fear]], [[wikipedia:Anxiety|anxiety]], [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]], and [[wikipedia:Insecurity|insecurity]], it should be distinguished from related psychological experiences such as [[wikipedia:Envy|envy]]. 

* say what jealousy generally is (a valued relationship plus a perceived threat involving another person)
* envy generally is (wanting something another person has)
* jealous may be accompanied by other emotions said above but they aren't necessarily interchangeable with jealousy 
* can cite old jealousy source from above section
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Table 1. Distinguishing Romantic Jealousy from Related Experiences 
!Experience
!Central Concern
!Example
|-
|Romantic Jealousy 
|Perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship
|Partner appears unusually close to another person 
|-
|Envy
|Wanting something another person has
|Another person has a relationship you want 
|-
|Fear/Anxiety
|Anticipated or perceived threat/danger
|Worry that a relationship may end 
|}

=== Is Jealousy Inherently Harmful ===
experiencing romantic jealousy does not necessarily mean you are experiencing a harmful relationship event or outcome. the significance of jealousy may depend partly on how the experience is interpreted and how it is expressed. 

* emotions don't equal behaviour (feeling jealous is not the same as acting on jealousy) 
* potential information/ signaling function (research if jealousy can signal perceived relationship threat, motivate attention to relationship concern, motivate relationship protective behaviour, prompt communication) cite: (Dillon, 2013)
* reasons why jealousy may be bad/ maladaptive (conflict, suspicion, controlling behaviour, relationship distress. difference between jealousy and response to it again) cite jealousy source again potentially 
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Which statement best describes romantic jealousy?:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}


- It only occurs when a partner has definitely been unfaithful. 
- It is the same as envy. 
+ It can involve a perceived threat to a valued romantic relationship and may involve emotional, cognitive, and motivational processes. 
- It always results in harmful behaviour.
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? ==
Romantic jealousy is unlikely to be explained by relationship events alone. Instead, the experience can come from the interaction between perceived threat, cognitive appraisal, relationship characteristics, and individual differences. 

* talk about case study maya again (don't know if it needs to be a scenario box?) say Alex's messages to Joan weren't obviously something to be jealous over (was ambiguous),message alone doesn't explain Maya's reaction, why did maya interpret situation as threatening? 
* introduce topics discussed below

=== Perceived Relationship Threat and Cognitive Appraisal ===
A central explanation for romantic jealousy is that situations become emotionally significant when the yare appraised as threatening to a valued relationship. 

* A potential threat isnt automatically a psychological threat (a partner interacting with anohter person is not inherently jealousy provoking. the interaction becomes important when it is interpreted as potentially threatening.threat could concern: loss of relationship, exclusivity, emotional intimacy, trust, ones sense of self worth. percived threat cite: (Martínez-León et al., 2017) 
* talk about cognitive appraisal (people evaluate what an event means for their relationships, they assess if something important is at stake. they interpret significance of events. appraisal contributes to emotional response. appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009)
* case study (?) what happened: Alex sent text to other person. what did maya perceive: potential romantic threat. what might she have appraised?: Alex might prefer this person, my relationship might be at risk, I might lose something important, I don't know what is happening. (only possibilities not concrete) 

=== Attachment and Relationship Security ===
Attachment theory provides one explanation for why individuals may differ in their sensitivity to relationship threat and in the ways they experience and express jealousy 

* introduce attachment (romantic relationship can function as important attachments, people differ in attachment related expectations about themselves and others. brief overview of styles these expectations can influence responses to relationship threat) sources about attachment (Shaver &amp; Mikulincer, 2008) and (Sharpsteen &amp; Kirkpatrick, 1997) again
* attachment anxiety (explain the anxious attachment style, concern about rejection or abandonment may increase sensitivity to relationship threat. avoidant partner behaviour be made more salient. this attachment stle can contribute to stronger jealousy) cite: (Campbell &amp; Marshall, 2011) 
* avoidant attachment style (avoidance may also shape jealousy, may influence expression or management of jealousy differently. individual difference isnt about more or less jealousy) cite: (Bartholomew, 1990)
* case study: maya, could mayas reaction be partly influenced by how secure she generally feels in close relationships 

=== Relationship Context and Uncertainty ===
jealousy is also shaped by characteristics of the relationship and immediate context, particularly when information about the relationship or a potential rival is uncertain.

* uncertainty (people may be uncertain about where their relationship stands, how committed their partner is, what boundaries exist, what a partners behaviour means. uncertainty can make unclear information harder to interpret. cite: (KNOBLOCH et al., 2001)
* relationship factors like intimacy, commitment, trust, relationship satisfaction, perceived exclusivity, communication clarity, shape jealousy. 
* context of relationship shapes reactions (interactions, transitions, perceptions about rivals, previous breaches of trust, digital communication) context determines what information is available and how ambiguous that information may be. 
* maya situation: ambiguity plus incomplete information and new person and uncertain meaning, jealousy cannot be explained only by internal trait. relationship situation itself matters. 

=== Individual Differences ===
beyond attachment and relationship characteristics, individual differences can influence how strongly people perceive and respond to potential romantic threats. 

lightly talk about some or all (?)

* self esteem
* previous relationship experiences
* rejection sensitivity
* personality tendances
* these things may increase sensitivity to threats or how situations are interpreted

=== Integrated Explanations ===
taken together, the evidence suggests that romantic jealousy is best understood as an interaction between relationship circumstances, perceived threat, cognitive appraisal and individual characteristics rather than just as the product of a signal cause.

* add figure (1. for maya, alex messages another person, 2 potential threat, could threaten security, exclusivity and relationship continuity. 3, appraisal, maya interprets what the event means. 4, individual factors, her interpretation may be influenced by attachment related expectations, self worth, previous experiences, expectations of rejection. 5, relationship context factors like commitment, trust, context. 6, jealousy, these processes contribute to emotional, cognitive, behavioral responses. 7, maya now has choices about what she does with that emotional experience) 
* caption: model of romantic jealousy going from event, to appraisal, to emotional and behavioral responses. as discussed in figure 2. jealousy arises within an interaction between the situation and how that situation is interpreted (omg how do i add diagrams someone hellppp)

* add learning feature 
* feature box: maya receives the same message from alex in two different circumstances. In scenairo A, Maya feels secure in her relationship and knows how alex has openly discussed the friendship. in scenario B, Maya and Alex have recently experienced conflict and have not discussed relationship boundaries
* quiz: why might the same message produce different levels of jealousy: 1. the message automatically creates jealousy. 2, jealousy depends only on personality. 3, (correct) the meaning of the message may be shaped by appraisal, relationship security and contextual uncertainty. 4, one person must be irrational. 

== What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? ==
Once romantic jealousy is experienced, it can influence how people think, feel and behave, with consequences that may extend beyond the individual to the relationship itself.

* connect back to last section
* say jealousy doesn't produce one universal outcome
* consequences depend partly on how jealousy is experiences and responded to (can have adaptive responses and harmful responses)
* briefly overview subheadings

(don't know if i need a source here, as i am being general, maybe i can just reuse a source about jealousy having impacts in general from above )

=== Cognitive Impacts ===
Romantic jealousy can influence cognitive processing by increasing attention to potential relationship threats and shaping how individuals interpret ambiguous information about their partner and relationship.

* cognitive jealousy is what you think/ suspect cite (Leite et al., 2024) 
* jealousy can heighten attention towards relationship information, people may be focused on factors mentioned above (rival, behavior, signs of rejection, evidence confirmation or contradiction)
* interpretation of ambiguous information (a partner talking closely with someone else does not automatically show romantic interest, but someone experiencing strong jealousy may interpret ambiguous information through the lens of a perceived threat. possible negative assumptions, suspicion, threat focused) cite (Brenner, 2018)
* repetitive thinking and information seeking (rumination, repeatedly thinking about threat, checking for evidence, mental replaying) reuse (Elphinston et al., 2013) for rumination 
* cognitive effects (effects on thoughts) 

the appraisal processes discussed in (a previous section) do not necessarily end once jealousy is experienced. they may continue as people attempt to interpret and evaluate relationship relevant information. if ambiguous behaviour is interpreted as threatening, a person may become more suspicious or seek reassurance, which can influence their emotional and behavioural responses. 

=== Emotional Impacts ===
The emotional impact of romantic jealous can extend beyond the experience of jealousy itself, with individuals potentially experiencing anxiety, fear, anger, sadness, or insecurity in response to perceived relationship threat. 

* jealousy can involve multiple emotional experiences (it can co-occur with other emotions, different people can experience this differently, and may experience multiple emotions at the same time) cite (Guerrero et al., 2005)
* emotional intensity can vary (the intensity of emotional experiences may be related to context, uncertainty, threat, individual differences discussed before) 
* emotional distress (intense or persistent jealousy may contribute to emotional distress) cite (Bush et al., 1988)
* emotion isnt automatically dysfunctional (unpleaseent emotions can still serve psychological functions and draw attention to something important, therefore feeling jealousy does not automatically mean the person or relationship is unhealthy) cite (Attridge, 2013)

the experience of an unpleasant emotion does not. by itself, mean that the emotion is dysfunctional

=== Behavioural Responses ===
The experience of jealousy does not create a single behavioural response. Individuals may respond through constructive communication and relationship maintenance, or through behaviours that increase conflict, control or harm. 

* jealousy can motivate action (emotions can motivate behaviours, jealousy signals that relationship may be threatened so people may be motivated to respond.) cite (Fiske, 2002)
* constructive responses (jealousy can be followed by constructive behaviours link communicating feelings, discussing expectations, seeking reassurance, setting boundaries, and getting clarification. these constructive responses may allow someone to respond to an underlying concern without escalating the situation) maybe use (Attridge, 2013) again 
* less constructive responses ( MAY cause rumination, monitoring, accusations, withdrawal, testing partner, restrictive behaviour on partner.) cite (Yoshimura, 2004) 
* these behaviours can lead into more harmful behaviours. 

experiencing jealousy and acting on jealousy are not the same psychological process. emotions can influence behaviour, but people arent necessarily compelled to act on them.  

Feature box/ quiz. scenario: Maya sees Alex talking closely with Joan at a work party. she experiences jealousy .  

response A: Maya notices that she feels threatened, pauses before responding, and later tells Alex that the interaction makes her feel insecure. They discuss what happened. 

Response B: Maya becomes angry, repeatedly checks Alex's phone and accuses him of being unfaithful 

question: which statement best explains the difference between Maya's two responses. 

# jealousy was only present in response b
# the emotional experience can be similar, while the behavioural response differs (correct)
# constructive responses require people to suppress jealousy
# jealousy always produces controlling behaiviour

=== Relationship Consequences ===
Because romantic jealousy occurs withing an interpersonal relationship, its consequences can extend beyond the individual to influence communication, trust, satisfaction and relationship stability. 

* communication (can prompt constructive typos and less constructive types. the effects depend partly on how the jealousy is communicated) 
* trust (jealousy related suspicion and monitory can be related to lower trust in relationships) can use source about what jealousy is, maybe (Karakoçoğlu &amp; Hasdağ, 2025) again
* relationship satisfaction (problematic jealousy with jealousy related behaviours and poorer relationship quality) cite  (Elphinston et al., 2013)  again

jealousy may prompt behaviours intended to maintain or protect eh relationship, or it may prompt behaviours that can harm trust and communication. therefore, relationship consequences depend not only on whether jealousy occurs, but on how it is interpreted and expressed 

=== When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? ===
romantic jealousy becomes particularly concerning when it is intense, persistent or difficult to regulate, especially when it is expressed through behaviours that undermine autonomy, wellbeing, trust, or relationship functioning. 

* intensity cite maybe (Bush et al., 1988) (response proportionate to situation and if it overwhelms a persons ability to respond effectively, can determine if jealousy can be harmful)
* persistence (does jealousy resolve after the concern is address or does it continue, and does the person remain preoccupied with perceived threat) 
* behavioural expression (the presence of jealousy is not enough to label a relationship unhealthy, but the behavioural expression and consequences of jealousy are important factors to investigate. 
* impact on wellbeing (emotional distress, conflict, loss of trust, harm to both partners) cite (Mindful Health Solutions, 2023)
* jealousy exists on a continuum, so problematic jealousy is better understood in terms of pattern, intensity, regulation, expression, and consequences. 

effective management of jealousy should not necessarily involve eliminating the emotion, but it may involve recognising the emotion, evaluating the perceived threat, and choosing responses that support individual and relationship wellbeing. 

== How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? ==
managing romantic jealousy involves more than suppressing an uncomfortable emotion. individuals can benefit from recognising their emotional response, evaluating the perceived threat and choosing responses that support both personal wellbeing and relationship functioning. jealousy can produce multiple emotional and behavioural responses, therefore, management needs to occur at several points in the process. 

=== Recognising the Emotional Response ===
the first step in managing jealousy is recognising and acknowledging the emotional response without automatically treating the feeling itself as evidence that the perceived threat is real. 

* identify the emotion (jelaosy may come with a mixture of uncomfortable emotions. the person needs to be able to recognise tha thtey are feeling jealous adn but not that it must mean that their partner is doing something wrong) cite (Szczygieł et al., 2012)
* validate the emotion without validating the interpretation (acknowledging the emotion is real does not mean assuming that the interpretation producing it is accurate. for example, Maya can genuinely feel jealous without that meaning that Alex has actually been unfaithful 
* cite (Leahy &amp; Tirch, 2008) distinguishes between experiencing jealousy and acting on it 

=== Evaluating the Perceived Threat ===
after recognising jealousy, individuals can evaluate whether the perceived threat is supported by available evidence rather than assuming that the emotional response itself confirms the threat.  

* cognitive appraisal (acknowledge cognitve appraisal and bring back information from previous section, the person can ask themself what why and how things are happening in their mental processes) appraisal source: (Tomaka et al., 1997) and (McEachrane, 2009)
* distinguish evidence from assumption (maya situation, example: observation, Alex was talking with another woman, interpretation: Alex is attracted to her, predication: Alex will leave me for her. these are three different things, and jealousy can become more difficult to manage when interpretations and predictions are treated as facts. 
* consider uncertainty (sometimes there genuinely isn't enough information, so management may include tolerating some uncertainty rather than attempting to eliminate it through repeated checking or reassurance seeking) bring back source with  (Brenner, 2018) about uncertainty bring jealousy 
* avoid turning evaluation into surveillance (healthy evaluation involves reflection and open communication but does not mean checking phones, monitoring, tracking, or interrogating) 

=== Communication and Relationship Management ===
when jealousy concerns the relationship itself, constructive communication can allow partners to clarify expectations, discuss boundaries and address concerns without treating jealousy as justification for controlling behaviour. 

* communicate emotion not accuse (an accusation looks like 'you are obviously flirting with her' proper communication looks like ' i noticed that i felt uncomfortable and insecure when i saw that interaction and id like to talk about it' important to communicate the experience and avoid assuming intent)
* discuss relationship boundaries (partners may have different expectations about friendships, flirting, social media, and exclusivity. there isn't one universal relationship boundary. relationship management involves negotiating expectations rather than assuming that partners automatically share the same rules. 
* communication should not become control (feeling jealous does not create an entitlement to restrict a partners autonomy) cite (Young et al., 2019) 
* maya can communicate ' i feel threatened by what i saw, can we talk about what our expectations are' 

=== Emotion Regulation ===

=== When the Threat is Real ===

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some of the template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed for the final book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02]] explains about how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] focus questions. For example:
* Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)
* What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Why Does Romantic Jealousy Occur? ==

=== Perceived Relationship Threat ===

=== Cognitive Appraisal ===

=== Attachment and Relationship Security ===

=== Relationship Context and Uncertainty ===

=== Individual Differences and Integrated Explanations ===

== What Are the Impacts of Romantic Jealousy? ==

=== Cognitive Impacts ===

=== Emotional Impacts ===

=== Behavioural Responses ===

=== Relationship Consequences ===

=== When Can Jealousy Be Harmful? ===

== How Can Romantic Jealousy Be Managed? ==

=== Recognising the Emotional Response ===

=== Evaluating the Perceived Threat ===

=== Communication and Relationship Management ===

=== Emotion Regulation ===

=== When the Threat is Real ===

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings, but:
** avoid having only one sub-heading
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* See also
* References
* External links

==Key points==
For the topic development, for each heading and sub-heading:
* Provide at least three bullet-points, including for the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* Figures can show photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, etc.
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Caption figures (use '''Figure #'''. and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Interactive learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter.

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples describe concepts in action
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citations
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* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use to tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Which Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing Knowing x Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* Using one or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
==Conclusion==
* The Conclusion is arguably the most important section
* Draft clear take-home message(s), even at the topic development stage
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing it
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
This section lists the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]].

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Jealousy]]</text>
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__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy–value theory helps explain this problem by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation, offering evidence-based strategies to strengthen both.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.

To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Expectancy-value theory ==
No sub heading here just discription

==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* First dot point 
* second dot point
* third dot point

=== Task Value ===

* First dot point
* Second dot point
* Third dot point

=== Goal Orientations ===

* First dot point
* Second dot point
* Third dot point

=== Interest ===

* First dot point
* Second dot point
* Third dot point

=== Self-Concept and Identity ===

* First dot point 
* Second dot point
* Third dot point

== How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? ==

=== Sub-heading 1 ===

== How do task values influence educational motivation? ==

=== Subheading 1 ===

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

=== Sub-heading 1 ===

== Headings ==

=== Use this heading structure: ===
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings:
** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings)
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

==Key points==
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion 
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}


Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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      <timestamp>2026-08-22T01:28:51Z</timestamp>
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        <username>StudentUC2026</username>
        <id>3105303</id>
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__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy–value theory helps explain this problem by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation, offering evidence-based strategies to strengthen both.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.

To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.

==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* First dot point 
* second dot point
* third dot point

=== Task Value ===

* First dot point
* Second dot point
* Third dot point

=== Goal Orientations ===

* First dot point
* Second dot point
* Third dot point

=== Interest ===

* First dot point
* Second dot point
* Third dot point

=== Self-Concept and Identity ===

* First dot point 
* Second dot point
* Third dot point

== How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? ==

=== Sub-heading 1 ===

== How do task values influence educational motivation? ==

=== Subheading 1 ===

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

=== Sub-heading 1 ===

== Headings ==

=== Use this heading structure: ===
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings:
** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings)
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

==Key points==
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion 
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}


Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy–value theory helps explain this problem by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation, offering evidence-based strategies to strengthen both.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.

To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.

==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? ==

=== Sub-heading 1 ===

== How do task values influence educational motivation? ==

=== Subheading 1 ===

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

=== Sub-heading 1 ===

== Headings ==

=== Use this heading structure: ===
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings:
** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings)
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

==Key points==
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion 
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}


Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy–value theory helps explain this problem by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation, offering evidence-based strategies to strengthen both.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.

To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.

==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation? ==

=== Sub-heading 1 ===

== How do task values influence educational motivation? ==

=== Subheading 1 ===

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

=== Sub-heading 1 ===

== Headings ==

=== Use this heading structure: ===
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings:
** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings)
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

==Key points==
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion 
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}


Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy–value theory helps explain this problem by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation, offering evidence-based strategies to strengthen both.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.

To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.

==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

== Headings ==

=== Use this heading structure: ===
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings:
** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings)
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

==Key points==
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion 
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}


Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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      <text bytes="20120" sha1="m1lb41a73aix1cj1vtemsx80ldhkiae" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:&lt;br&gt;What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}}
__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy–value theory helps explain this problem by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation, offering evidence-based strategies to strengthen both.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.

To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.

==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

== Headings ==

=== Use this heading structure: ===
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings:
** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings)
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

==Key points==
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion 
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}
==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
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__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.

To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a social-cognitive explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.

==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

== Headings ==

=== Use this heading structure: ===
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings:
** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings)
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

==Key points==
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion 
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}
==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a social-cognitive explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.

==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

== Headings ==

=== Use this heading structure: ===
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings:
** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings)
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

==Key points==
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion 
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}
==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
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__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a social-cognitive explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.

==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}
==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a social-cognitive explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;background:#009688; color:white; border:2px solid #1A237E;&quot;
|-
! Focus questions
|-
| • What is expectancy-value theory?
• How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?
• How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
• How do task values influence educational motivation?
• How can EVT be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.

==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}
==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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      <contributor>
        <username>StudentUC2026</username>
        <id>3105303</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>testing new box</comment>
      <origin>2824115</origin>
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      <text bytes="19296" sha1="rjojs7p3t7anlizm8y06umgavj21219" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:&lt;br&gt;What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}}
__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a social-cognitive explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:white; border:2px solid #1A237E;&quot;
|-
! Focus questions
|-
|
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.

==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}
==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
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__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a social-cognitive explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:white; border:3px solid #1E90FF;&quot;
|-
! Focus questions
|-
|
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.

==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}
==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
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__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a social-cognitive explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;background:#ADD8E6; color:black; border:2px solid #1E90FF; border-radius:10px;&quot;
|-
! Focus questions
|-
|
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.

==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}
==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
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__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a social-cognitive explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;background:#87CEFA; color:black; border:2px solid #1E90FF; border-radius:10px;&quot;
|-
! Focus questions
|-
|
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.

==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}
==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a social-cognitive explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border:2px solid #1E90FF; border-radius:12px;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;border-radius:12px; background:#1E90FF; color:white;&quot; | Focus questions
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:12px;&quot; |
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.

==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}
==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
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      <text bytes="19439" sha1="e3hjwm0psn0q1ehb813jx5ys5qrm8pe" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:&lt;br&gt;What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}}
__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a social-cognitive explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border:2px solid #1E90FF; border-radius:12px;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:white; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0;&quot; | Focus questions
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px;&quot; |
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.

==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}
==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
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__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a social-cognitive explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:white; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0;&quot; | Focus questions
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px;&quot; |
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.

==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}
==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a social-cognitive explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:white; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;&quot; | Focus questions
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.

==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}
==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
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__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a social-cognitive explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;&quot; | Focus questions
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.

==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}
==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:10px;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:10px;&quot; | Expectancy–value theory example
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |

[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.

After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals.

This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy–value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals.

The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.

|}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a social-cognitive explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;&quot; | Focus questions
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.

==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}
==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:10px;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:10px;&quot; | Imaging this scenario
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |

[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.

After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals.

This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy–value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals.

The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.

|}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a social-cognitive explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;&quot; | Focus questions
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.

==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}
==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:10px;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:10px;&quot; | Imaging this scenario
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |

[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy-value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.

After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals.

This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals.

The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.

|}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a social-cognitive explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;&quot; | Focus questions
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.

==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}
==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:10px;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:10px;&quot; | Imagine this scenario
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |

[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy-value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.

After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals.

This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals.

The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.

|}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a social-cognitive explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;&quot; | Focus questions
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.

==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}
==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:10px;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:10px;&quot; | Imagine this scenario
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |

[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy-value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.

After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals.

This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals.

The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.

|}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a social-cognitive explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;&quot; | Focus questions
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.

==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}
==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:10px;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:10px;&quot; | Imagine this scenario
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |

[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy-value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.

After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals.

This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals.

The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.

|}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a social-cognitive explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;&quot; | Focus questions
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.

==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

'''Table 1'''

Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! Component !! Definition !! Example in education
|-
| '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || &quot;I can pass this exam if I study.&quot;
|-
| '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || &quot;I enjoy learning psychology.&quot;
|-
| '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || &quot;This unit is required for my degree.&quot;
|-
| '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || &quot;Being good at maths matters to me.&quot;
|-
| '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || &quot;This assignment is stressful and time-consuming.&quot;
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}
==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:10px;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:10px;&quot; | Imagine this scenario
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |

[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy-value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.

After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals.

This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals.

The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.

|}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a social-cognitive explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;&quot; | Focus questions
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.
As shown in Table 1, expectancy-value theory consists of five core components that influence students’ motivation.

'''Table 1'''

Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! Component !! Definition !! Example in education
|-
| '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || &quot;I can pass this exam if I study.&quot;
|-
| '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || &quot;I enjoy learning psychology.&quot;
|-
| '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || &quot;This unit is required for my degree.&quot;
|-
| '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || &quot;Being good at maths matters to me.&quot;
|-
| '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || &quot;This assignment is stressful and time-consuming.&quot;
|}


==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1'''

Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! Component !! Definition !! Example in education
|-
| '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || &quot;I can pass this exam if I study.&quot;
|-
| '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || &quot;I enjoy learning psychology.&quot;
|-
| '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || &quot;This unit is required for my degree.&quot;
|-
| '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || &quot;Being good at maths matters to me.&quot;
|-
| '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || &quot;This assignment is stressful and time-consuming.&quot;
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}
==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:10px;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:10px;&quot; | Imagine this scenario
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |

[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy-value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.

After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals.

This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals.

The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.

|}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;&quot; | Focus questions
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.
As shown in Table 1, expectancy-value theory consists of five core components that influence students’ motivation.

'''Table 1'''

Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! Component !! Definition !! Example in education
|-
| '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || &quot;I can pass this exam if I study.&quot;
|-
| '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || &quot;I enjoy learning psychology.&quot;
|-
| '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || &quot;This unit is required for my degree.&quot;
|-
| '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || &quot;Being good at maths matters to me.&quot;
|-
| '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || &quot;This assignment is stressful and time-consuming.&quot;
|}


==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1'''

Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! Component !! Definition !! Example in education
|-
| '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || &quot;I can pass this exam if I study.&quot;
|-
| '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || &quot;I enjoy learning psychology.&quot;
|-
| '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || &quot;This unit is required for my degree.&quot;
|-
| '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || &quot;Being good at maths matters to me.&quot;
|-
| '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || &quot;This assignment is stressful and time-consuming.&quot;
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}
==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:10px;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:10px;&quot; | Imagine this scenario
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |

[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy-value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.

After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals.

This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals.

The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.

|}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;&quot; | Focus questions
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.
As shown in Table 1, expectancy-value theory consists of five core components that influence students’ motivation.

'''Table 1'''

Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! Component !! Definition !! Example in education
|-
| '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || &quot;I can pass this exam if I study.&quot;
|-
| '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || &quot;I enjoy learning psychology.&quot;
|-
| '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || &quot;This unit is required for my degree.&quot;
|-
| '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || &quot;Being good at maths matters to me.&quot;
|-
| '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || &quot;This assignment is stressful and time-consuming.&quot;
|}


==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

'''Quiz'''

Test your understanding of expectancy-value theory.

# Which component of EVT refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed?
* Expectancy
* Intrinsic value
* Utility value
* Cost
**Correct answer:** Expectancy

# Which value component reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is?
* Attainment value
* Intrinsic value
* Utility value
* Cost
**Correct answer:** Intrinsic value

# Which component explains why students may avoid a task even if they expect to succeed?
* Expectancy
* Utility value
* Cost
* Attainment value
**Correct answer:** Cost

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1'''

Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! Component !! Definition !! Example in education
|-
| '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || &quot;I can pass this exam if I study.&quot;
|-
| '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || &quot;I enjoy learning psychology.&quot;
|-
| '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || &quot;This unit is required for my degree.&quot;
|-
| '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || &quot;Being good at maths matters to me.&quot;
|-
| '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || &quot;This assignment is stressful and time-consuming.&quot;
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}
==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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      <text bytes="23488" sha1="cf6ons4jrglzop5ej9faj9f22koequg" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:&lt;br&gt;What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}}
__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:10px;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:10px;&quot; | Imagine this scenario
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |

[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy-value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.

After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals.

This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals.

The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.

|}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;&quot; | Focus questions
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.
As shown in Table 1, expectancy-value theory consists of five core components that influence students’ motivation.

'''Table 1'''

Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! Component !! Definition !! Example in education
|-
| '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || &quot;I can pass this exam if I study.&quot;
|-
| '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || &quot;I enjoy learning psychology.&quot;
|-
| '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || &quot;This unit is required for my degree.&quot;
|-
| '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || &quot;Being good at maths matters to me.&quot;
|-
| '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || &quot;This assignment is stressful and time-consuming.&quot;
|}


==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Expectancy
- Intrinsic value
- Utility value
- Cost

{Which value component reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Attainment value
+ Intrinsic value
- Utility value
- Cost

{Which component explains why students may avoid a task even if they expect to succeed?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Expectancy
- Intrinsic value
- Utility value
+ Cost

&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1'''

Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! Component !! Definition !! Example in education
|-
| '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || &quot;I can pass this exam if I study.&quot;
|-
| '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || &quot;I enjoy learning psychology.&quot;
|-
| '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || &quot;This unit is required for my degree.&quot;
|-
| '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || &quot;Being good at maths matters to me.&quot;
|-
| '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || &quot;This assignment is stressful and time-consuming.&quot;
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}
==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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      <text bytes="23300" sha1="ns7gzj6ld85xxfaumcsq50p9ykiv8p8" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:&lt;br&gt;What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}}
__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:10px;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:10px;&quot; | Imagine this scenario
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |

[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy-value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.

After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals.

This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals.

The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.

|}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;&quot; | Focus questions
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.
As shown in Table 1, expectancy-value theory consists of five core components that influence students’ motivation.

'''Table 1'''

Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! Component !! Definition !! Example in education
|-
| '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || &quot;I can pass this exam if I study.&quot;
|-
| '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || &quot;I enjoy learning psychology.&quot;
|-
| '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || &quot;This unit is required for my degree.&quot;
|-
| '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || &quot;Being good at maths matters to me.&quot;
|-
| '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || &quot;This assignment is stressful and time-consuming.&quot;
|}


==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Expectancy
- Intrinsic value
- Utility value
- Cost

{Which value component reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Attainment value
+ Intrinsic value
- Utility value
- Cost

{Which component explains why students may avoid a task even if they expect to succeed?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Expectancy
- Intrinsic value
- Utility value
+ Cost

&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1'''

Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! Component !! Definition !! Example in education
|-
| '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || &quot;I can pass this exam if I study.&quot;
|-
| '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || &quot;I enjoy learning psychology.&quot;
|-
| '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || &quot;This unit is required for my degree.&quot;
|-
| '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || &quot;Being good at maths matters to me.&quot;
|-
| '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || &quot;This assignment is stressful and time-consuming.&quot;
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011)

[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia)

[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia)

[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia)

[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order.
==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}
==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
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      <text bytes="24132" sha1="l4qqc9xtfhzwj8o1vbayw6gsf0ebdo8" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:&lt;br&gt;What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}}
__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:10px;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:10px;&quot; | Imagine this scenario
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |

[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy-value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.

After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals.

This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals.

The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.

|}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;&quot; | Focus questions
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.
As shown in Table 1, expectancy-value theory consists of five core components that influence students’ motivation.

'''Table 1'''

Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! Component !! Definition !! Example in education
|-
| '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || &quot;I can pass this exam if I study.&quot;
|-
| '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || &quot;I enjoy learning psychology.&quot;
|-
| '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || &quot;This unit is required for my degree.&quot;
|-
| '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || &quot;Being good at maths matters to me.&quot;
|-
| '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || &quot;This assignment is stressful and time-consuming.&quot;
|}


==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Expectancy
- Intrinsic value
- Utility value
- Cost

{Which value component reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Attainment value
+ Intrinsic value
- Utility value
- Cost

{Which component explains why students may avoid a task even if they expect to succeed?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Expectancy
- Intrinsic value
- Utility value
+ Cost

&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1'''

Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! Component !! Definition !! Example in education
|-
| '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || &quot;I can pass this exam if I study.&quot;
|-
| '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || &quot;I enjoy learning psychology.&quot;
|-
| '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || &quot;This unit is required for my degree.&quot;
|-
| '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || &quot;Being good at maths matters to me.&quot;
|-
| '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || &quot;This assignment is stressful and time-consuming.&quot;
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011)

[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia)

[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia)

[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia)

[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order.

==External links==
[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource)

[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article)

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}
==External links==
[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource)

[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article)

[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
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__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:10px;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:10px;&quot; | Imagine this scenario
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |

[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy-value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.

After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals.

This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals.

The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.

|}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;&quot; | Focus questions
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.
As shown in Table 1, expectancy-value theory consists of five core components that influence students’ motivation.

'''Table 1'''

Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! Component !! Definition !! Example in education
|-
| '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || &quot;I can pass this exam if I study.&quot;
|-
| '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || &quot;I enjoy learning psychology.&quot;
|-
| '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || &quot;This unit is required for my degree.&quot;
|-
| '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || &quot;Being good at maths matters to me.&quot;
|-
| '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || &quot;This assignment is stressful and time-consuming.&quot;
|}
==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Expectancy
- Intrinsic value
- Utility value
- Cost

{Which value component reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Attainment value
+ Intrinsic value
- Utility value
- Cost

{Which component explains why students may avoid a task even if they expect to succeed?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Expectancy
- Intrinsic value
- Utility value
+ Cost

&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
==See also==
[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011)

[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia)

[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia)

[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia)

[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order.

==External links==
[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource)

[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article)

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1'''

Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! Component !! Definition !! Example in education
|-
| '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || &quot;I can pass this exam if I study.&quot;
|-
| '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || &quot;I enjoy learning psychology.&quot;
|-
| '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || &quot;This unit is required for my degree.&quot;
|-
| '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || &quot;Being good at maths matters to me.&quot;
|-
| '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || &quot;This assignment is stressful and time-consuming.&quot;
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==
*Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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      <text bytes="23493" sha1="qsojdrqgzwv7xofitpkrwnuz597lcyc" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:&lt;br&gt;What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}}
__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:10px;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:10px;&quot; | Imagine this scenario
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |

[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy-value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.

After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals.

This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals.

The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.

|}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;&quot; | Focus questions
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.
As shown in Table 1, expectancy-value theory consists of five core components that influence students’ motivation.

'''Table 1'''

Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! Component !! Definition !! Example in education
|-
| '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || &quot;I can pass this exam if I study.&quot;
|-
| '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || &quot;I enjoy learning psychology.&quot;
|-
| '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || &quot;This unit is required for my degree.&quot;
|-
| '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || &quot;Being good at maths matters to me.&quot;
|-
| '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || &quot;This assignment is stressful and time-consuming.&quot;
|}
==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Expectancy
- Intrinsic value
- Utility value
- Cost

{Which value component reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Attainment value
+ Intrinsic value
- Utility value
- Cost

{Which component explains why students may avoid a task even if they expect to succeed?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Expectancy
- Intrinsic value
- Utility value
+ Cost

&lt;/quiz&gt;
==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
==See also==
[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011)

[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia)

[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia)

[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia)

[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order.

==External links==
[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource)

[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article)

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1'''

Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! Component !! Definition !! Example in education
|-
| '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || &quot;I can pass this exam if I study.&quot;
|-
| '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || &quot;I enjoy learning psychology.&quot;
|-
| '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || &quot;This unit is required for my degree.&quot;
|-
| '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || &quot;Being good at maths matters to me.&quot;
|-
| '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || &quot;This assignment is stressful and time-consuming.&quot;
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==
*Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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      <text bytes="23506" sha1="j5oy61f2nlfbsdf86eqkakeg5ojetrj" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:&lt;br&gt;What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}}
__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:10px;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:10px;&quot; | Imagine this scenario
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |

[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy-value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.

After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals.

This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals.

The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.

|}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;&quot; | Focus questions
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.
As shown in Table 1, expectancy-value theory consists of five core components that influence students’ motivation.

'''Table 1'''

Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! Component !! Definition !! Example in education
|-
| '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || &quot;I can pass this exam if I study.&quot;
|-
| '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || &quot;I enjoy learning psychology.&quot;
|-
| '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || &quot;This unit is required for my degree.&quot;
|-
| '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || &quot;Being good at maths matters to me.&quot;
|-
| '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || &quot;This assignment is stressful and time-consuming.&quot;
|}
==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Expectancy
- Intrinsic value
- Utility value
- Cost

{Which value component reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Attainment value
+ Intrinsic value
- Utility value
- Cost

{Which component explains why students may avoid a task even if they expect to succeed?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Expectancy
- Intrinsic value
- Utility value
+ Cost

&lt;/quiz&gt;
==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
==See also==
[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011)

[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia)

[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia)

[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia)

==External links==
[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource)

[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article)

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1'''

Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! Component !! Definition !! Example in education
|-
| '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || &quot;I can pass this exam if I study.&quot;
|-
| '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || &quot;I enjoy learning psychology.&quot;
|-
| '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || &quot;This unit is required for my degree.&quot;
|-
| '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || &quot;Being good at maths matters to me.&quot;
|-
| '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || &quot;This assignment is stressful and time-consuming.&quot;
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==
*Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order.

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:10px;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:10px;&quot; | Imagine this scenario
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |

[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy-value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.

After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals.

This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals.

The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.

|}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;&quot; | Focus questions
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.
As shown in Table 1, expectancy-value theory consists of five core components that influence students’ motivation.

'''Table 1'''

Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! Component !! Definition !! Example in education
|-
| '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || &quot;I can pass this exam if I study.&quot;
|-
| '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || &quot;I enjoy learning psychology.&quot;
|-
| '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || &quot;This unit is required for my degree.&quot;
|-
| '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || &quot;Being good at maths matters to me.&quot;
|-
| '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || &quot;This assignment is stressful and time-consuming.&quot;
|}
==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

## Quiz
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Expectancy
- Intrinsic value
- Utility value
- Cost

{Which value component reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Attainment value
+ Intrinsic value
- Utility value
- Cost

{Which component explains why students may avoid a task even if they expect to succeed?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Expectancy
- Intrinsic value
- Utility value
+ Cost

&lt;/quiz&gt;
==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
==See also==
[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011)

[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia)

[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia)

[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia)

==External links==
[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource)

[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article)

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1'''

Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! Component !! Definition !! Example in education
|-
| '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || &quot;I can pass this exam if I study.&quot;
|-
| '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || &quot;I enjoy learning psychology.&quot;
|-
| '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || &quot;This unit is required for my degree.&quot;
|-
| '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || &quot;Being good at maths matters to me.&quot;
|-
| '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || &quot;This assignment is stressful and time-consuming.&quot;
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==
*Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order.

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:10px;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:10px;&quot; | Imagine this scenario
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |

[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy-value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.

After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals.

This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals.

The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.

|}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;&quot; | Focus questions
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.
As shown in Table 1, expectancy-value theory consists of five core components that influence students’ motivation.

'''Table 1'''

Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! Component !! Definition !! Example in education
|-
| '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || &quot;I can pass this exam if I study.&quot;
|-
| '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || &quot;I enjoy learning psychology.&quot;
|-
| '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || &quot;This unit is required for my degree.&quot;
|-
| '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || &quot;Being good at maths matters to me.&quot;
|-
| '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || &quot;This assignment is stressful and time-consuming.&quot;
|}
==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

== quiz ==
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Expectancy
- Intrinsic value
- Utility value
- Cost

{Which value component reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Attainment value
+ Intrinsic value
- Utility value
- Cost

{Which component explains why students may avoid a task even if they expect to succeed?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Expectancy
- Intrinsic value
- Utility value
+ Cost

&lt;/quiz&gt;
==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
==See also==
[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011)

[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia)

[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia)

[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia)

==External links==
[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource)

[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article)

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1'''

Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! Component !! Definition !! Example in education
|-
| '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || &quot;I can pass this exam if I study.&quot;
|-
| '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || &quot;I enjoy learning psychology.&quot;
|-
| '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || &quot;This unit is required for my degree.&quot;
|-
| '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || &quot;Being good at maths matters to me.&quot;
|-
| '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || &quot;This assignment is stressful and time-consuming.&quot;
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==
*Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order.

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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      <text bytes="23518" sha1="dqaoue4n852kp89hcr89bf6ti9is6pf" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:&lt;br&gt;What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}}
__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:10px;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:10px;&quot; | Imagine this scenario
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |

[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy-value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.

After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals.

This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals.

The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.

|}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;&quot; | Focus questions
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.
As shown in Table 1, expectancy-value theory consists of five core components that influence students’ motivation.

'''Table 1'''

Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! Component !! Definition !! Example in education
|-
| '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || &quot;I can pass this exam if I study.&quot;
|-
| '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || &quot;I enjoy learning psychology.&quot;
|-
| '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || &quot;This unit is required for my degree.&quot;
|-
| '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || &quot;Being good at maths matters to me.&quot;
|-
| '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || &quot;This assignment is stressful and time-consuming.&quot;
|}
==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

== Quiz ==
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Expectancy
- Intrinsic value
- Utility value
- Cost

{Which value component reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Attainment value
+ Intrinsic value
- Utility value
- Cost

{Which component explains why students may avoid a task even if they expect to succeed?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Expectancy
- Intrinsic value
- Utility value
+ Cost

&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
==See also==
[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011)

[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia)

[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia)

[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia)

==External links==
[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource)

[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article)

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1'''

Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! Component !! Definition !! Example in education
|-
| '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || &quot;I can pass this exam if I study.&quot;
|-
| '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || &quot;I enjoy learning psychology.&quot;
|-
| '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || &quot;This unit is required for my degree.&quot;
|-
| '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || &quot;Being good at maths matters to me.&quot;
|-
| '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || &quot;This assignment is stressful and time-consuming.&quot;
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==
*Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order.

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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      <text bytes="23517" sha1="iel740jf88f6kpupen4s8p7rizr91e2" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation:&lt;br&gt;What is expectancy-value theory and how can it be applied to understand and enhance educational motivation?}}
__TOC__
==Overview ==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|Motivation_Laptop|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy–value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.
After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals. 
This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals. 
The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0; padding:10px;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0; padding:10px;&quot; | Imagine this scenario
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |

[[File:Motivation Laptop.svg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. A student reflecting on their motivation to learn.]]

; Expectancy-value theory offers a clear framework for understanding why educational motivation varies widely between learners.

You're sitting at your desk, working through a short maths quiz before dinner. The first question looks familiar, yet you pause, unsure whether you can solve it. You read it again, feeling a small wave of hesitation and mild frustration as you try to work out where to begin.

After a moment, you recall solving a similar problem last week, and your teacher mentioned you were on the right track. This memory gives you a small boost of confidence, enough to try the first step. As you work through the question, you start thinking about why you’re even doing this quiz. You remind yourself that completing these tasks helps you prepare for the upcoming test and supports your longer‑term academic goals.

This shift in mindset increases your confidence and clarifies the importance of the task. The quiz feels more manageable, and you start working through the first question. With this renewed sense of direction, you continue working through the quiz.

This scenario demonstrates how expectancy and task value shape a learner’s motivation during routine academic activities. Expectancy-value theory provides a clear framework for understanding how changes in confidence and task value affect a learner’s motivation. This theory proposes that motivation increases when learners feel capable of succeeding and when they view a task as important, useful, or aligned with their goals.

The example above shows how small adjustments in confidence and perceived value can influence engagement, making everyday learning tasks feel either overwhelming or manageable.

|}

Many students experience fluctuating motivation during routine academic tasks, which can make learning feel overwhelming or discouraging. Expectancy-value theory helps explain this pattern by showing how confidence (expectancy beliefs) and perceived importance or usefulness (task values) shape a learner’s motivation. This theory provides a [[wikipedia:Social_cognition|social-cognitive]] explanation of why students choose to engage in learning activities and offers evidence-based strategies to strengthen both expectancy beliefs and task values. The following sections outline these core components and show how they can be applied in educational settings to support more adaptive learning behaviours.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Focus questions'''

* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{| style=&quot;width:100%; background:#87CEFA; color:black; border-radius:12px; border:0;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#1E90FF; color:black; border-radius:12px 12px 0 0; border:0;&quot; | Focus questions
|-
| style=&quot;border-radius:0 0 12px 12px; padding:10px; border:0;&quot; |
* What is expectancy-value theory?
* How do social‑cognitive models explain educational motivation?
* How do expectancy beliefs influence educational motivation?
* How do task values influence educational motivation?
* How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings?
|}

== Expectancy-value theory ==

* Introduce Eccles &amp; Wigfield (2002) and explain that expectancy-value theory (EVT) was developed within achievement motivation research, focusing on how students’ expectations for success and the value they place on tasks influence their motivation and choices.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) describe expectancy-value theory as a major explanation of achievement motivation. The theory proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can succeed at a task and when they see the task as worthwhile. For example, a student is more likely to study for a maths test if they feel confident in their ability and if the test seems important, enjoyable, or useful.

* Outline the key components of expectancy-value theory by explaining that motivation is shaped by two main factors: a person’s expectations for success and the value they attach to the task. Expectations reflect beliefs about one’s ability to perform well, while task value captures how important, enjoyable, or useful the activity feels. Together, these factors influence the choices students make and the effort they invest.

* Although EVT is widely used in educational motivation research, scholars have noted several limitations. Pintrich (2003) argues that the theory places too much emphasis on rational decision-making and does not fully account for the emotional and social factors that influence student motivation. Other researchers highlight that EVT provides limited explanation of how expectancies and values develop over time or why they differ between students (Flake et al., 2015). These critiques suggest that EVT may not fully capture the complexity of real-world motivation.
As shown in Table 1, expectancy-value theory consists of five core components that influence students’ motivation.

'''Table 1'''

Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! Component !! Definition !! Example in education
|-
| '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || &quot;I can pass this exam if I study.&quot;
|-
| '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || &quot;I enjoy learning psychology.&quot;
|-
| '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || &quot;This unit is required for my degree.&quot;
|-
| '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || &quot;Being good at maths matters to me.&quot;
|-
| '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || &quot;This assignment is stressful and time-consuming.&quot;
|}
==How do social-cognitive models explain educational motivation?==

=== Expectancy Beliefs ===

* Expectancy beliefs refer to students’ judgments about how capable they are of successfully performing a task. In social cognitive models, these beliefs are central because they strongly predict academic choices, effort, and persistence. Eccles and Wigfield (2002) emphasise that expectancies for success are shaped by students’ prior achievement, self-concept, and perceptions of task difficulty. When students believe they can succeed, they are more likely to engage with learning activities and persist through challenges.

* Introduce Bandura (1997), Pajares (1996), and Schunk and Pajares (2009) as key social cognitive researchers who demonstrate that expectancy beliefs strongly predict students’ effort, persistence, and academic performance.

* Expectancy beliefs help explain educational motivation because students who believe they can succeed are more likely to engage with learning tasks, persist through challenges, and choose activities that support academic growth. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation across students with similar abilities.

* Expectancy beliefs have been critiqued for focusing heavily on cognitive judgements and underestimating emotional and contextual influences on motivation. Research shows that confidence alone does not fully explain student engagement, particularly when anxiety, stress, or classroom climate reduce their willingness to participate (Pajares, 1996; Bandura, 1997).

=== Task Value ===

* Introduce Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) by explaining that task values describe how important, enjoyable, or useful students perceive a learning activity to be.

* Eccles and Wigfield (2000, 2002) explain that task values include intrinsic value (enjoyment), utility value (usefulness), attainment value (importance), and cost, which refers to the perceived negative aspects of engaging in a task. These values shape how worthwhile students believe a learning activity is.

* Research shows that students are more motivated when they find a task enjoyable or personally meaningful (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2000). Utility value also increases motivation, with studies demonstrating that students work harder when they believe a task will support their future goals (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).

* More recent work highlights the importance of cost, showing that high perceived effort, anxiety, or time demands can reduce motivation even when other values are high (Flake et al., 2015). This demonstrates that negative perceptions can undermine engagement despite strong intrinsic or utility value.

* Task values help explain educational motivation because students are more likely to engage with learning activities, they find enjoyable, important, or useful. This shows how social cognitive models account for differences in motivation by focusing on how students evaluate the worth of academic tasks.

* Task value research has been critiqued for focusing mainly on cognitive evaluations and overlooking how emotions, social pressures, and classroom climate shape students’ perceptions of value. Researchers also note that the different types of value can blur together in real learning situations, which makes it challenging to distinguish them clearly (Flake et al., 2015; Eccles, 2005).

== How can expectancy-value theory be used to enhance motivation in educational settings? ==

* Strengthening expectancy beliefs: EVT can enhance motivation by increasing students’ expectancy beliefs through clear feedback, modelling effective strategies, and providing structured support that builds confidence in their ability to succeed (Bandura, 1997; Schunk &amp; Pajares, 2009).
* Enhancing task values: Teachers can increase task values by emphasising the relevance, usefulness, and personal meaning of learning activities, helping students connect academic tasks to future goals and real‑world applications (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002; Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* Reducing perceived cost: EVT can be applied by reducing perceived cost, such as anxiety, workload pressure, or time demands, through supportive classroom climates, manageable task structures, and opportunities for autonomy (Flake et al., 2015).
* A practical example of EVT in educational settings is the utility‑value intervention, where students reflect on how a learning task connects to their personal goals or future plans. This approach has been shown to boost motivation and academic performance, particularly for students with lower initial expectancy beliefs (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009).
* A critique of applying EVT in classrooms is that increasing task values or expectancy beliefs may not be effective if students face structural barriers such as poor teaching quality, limited resources, or high stress. EVT interventions can also be difficult to sustain over time without consistent support (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).

== Quiz ==
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{Which component of expectancy-value theory refers to a student's belief about their ability to succeed?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Expectancy
- Intrinsic value
- Utility value
- Cost

{Which value component reflects how enjoyable or interesting a task is?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Attainment value
+ Intrinsic value
- Utility value
- Cost

{Which component explains why students may avoid a task even if they expect to succeed?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Expectancy
- Intrinsic value
- Utility value
+ Cost

&lt;/quiz&gt;
==Conclusion==
• Expectancy beliefs play a central role in educational motivation by shaping students’ confidence in their ability to succeed, influencing effort, persistence, and engagement (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002). 

• Task values determine how important, interesting, or useful a learning activity feels, guiding students’ willingness to invest time and energy in academic tasks (Wigfield &amp; Eccles, 2000). 

• Expectancy-value theory shows that motivation increases when students believe they can succeed and when they view tasks as meaningful, relevant, or aligned with personal goals (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2020). 

• Applying EVT in educational settings involves strengthening both expectancy beliefs and task values through supportive feedback, meaningful learning activities, and reduced perceived cost (Hulleman &amp; Harackiewicz, 2009; Flake et al., 2015). 

• Together, these components provide a practical framework for understanding and improving student motivation in everyday classroom contexts (Eccles &amp; Wigfield, 2002).
==See also==
[[Achievement motivation]] (Book chapter 2011)

[[wikipedia:Educational_psychology|Educational psychology]] (Wikipedia)

[[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory|Expectancy-value theory]] (Wikipedia)

[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia)

==External links==
[https://education.okstate.edu/site-files/documents/motivation-classrooms/motivation-minute-expectancy-value-theory.pdf Motivation minute: Expectancy-value theory] (Oklahoma State University, professional teaching resource)

[https://www.simplypsychology.org/differences-between-extrinsic-and-intrinsic-motivation.html Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation: What’s the Difference?] (Verywell Mind article)

==References==

{{Hanging indent|1= Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Eccles, J. S. (2005). Subjective task value and the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. In A. J. Elliot &amp; C. S. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 105–121). Guilford Press.

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Eccles, J. S., &amp; Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy–value theory to situated expectancy–value theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859

Flake, J. K., Barron, K. E., Hulleman, C., McCoach, B. D., &amp; Welsh, M. E. (2015). Measuring cost: The forgotten component of expectancy-value theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 41, 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.03.002

Hulleman, C. S., &amp; Harackiewicz, J. M. (2009). Promoting interest and performance in high school science classes. Science, 326(5958), 1410–1412. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177067

Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543066004543

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667–686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667

S00246164. (2025). Motivation Laptop.svg [SVG image]. Wikiversity. https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/File:Motivation_Laptop.svg 

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Pajares, F. (2009). Self-efficacy theory. In K. R. Wentzel &amp; A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (pp. 35–53). Routledge.

Wigfield, A., &amp; Cambria, J. (2010). Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions, development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review, 30, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2009.12.001 

Wigfield, A., &amp; Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–Value Theory of Achievement Motivation. ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', ''25''(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015 }}

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1'''

Key components of expectancy-value theory and their relevance to educational motivation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;&quot;
|-
! Component !! Definition !! Example in education
|-
| '''Expectancy''' || Belief about ability to succeed || &quot;I can pass this exam if I study.&quot;
|-
| '''Intrinsic value''' || Enjoyment or interest in the task || &quot;I enjoy learning psychology.&quot;
|-
| '''Utility value''' || Usefulness for future goals || &quot;This unit is required for my degree.&quot;
|-
| '''Attainment value''' || Importance to identity || &quot;Being good at maths matters to me.&quot;
|-
| '''Cost''' || Negative aspects of engagement || &quot;This assignment is stressful and time-consuming.&quot;
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==
*Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order.

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Education]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]</text>
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      <text bytes="931" sha1="3wj8vr0alc8z07ep5ykyl4m5tbmmnzj" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] and studying for an undergraduate degree in psychology.
[[File:272-foto-de-snowboard.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bluebird%20day?utm_source=copilot.com Bluebird day] at the snow]]
Hobbies:

* Gaming
* [[w:Snowboarding|Snowboarding]]
* Exploring new places

Pets: 

* Dog
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== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation|Expectancy value theory of educational motivation]]

== Social contributions ==

# Make a direct edit to another page to improve it
# Make a comment on a page with some feedback
# Contributed to the UC Learn [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455468 topic development discussion] by clarifying the use of custom boxes and colour choices for Wikiversity formatting.</text>
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      <text bytes="1129" sha1="t7ub6p1t7mng880km66heid6005ad5s" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] and studying for an undergraduate degree in psychology.
[[File:272-foto-de-snowboard.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. [https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bluebird%20day?utm_source=copilot.com Bluebird day] at the snow]]
Hobbies:

* Gaming
* [[w:Snowboarding|Snowboarding]]
* Exploring new places

Pets: 

* Dog
* Goldfish x2

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Expectancy-value theory of educational motivation|Expectancy value theory of educational motivation]]

== Social contributions ==

# Make a direct edit to another page to improve it
# Left constructive feedback on the &quot;[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment]]” chapter, highlighting its strong theoretical integration and high-quality topic development.
# Contributed to the UC Learn [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455468 topic development discussion] by clarifying the use of custom boxes and colour choices for Wikiversity formatting.</text>
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  <page>
    <title>User:StretchBeyond</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>331218</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2824160</id>
      <parentid>2823339</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T06:56:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>StretchBeyond</username>
        <id>3105744</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Social Contributions */</comment>
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      <text bytes="3316" sha1="qs8qaqbyx10ilak1lwp4tlb7eunj0vs" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
I am a military veteran, working to complete a Bachelor of Science in Psychology as part of a lifelong approach to learning. After a military career working with people around the world on a spectrum of operations, I wanted to better understand the human dimension and the science behind what makes us all tick. Along the way, I want to give back to the community where I can. I have an interest in veterans' PTSD, advocacy and international affairs.

== Book Chapter ==
[[File:PTSD.png|left|thumb|250x250px|'''Figure 1.''' PTSD can have a deep and lasting impact on our emotions.]]
I am writing a book chapter titled [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|Immersive Therapy for PTSD: How does it work and what are the effects?]] 

This chapter is an individual student contribution as part of a larger [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] class effort in 2026 to write a book [[Motivation and emotion/Book]]. 

The 2026 book extends a Wikiversity book series started in 2010, with over 1,800 online book chapters on how psychological science can improve human lives.

The book editor and University psychology unit convenor is [[User:Jtneill|Dr. James Neill]]

== Social Contributions ==

# '''18 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Defence mechanisms and emotion regulation. Edits at https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FDefence_mechanisms_and_emotion_regulation&amp;diff=2822629&amp;oldid=2763661
# '''18 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Neurodivergence and trauma. Edits at https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FNeurodivergence_and_trauma&amp;diff=2822636&amp;oldid=2812805
# '''19 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Incentive theory of motivation. Edits at&lt;nowiki/&gt;https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FIncentive_theory_of_motivation&amp;diff=2822844&amp;oldid=2814898
# '''19 Aug 26:''' UC Canvas Discussion: Introduced the book chapter intent to the class and welcomed anyone with sim&lt;nowiki/&gt;ilar topics or interests to contribute. I offered the same. https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456450
# '''20 Aug 26:''' Comment: Supported another Wiki user by providing some peer-reviewed ideas on starter references f&lt;nowiki/&gt;or a Chapter page. [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Perfectionism and procrastination#Reference material]]
# '''20 Aug 26:''' Comment: Supported another Wiki user by providing some peer-reviewed ideas on starter references f&lt;nowiki/&gt;or a Chapter page.[[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Irritability#Reference material]]
# '''22 Aug 26:''' Grammar and content editing improvements on 2025 chapter, Mental health in astronauts. Edits at [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FMental_health_in_astronauts&amp;diff=2824159&amp;oldid=2804667 ht]&lt;nowiki/&gt;[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FMental_health_in_astronauts&amp;diff=2824159&amp;oldid=2804667 tps://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2025%2FMental_health_in_astronauts&amp;diff=2824159&amp;oldid=2804667]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>User:Mymunu</title>
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    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2026-08-21T23:28:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mymunu</username>
        <id>3106327</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Understanding Outdoor play and emotional well-being */ +</comment>
      <origin>2823942</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="7005" sha1="r38cdzkqbg6mlavc0twymvsdn7m43yo" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a psychology student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am interested in understanding how psychological science can be applied to better improve emotional well-being of children through outdoor play. Studying [[motivation and emotion]] will help me to further explore about motivation and emotional well-being in everyday life. 

== Book chapter I am working on ==
I am working on the book chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being]] : How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?

== Interest and hobbies ==

*

== Overview ==
[[File:Https---commons.wikimedia.org-wiki-File-Children play on outdoor equipment, Blaketown Playcentre, 1987. CC114.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1''': Children engaged in outdoor play. Outdoor play involve physical movement, social interaction, exploration, engagement with surrounding environment and emotional regulation.

]]Imagine ...

A child comes home after a long day at school. Most children often have some free time after school or during weekends. Sometimes they remain indoors while on other days they choose to play outdoors. They freely engage in the activities of their choice. Some children may ride bike, skate, explore the nature, do some creative work using natural stuffs or make up games with other children.

Outdoor play does not always have and follow pre-determined rules. A game may become frustrating, other children may disagree about the rules, or something a child trying to negotiate may not work. The child may choose to change or avoid the activity, negotiate with others, become upset or may remain calm and try again.

How does these outdoor play influence children's [[w:Well-being_contributing_factors|well-being]] /emotional well-being? Is it the physical activity, the autonomy to choose what and how to play, the social interaction, the experience of dealing with conflicting situations, or a combination of these factors?

* As described in '''Figure 1,''' outdoor play can include varieties of activities and experiences. Therefore,  research needs to consider what and how children are doing during outdoor play.

==== Key Points ====

* '''Outdoor play needs to have clear definition.''' Outdoor play refers to the range of child-centric activities that happens outdoor. It is more than simply being outside. It generally involve voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity in outdoor environments such as play grounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free outdoor play can create opportunities for children to have autonomy on what they do and how they interact with their surroundings (Biino et al., 2025; see '''Figure 1''').
* '''Children's emotional well-being needs to be clearly identified and explained.''' Children's emotional well being cannot be defined as simply feeling happy. It includes different types of emotional functioning. Recent outdoor play research has examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], social emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al.,2026) and internalising and externalising mental health symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026).
* '''Recent research suggest that outdoor play is associated with children's emotional functioning.''' (Ferguson et al., 2025) found that more outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. In a longitudinal study, Dodd et al., (2026) predicted that children who played outdoors more often during the preschool days were less likely to have less favourable mental health trajectories later in childhood. However, findings are not equally even across all children, settings and measures.
* '''The relationship between outdoor play and emotional well-being appears to be more complex than simply playing more time outdoors.''' [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], [[w:Physical_activity|Physical activity]], [[w:Working_memory|Working memory]], social interaction, freedom and the opportunities provided by different outdoor environment  are possible factors to consider (Davenport et al.,2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Gross, 2015; Lee et al.,2025).
* '''Access to outdoor is not equal.''' Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that children with disabilities experienced physical, social and practical barriers and these barriers have made outdoor play less accessible. Ferguson et al. (2025) also showed that outdoor play experiences and their relationship with social-emotional outcomes varied across different social contexts.

== Focus question ==
What is outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?

What psychological processes can explain how outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?

How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences?

What does recent research show about the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?

How can families, communities and school support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?

== Understanding Outdoor play and emotional well-being ==

* '''Outdoor play is not one single activity'''. It involves movement, exploration, social play, challenge, and interaction with various outdoor environments (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al.,2024).
* '''Outdoor play and physical activity is overlapped''' however they should not be considered as the same concept. Davenport et al. (2025) examined outdoor play separately from their outdoor moderate to vigorous physical activity.
* '''Children's emotional well-being  is measured in different ways'''. Recent research on outdoor play has examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect after recess (Poulos et al., 2026), and internalising and externalising mental health symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026).

====== Outdoor play ======

* '''Outdoor play is defined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity''' that occurs in outdoor environments like gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026).
*'''Outdoor free play is usually self-directed and unstructured.''' Children can freely interact with their environment and have autonomy to make choices about their activities (Binno et al., 2025).
*'''The outdoor play environment can influence children's ability on what to do during play.'''  Pereira et al. (2024)  reviewed outdoor play spaces with features including natural elements, fixed and loose play and the amount of space for children to play.

== Psychological processes linking outdoor play and emotional well-being ==

== Social and environmental conditions shaping outdoor play ==

== What does recent research show? ==

== Supporting outdoor play opportunities? ==

== Conclusion ==

== See also ==

== References ==

== External links ==

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="7662" sha1="0phpf5wx6whwyjz8bw4j0kfjnlbrmyf" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a psychology student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am interested in understanding how psychological science can be applied to better improve emotional well-being of children through outdoor play. Studying [[motivation and emotion]] will help me to further explore about motivation and emotional well-being in everyday life. 

== Book chapter I am working on ==
I am working on the book chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being]] : How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?

== Interest and hobbies ==

*

== Overview ==
[[File:Https---commons.wikimedia.org-wiki-File-Children play on outdoor equipment, Blaketown Playcentre, 1987. CC114.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1''': Children engaged in outdoor play. Outdoor play involve physical movement, social interaction, exploration, engagement with surrounding environment and emotional regulation.

]]Imagine ...

A child comes home after a long day at school. Most children often have some free time after school or during weekends. Sometimes they remain indoors while on other days they choose to play outdoors. They freely engage in the activities of their choice. Some children may ride bike, skate, explore the nature, do some creative work using natural stuffs or make up games with other children.

Outdoor play does not always have and follow pre-determined rules. A game may become frustrating, other children may disagree about the rules, or something a child trying to negotiate may not work. The child may choose to change or avoid the activity, negotiate with others, become upset or may remain calm and try again.

How does these outdoor play influence children's [[w:Well-being_contributing_factors|well-being]] /emotional well-being? Is it the physical activity, the autonomy to choose what and how to play, the social interaction, the experience of dealing with conflicting situations, or a combination of these factors?

* As described in '''Figure 1,''' outdoor play can include varieties of activities and experiences. Therefore,  research needs to consider what and how children are doing during outdoor play.

==== Key Points ====

* '''Outdoor play needs to have clear definition.''' Outdoor play refers to the range of child-centric activities that happens outdoor. It is more than simply being outside. It generally involve voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity in outdoor environments such as play grounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free outdoor play can create opportunities for children to have autonomy on what they do and how they interact with their surroundings (Biino et al., 2025; see '''Figure 1''').
* '''Children's emotional well-being needs to be clearly identified and explained.''' Children's emotional well being cannot be defined as simply feeling happy. It includes different types of emotional functioning. Recent outdoor play research has examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], social emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al.,2026) and internalising and externalising mental health symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026).
* '''Recent research suggest that outdoor play is associated with children's emotional functioning.''' (Ferguson et al., 2025) found that more outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. In a longitudinal study, Dodd et al., (2026) predicted that children who played outdoors more often during the preschool days were less likely to have less favourable mental health trajectories later in childhood. However, findings are not equally even across all children, settings and measures.
* '''The relationship between outdoor play and emotional well-being appears to be more complex than simply playing more time outdoors.''' [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], [[w:Physical_activity|Physical activity]], [[w:Working_memory|Working memory]], social interaction, freedom and the opportunities provided by different outdoor environment  are possible factors to consider (Davenport et al.,2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Gross, 2015; Lee et al.,2025).
* '''Access to outdoor is not equal.''' Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that children with disabilities experienced physical, social and practical barriers and these barriers have made outdoor play less accessible. Ferguson et al. (2025) also showed that outdoor play experiences and their relationship with social-emotional outcomes varied across different social contexts.

== Focus question ==
What is outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?

What psychological processes can explain how outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?

How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences?

What does recent research show about the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?

How can families, communities and school support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?

== Understanding Outdoor play and emotional well-being ==

* '''Outdoor play is not one single activity'''. It involves movement, exploration, social play, challenge, and interaction with various outdoor environments (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al.,2024).
* '''Outdoor play and physical activity is overlapped''' however they should not be considered as the same concept. Davenport et al. (2025) examined outdoor play separately from their outdoor moderate to vigorous physical activity.
* '''Children's emotional well-being  is measured in different ways'''. Recent research on outdoor play has examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect after recess (Poulos et al., 2026), and internalising and externalising mental health symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026).

====== Outdoor play ======

* '''Outdoor play is defined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity''' that occurs in outdoor environments like gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026).
*'''Outdoor free play is usually self-directed and unstructured.''' Children can freely interact with their environment and have autonomy to make choices about their activities (Binno et al., 2025).
*'''The outdoor play environment can influence children's ability on what to do during play.'''  Pereira et al. (2024)  reviewed outdoor play spaces with features including natural elements, fixed and loose play and the amount of space for children to play.
*'''The environment does not determine similar way of playing for every child.''' Research using '''Affordance theory''' is one way of understanding these differences. Morgenthaler et al., (2025) used this theory to examined how children interact with the environmental features and the opportunities on different forms of action and play.
*'''Research does not show that one particular outdoor space is always better for children.''' Pereira et al., (2024) found considerable difference in studies across different types of outdoor play spaces and concluded that  there was not enough evidence to make strong claims about individual outdoor play features.

== Psychological processes linking outdoor play and emotional well-being ==

== Social and environmental conditions shaping outdoor play ==

== What does recent research show? ==

== Supporting outdoor play opportunities? ==

== Conclusion ==

== See also ==

== References ==

== External links ==

== Social Contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>0phpf5wx6whwyjz8bw4j0kfjnlbrmyf</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2824275</id>
      <parentid>2823943</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T10:41:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mymunu</username>
        <id>3106327</id>
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      <comment>/* Outdoor play */ +</comment>
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      <text bytes="7663" sha1="9g1q49sxje6bbgx3eiunari67ndy3zd" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a psychology student at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am interested in understanding how psychological science can be applied to better improve emotional well-being of children through outdoor play. Studying [[motivation and emotion]] will help me to further explore about motivation and emotional well-being in everyday life. 

== Book chapter I am working on ==
I am working on the book chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|Outdoor play and children's emotional well-being]] : How does outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?

== Interest and hobbies ==

*

== Overview ==
[[File:Https---commons.wikimedia.org-wiki-File-Children play on outdoor equipment, Blaketown Playcentre, 1987. CC114.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1''': Children engaged in outdoor play. Outdoor play involve physical movement, social interaction, exploration, engagement with surrounding environment and emotional regulation.

]]Imagine ...

A child comes home after a long day at school. Most children often have some free time after school or during weekends. Sometimes they remain indoors while on other days they choose to play outdoors. They freely engage in the activities of their choice. Some children may ride bike, skate, explore the nature, do some creative work using natural stuffs or make up games with other children.

Outdoor play does not always have and follow pre-determined rules. A game may become frustrating, other children may disagree about the rules, or something a child trying to negotiate may not work. The child may choose to change or avoid the activity, negotiate with others, become upset or may remain calm and try again.

How does these outdoor play influence children's [[w:Well-being_contributing_factors|well-being]] /emotional well-being? Is it the physical activity, the autonomy to choose what and how to play, the social interaction, the experience of dealing with conflicting situations, or a combination of these factors?

* As described in '''Figure 1,''' outdoor play can include varieties of activities and experiences. Therefore,  research needs to consider what and how children are doing during outdoor play.

==== Key Points ====

* '''Outdoor play needs to have clear definition.''' Outdoor play refers to the range of child-centric activities that happens outdoor. It is more than simply being outside. It generally involve voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity in outdoor environments such as play grounds, gardens, streets and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026). Free outdoor play can create opportunities for children to have autonomy on what they do and how they interact with their surroundings (Biino et al., 2025; see '''Figure 1''').
* '''Children's emotional well-being needs to be clearly identified and explained.''' Children's emotional well being cannot be defined as simply feeling happy. It includes different types of emotional functioning. Recent outdoor play research has examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], social emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect (Poulos et al.,2026) and internalising and externalising mental health symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026).
* '''Recent research suggest that outdoor play is associated with children's emotional functioning.''' (Ferguson et al., 2025) found that more outdoor play was associated with better social-emotional competence. In a longitudinal study, Dodd et al., (2026) predicted that children who played outdoors more often during the preschool days were less likely to have less favourable mental health trajectories later in childhood. However, findings are not equally even across all children, settings and measures.
* '''The relationship between outdoor play and emotional well-being appears to be more complex than simply playing more time outdoors.''' [[w:Emotional_self-regulation|Emotional self-regulation]], [[w:Physical_activity|Physical activity]], [[w:Working_memory|Working memory]], social interaction, freedom and the opportunities provided by different outdoor environment  are possible factors to consider (Davenport et al.,2025; Dodd et al., 2026; Gross, 2015; Lee et al.,2025).
* '''Access to outdoor is not equal.''' Beekhuizen et al. (2025) found that children with disabilities experienced physical, social and practical barriers and these barriers have made outdoor play less accessible. Ferguson et al. (2025) also showed that outdoor play experiences and their relationship with social-emotional outcomes varied across different social contexts.

== Focus question ==
What is outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?

What psychological processes can explain how outdoor play influence children's emotional well-being?

How do social and environmental conditions shape children's outdoor play experiences?

What does recent research show about the relationship between outdoor play and children's emotional well-being?

How can families, communities and school support outdoor play opportunities that may benefit children's emotional well-being?

== Understanding Outdoor play and emotional well-being ==

* '''Outdoor play is not one single activity'''. It involves movement, exploration, social play, challenge, and interaction with various outdoor environments (Dodd et al., 2026; Pereira et al.,2024).
* '''Outdoor play and physical activity is overlapped''' however they should not be considered as the same concept. Davenport et al. (2025) examined outdoor play separately from their outdoor moderate to vigorous physical activity.
* '''Children's emotional well-being  is measured in different ways'''. Recent research on outdoor play has examined emotional dysregulation (Lee et al., 2025), social-emotional competence (Ferguson et al., 2025), positive and negative affect after recess (Poulos et al., 2026), and internalising and externalising mental health symptoms (Dodd et al., 2026).

====== Outdoor play ======

* '''Outdoor play is defined as voluntary and intrinsically motivated activity''' that occurs in outdoor environments like gardens, playgrounds, parks and natural spaces (Dodd et al., 2026).
*'''Outdoor free play is usually self-directed and unstructured.''' Children can freely interact with their environment and have autonomy to make choices about their activities (Binno et al., 2025).
*'''The outdoor play environment can influence children's ability on what to do during play.'''  Pereira et al. (2024)  reviewed outdoor play spaces with features including natural elements, fixed and loose play and the amount of space for children to play.
*'''The environment does not determine similar way of playing for every child.''' Research using '''Affordance theory''' is one way of understanding these differences. Morgenthaler et al., (2025) used this theory to examine how children interact with these environmental features and the opportunities on different forms of action and play.
*'''Research does not show that one particular outdoor space is always better for children.''' Pereira et al., (2024) found considerable difference in studies across different types of outdoor play spaces and concluded that  there was not enough evidence to make strong claims about individual outdoor play features.

== Psychological processes linking outdoor play and emotional well-being ==

== Social and environmental conditions shaping outdoor play ==

== What does recent research show? ==

== Supporting outdoor play opportunities? ==

== Conclusion ==

== See also ==

== References ==

== External links ==

== Social Contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>9g1q49sxje6bbgx3eiunari67ndy3zd</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment</title>
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        <id>3105303</id>
      </contributor>
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      <text bytes="2771" sha1="g4g181oqr6fsv4wok99zaw1zbe8c57n" xml:space="preserve">==Vermetten image==
{{ping|StretchBeyond}} You noted that &quot;(The Vermetten 2025 reading has an excellent flow chat to use if I can figure out how to get it embedded. the journal article is Creative Commons4.0 - need to ask James.&quot;
: If you can download the image, it can then be uploaded to [[commons:]] and embedded on Wikiversity. However, there is a catch. The license is CC-NC (Non-commercial) which restricts re-use. Wiki Commons only accepts media which are unrestricted for re-use (e.g., public domain or creative commons attribution). Unfortunately, this image couldn't, for example, be re-used in private enterprise. You could potentially create your own image inspired by the original, and then you own the copyright to that image and can upload/embed it. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 05:21, 18 August 2026 (UTC)

:Thank you. Based on what your advised yesterday, I have had an attempt at integrating some journal concepts into a graphic that I generated with Microsoft CoPilot. I have embedded it into my article now and referenced it in the caption, but I can't get the caption to be visual on the front page. I'm still struggling with how to manipulate figures and boxes, as the edits are not intuitive.  [[User:StretchBeyond|StretchBeyond]] ([[User talk:StretchBeyond|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/StretchBeyond|contribs]]) 08:34, 19 August 2026 (UTC)
: Well done! Hopefully, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FImmersive_therapy_for_PTSD_treatment&amp;diff=2823045&amp;oldid=2823035 this] did the trick. The images are clickable through to the licensing etc., so those details don't need to be in the caption. After a while it will probably make sense to use &quot;edit source&quot; which gives more editing control. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 08:51, 19 August 2026 (UTC)
::Thank you. I'll have some questions on this stuff tomorrow.  [[User:StretchBeyond|StretchBeyond]] ([[User talk:StretchBeyond|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/StretchBeyond|contribs]]) 08:55, 19 August 2026 (UTC)

== Strong topic development  ==

Just leaving some feedback, as this topic development chapter is genuinely excellent. The theory, mechanisms, and research evidence are integrated at a very high level, and the immersive therapy examples are clear and engaging. It’s one of the strongest drafts I’ve come across. The structure and flow are exceptionally strong, especially for a topic development stage. [[User:StudentUC2026|StudentUC2026]] ([[User talk:StudentUC2026|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/StudentUC2026|contribs]]) 10:22, 22 August 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>g4g181oqr6fsv4wok99zaw1zbe8c57n</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Developing a growth mindset</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>331239</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2824007</id>
      <parentid>2822767</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T01:57:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Flickstar888</username>
        <id>3106813</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Helped by adding a title and sub-title</comment>
      <origin>2824007</origin>
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      <text bytes="10360" sha1="04xbfezsa8u4szrdroba4o10d6qaf8w" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Developing a growth mindset:&lt;br&gt; How can a growth mindset be cultivated and sustained?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example:

{{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)&lt;br&gt;{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings:
** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings)
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

==Key points==
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion 
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Mindset]]</text>
      <sha1>04xbfezsa8u4szrdroba4o10d6qaf8w</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824010</id>
      <parentid>2824007</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T01:59:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Flickstar888</username>
        <id>3106813</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <origin>2824010</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="10011" sha1="ge737ui0tomn08mb1hu039j2512n6fd" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Developing a growth mindset:&lt;br&gt; How can a growth mindset be cultivated and sustained?}}
__TOC__
==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example:

{{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)&lt;br&gt;{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings:
** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings)
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

==Key points==
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion 
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Mindset]]</text>
      <sha1>ge737ui0tomn08mb1hu039j2512n6fd</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The John Snow Prediabetes Institute/The Maritime Health database design</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>331243</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2824163</id>
      <parentid>2822724</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T07:08:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NDM2024</username>
        <id>2984088</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2824163</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
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The coordinating institution that will ultimately host the central database once this has been agreed upon, to be added later

Research responsible unit: The John Snow Prediabetes Institute and….

'''Steering Committee:'''

Christian Acheampong, MBA, Director of John Snow Prediabetes Institute. Olaf Chresten Jensen, PhD, MD, MPH, Vice director o147248@gmail.com Nailet Delgado Mujica, Ing. M.Sc. Vice director Joseph Abesamis, MD, overall data custodian, clinical data responsible Margarita Huerte, MD, Chair IMHA 2025-27
1. Clinical and maritime-health input into the study design
2. Identification or coordination of potential Philippine participating sites; 
3. Review of available PEME data and variables * 
4. Participation in the research/steering group; or 
5. Assistance in developing the broader international collaboration through IMHA. 
-------------

'''Design of the project''' (Informed Consent Form below) 

This project is an international, multicentre, observational longitudinal health database that uses routinely collected maritime health examination data to monitor the prevalence and trends of prediabetes, diabetes T-2, hypertension, prehypertension, overweight, obesity and established prevention among maritime workers and students. The intention is to register and offer standardized prevention Inspired by the “Danish health database” (ref. 1)References 
1.	Health of the Danes  https://www.danskernessundhed.dk/

'''Strengths of the design''' • Uses routinely collected data, making it relatively inexpensive. • Can accumulate large international datasets. • Reflects real-world clinical practice. • Supports long-term surveillance of maritime workers' health. • Allow for evaluation of preventive interventions within routine healthcare. Organisers• The John Snow Prediabetes Institute in collaboration with: • Maritime Medical Health Clinics

'''Objectives'''

• To establish an “International maritime health database” with samples of health examination data from the maritime clinics and the maritime schools. • To carry out literature studies on lifestyle intervention in the contexts • To describe and follow the prevalence of the target variables by age and gender over the years. (Prediabetes, T2DM, Blood pressure, BMI etc.) • To identify and offer the prediabetes remission program and to follow the effects.

'''Data content'''

Random samples of data extracted from the routine maritime health examinations in specified calendar periods.

Variables • Age • Gender: m/f • Height: cm • Weight: kg or pounds • Work: fisher, seafarer, other (student) • Officer or non-officer on board • Blood pressure • Blood sugar HbA1c or Fasting Glucose, or Post prandial • Smoking: y/n • Taking medicine: None, Metformin, Wegovy, other • Participating in a life-style health promotion plan y/n

Automatic recoding of data Excel-recoding formulas-Dec-1-2024 • Blood pressure: Normal, prehypertension, stage 1, 2 • Blood sugar: Normal, prediabetes, diabetes mellitus type 2, • BMI: normal, overweight, obese

'''Blood-sugar-Measurements'''

Either A1c mmol/mol or Fasting mg/dl (glucometer) or Postprandial sugar: mg/dl (glucometer) Validity of the method. (ref 2) Clinics without all the variables are invited to give the data they have.

'''&lt;br /&gt;
'''Use of the data for prevention'''

To describe the prevalence of Prediabetes, T2DM, Hypertension, Prehypertension and BMI in the age- and gender groups and occupational groups. Possibly, to offer a prediabetes, prehypertension remission program. To propose (inter) national maritime health policies. To be used for the student’s theses. To publish in international health journals.

'''Type of study •''' International, multicenter observational prevalence database, • Longitudinal surveillance system using repeated routine maritime health prevalence examination data. • Includes an intervention component for individuals identified with prediabetes.

Populations sources The database will include random samples of data extracted from routine health examinations conducted at: • Maritime clinics • Maritime schools Participants may include: • Seafarers • Fishers • Maritime students • Officers and non-officers

Data collection The study uses secondary data obtained from existing routine medical examinations rather than collecting new research-specific measurements. Key variables include: • Age • Gender: m/f • Height: cm • Weight: kg or pounds • Work: fisher, seafarer, other (student) • Officer on board7 non officer • Blood pressure • Blood sugar HbA1c or Fasting Glucose • Smoking: y/n • Taking medicine: None, Metformin, Wegovy, other • Actually, included in a health promotion program Ethics and data governance Need for ethics review.

This study uses sensitive health data and follows people over time. Linking records, international data sharing, and testing a prevention programme can create risks, even when names are removed. Before collecting, linking, sharing, or analysing data, each study site must send the study plan and participant information, consent process, data-flow description, and data-management plan to the appropriate ethics committee. Each site needs written approval or a legally permitted exemption. Major changes must be approved before use. If the study involves only non-sensitive health data, the Ethics committees should be involved.

'''Ethical framework and legal compliance.'''

The study will follow the Declaration of Helsinki, national research rules, the EU General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) where it applies, and the rules of participating countries. Before enrolment or data transfer, the team must record who controls and processes the data and the legal reason for using health information.

'''Consent and participant rights.'''

Participants will receive clear information about the study’s length, health data, follow-up, record linking, international sharing, and approved future research. Consent will be obtained when required. An ethics committee must approve use of data without consent. Refusing or leaving will not affect healthcare, work, training, or education. No new data will be collected after withdrawal, but anonymous data or completed analyses may not be removable. Participants will be told this beforehand.

'''Long-term follow-up and record linking.'''

Each person will receive a study code, allowing records to be linked without putting names in the central database. Each clinic or school will keep the code key separately with restricted access. The central database will hold coded data, or anonymous data when linking is finished. Exact dates and unusual details will be grouped to reduce identification risk. Further contact or record links need legal and ethics approval.

'''Where will data be stored.'''

Data will be kept only on approved servers or encrypted research systems. Names and local code keys will remain at the original site in a separate, encrypted location. Personal computers, unencrypted devices, personal email, and unapproved cloud services are banned. Security includes encryption, backups, logs, malware protection, and an incident plan. Study documents must name the host institution and storage location.

'''Who can access the data.'''

Only named, authorised team members may access the minimum information needed for approved work. They must follow confidentiality rules, use individual accounts and secure sign-in, and lose access when their role ends. Collaborators may receive only necessary coded or anonymous data after approval. Employers, crewing companies, insurers, and other unauthorised parties will not receive personal-level data. Reports will hide small groups or identifying details.

'''Data sharing, retention, and destruction.'''

Institutions will sign agreements covering responsibilities, approved uses, security, breach reporting, further sharing, and data return or deletion. International transfers must follow the law and use extra safeguards when required. Before the study starts, the plan must state how long data will be kept (e.g. 5 years). Afterwards, files and backups will be securely deleted or made permanently anonymous. Code keys will be destroyed unless longer storage is approved.

'''Risk management and oversight.'''

The main risk is that private information could be exposed or linked to a person, causing work, social, or insurance harm. The team will collect only necessary data, separate names from research data, limit access, train staff, secure transfers and storage, keep logs, and respond quickly to suspected breaches. The coordinating researcher will record approvals, access permissions, agreements, and incidents. Any prevention or lifestyle programme tested as research needs ethics approval before it begins.

'''Exclusion Criteria''' • Inability to provide informed consent • Expressed no-interest to participate 

'''The primary outcomes include''' • Prevalence of Prediabetes, and T2DM • Prevalence of Hypertension and Prehypertension • Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity • Trends by age and sex over time • Prevalence of participation in a prevention program Planned analyses • Estimate disease prevalence. • Compare health indicators across age, gender and working groups. • Monitor trends over multiple years. • Evaluate outcomes of lifestyle interventions. • Support health policy development, student research, and scientific publications.

'''Statistical analysis plan'''

1. Data preparation

Check the dataset for missing values, impossible values, and duplicates. Recode the main variables into categories: BMI as normal, overweight, or obese; blood pressure as normal, prehypertension, stage 1, or stage 2; and blood sugar as normal, prediabetes, or type 2 diabetes.

2. Descriptive statistics


Summarize age using mean, standard deviation, median, and range. Summarize categorical variables such as gender, work type, smoking, medication use, BMI group, blood pressure group, and blood sugar group using numbers and percentages.

3. Prevalence estimates


Calculate the prevalence of overweight, obesity, prediabetes, diabetes, prehypertension, and hypertension. Report each prevalence as a percentage with a 95% confidence interval.

4. Group comparisons


Compare prevalence by age group, gender, work type, and officer/non-officer status. Use chi-square tests for categorical comparisons and t-tests or ANOVA for continuous variables such as BMI or blood pressure.

5. Trend analysis over time


If data are available from several years, changes in prevalence over time using tables and line graphs. Test trends using chi-square trend tests or simple logistic regression with year as the predictor.

6. Prediabetes remission program analysis


Among participants offered the lifestyle intervention, compare blood sugar, BMI, and blood pressure before and after the program. Use paired t-tests for continuous measures and McNemar’s test for changes in categories, such as prediabetes returning to normal blood sugar.

7. Multivariable analysis


Use logistic regression to identify factors associated with prediabetes, obesity, and hypertension. Possible predictors include age, gender, occupation, officer status, smoking, BMI, and medication use.

8. Missing data

Report the amount of missing data for each variable. For the simple analysis, use available-case analysis and clearly state the number of participants included in each analysis.

9. Statistical significance


Use a significance level of 0.05. Present results with 95% confidence intervals rather than relying only on p-values.Principio del formulario

INFORMED CONSENT FORM

International Maritime Health Database 

You are invited to participate in the International Maritime Health Database, which aims to improve the health of seafarers, fishers, and maritime students by monitoring conditions such as prediabetes, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and obesity. If you agree to participate, information from your routine maritime medical examination (such as age, sex, height, weight, blood pressure, blood glucose, smoking status, medication, and occupation) will be included in a confidential research database. Your participation is voluntary. You may refuse to participate or withdraw your consent at any time without affecting your medical care, employment, or education. Your personal information will be kept confidential. Your data will be coded whenever possible and used only for research, education, and publication in a way that does not identify you. If your results indicate an increased risk of disease, you may be offered information about a voluntary health promotion or prevention programme. By signing below, you confirm that: • You have read and understood this information. • You have had the opportunity to ask questions. • You voluntarily agree to participate in this study. Participant Name: _______________________________ Signature: ______________________________________ Date: __________________________________________ Researcher/Health Professional: ___________________ Signature: ______________________________________ Date: __________________________________________</text>
      <sha1>0uye5t9jja3i6ahcb41hnt2uqdkgsgw</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2824169</id>
      <parentid>2824163</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T07:15:55Z</timestamp>
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        <username>NDM2024</username>
        <id>2984088</id>
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      <origin>2824169</origin>
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The coordinating institution that will ultimately host the central database once this has been agreed upon, to be added later

Research responsible unit: The John Snow Prediabetes Institute and….

'''Steering Committee:'''

Christian Acheampong, MBA, Director of John Snow Prediabetes Institute. Olaf Chresten Jensen, PhD, MD, MPH, Vice director o147248@gmail.com Nailet Delgado Mujica, Ing. M.Sc. Vice director Joseph Abesamis, MD, overall data custodian, clinical data responsible Margarita Huerte, MD, Chair IMHA 2025-27
1. Clinical and maritime-health input into the study design
2. Identification or coordination of potential Philippine participating sites; 
3. Review of available PEME data and variables * 
4. Participation in the research/steering group; or 
5. Assistance in developing the broader international collaboration through IMHA. 
-------------

'''Design of the project''' (Informed Consent Form below) 

This project is an international, multicentre, observational longitudinal health database that uses routinely collected maritime health examination data to monitor the prevalence and trends of prediabetes, diabetes T-2, hypertension, prehypertension, overweight, obesity and established prevention among maritime workers and students. The intention is to register and offer standardized prevention Inspired by the “Danish health database” (ref. 1)References 
1.	Health of the Danes  https://www.danskernessundhed.dk/

'''Strengths of the design''' • Uses routinely collected data, making it relatively inexpensive. • Can accumulate large international datasets. • Reflects real-world clinical practice. • Supports long-term surveillance of maritime workers' health. • Allow for evaluation of preventive interventions within routine healthcare. Organisers• The John Snow Prediabetes Institute in collaboration with: • Maritime Medical Health Clinics

'''Objectives'''

• To establish an “International maritime health database” with samples of health examination data from the maritime clinics and the maritime schools. • To carry out literature studies on lifestyle intervention in the contexts • To describe and follow the prevalence of the target variables by age and gender over the years. (Prediabetes, T2DM, Blood pressure, BMI etc.) • To identify and offer the prediabetes remission program and to follow the effects.

'''Data content'''

Random samples of data extracted from the routine maritime health examinations in specified calendar periods.

Variables • Age • Gender: m/f • Height: cm • Weight: kg or pounds • Work: fisher, seafarer, other (student) • Officer or non-officer on board • Blood pressure • Blood sugar HbA1c or Fasting Glucose, or Post prandial • Smoking: y/n • Taking medicine: None, Metformin, Wegovy, other • Participating in a life-style health promotion plan y/n

Automatic recoding of data Excel-recoding formulas-Dec-1-2024 • Blood pressure: Normal, prehypertension, stage 1, 2 • Blood sugar: Normal, prediabetes, diabetes mellitus type 2, • BMI: normal, overweight, obese

'''Blood-sugar-Measurements'''

Either A1c mmol/mol or Fasting mg/dl (glucometer) or Postprandial sugar: mg/dl (glucometer) Validity of the method. (ref 2) Clinics without all the variables are invited to give the data they have.

'''&lt;br /&gt;
'''Use of the data for prevention'''

To describe the prevalence of Prediabetes, T2DM, Hypertension, Prehypertension and BMI in the age- and gender groups and occupational groups. Possibly, to offer a prediabetes, prehypertension remission program. To propose (inter) national maritime health policies. To be used for the student’s theses. To publish in international health journals.

'''Type of study •''' International, multicenter observational prevalence database, • Longitudinal surveillance system using repeated routine maritime health prevalence examination data. • Includes an intervention component for individuals identified with prediabetes.

'''Populations sources''' 

The database will include random samples of data extracted from routine health examinations conducted at: • Maritime clinics • Maritime schools Participants may include: • Seafarers • Fishers • Maritime students • Officers and non-officers

'''Data collection''' 

Retrospectively, the study uses secondary data obtained from existing routine medical examinations but can also collect new research-specific measurements prospectively. Key variables include: • Age • Gender: m/f • Height: cm • Weight: kg or pounds • Work: fisher, seafarer, other (student) • Officer on board7 non officer • Blood pressure • Blood sugar HbA1c or Fasting Glucose • Smoking: y/n • Taking medicine: None, Metformin, Wegovy, other • Actually, included in a health promotion program 

'''Ethics and data governance Need for ethics review.'''

This study uses sensitive health data and follows people over time. Linking records, international data sharing, and testing a prevention programme can create risks, even when names are removed. Before collecting, linking, sharing, or analysing data, each study site must send the study plan and participant information, consent process, data-flow description, and data-management plan to the appropriate ethics committee. Each site needs written approval or a legally permitted exemption. Major changes must be approved before use. If the study involves only non-sensitive health data, the Ethics committees should be involved.

'''Ethical framework and legal compliance.'''

The study will follow the Declaration of Helsinki, national research rules, the EU General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) where it applies, and the rules of participating countries. Before enrolment or data transfer, the team must record who controls and processes the data and the legal reason for using health information.

'''Consent and participant rights.'''

Participants will receive clear information about the study’s length, health data, follow-up, record linking, international sharing, and approved future research. Consent will be obtained when required. An ethics committee must approve use of data without consent. Refusing or leaving will not affect healthcare, work, training, or education. No new data will be collected after withdrawal, but anonymous data or completed analyses may not be removable. Participants will be told this beforehand.

'''Long-term follow-up and record linking.'''

Each person will receive a study code, allowing records to be linked without putting names in the central database. Each clinic or school will keep the code key separately with restricted access. The central database will hold coded data, or anonymous data when linking is finished. Exact dates and unusual details will be grouped to reduce identification risk. Further contact or record links need legal and ethics approval.

'''Where will data be stored.'''

Data will be kept only on approved servers or encrypted research systems. Names and local code keys will remain at the original site in a separate, encrypted location. Personal computers, unencrypted devices, personal email, and unapproved cloud services are banned. Security includes encryption, backups, logs, malware protection, and an incident plan. Study documents must name the host institution and storage location.

'''Who can access the data.'''

Only named, authorised team members may access the minimum information needed for approved work. They must follow confidentiality rules, use individual accounts and secure sign-in, and lose access when their role ends. Collaborators may receive only necessary coded or anonymous data after approval. Employers, crewing companies, insurers, and other unauthorised parties will not receive personal-level data. Reports will hide small groups or identifying details.

'''Data sharing, retention, and destruction.'''

Institutions will sign agreements covering responsibilities, approved uses, security, breach reporting, further sharing, and data return or deletion. International transfers must follow the law and use extra safeguards when required. Before the study starts, the plan must state how long data will be kept (e.g. 5 years). Afterwards, files and backups will be securely deleted or made permanently anonymous. Code keys will be destroyed unless longer storage is approved.

'''Risk management and oversight.'''

The main risk is that private information could be exposed or linked to a person, causing work, social, or insurance harm. The team will collect only necessary data, separate names from research data, limit access, train staff, secure transfers and storage, keep logs, and respond quickly to suspected breaches. The coordinating researcher will record approvals, access permissions, agreements, and incidents. Any prevention or lifestyle programme tested as research needs ethics approval before it begins.

'''Exclusion Criteria''' 

• Inability to provide informed consent  

• Expressed no-interest to participate 

'''The primary outcomes include''' • Prevalence of Prediabetes, and T2DM • Prevalence of Hypertension and Prehypertension • Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity • Trends by age and sex over time • Prevalence of participation in a prevention program Planned analyses • Estimate disease prevalence. • Compare health indicators across age, gender and working groups. • Monitor trends over multiple years. • Evaluate outcomes of lifestyle interventions. • Support health policy development, student research, and scientific publications.

'''Statistical analysis plan'''

''1. Data preparation''

Check the dataset for missing values, impossible values, and duplicates. Recode the main variables into categories: BMI as normal, overweight, or obese; blood pressure as normal, prehypertension, stage 1, or stage 2; and blood sugar as normal, prediabetes, or type 2 diabetes.

''2. Descriptive statistics''

Summarize age using mean, standard deviation, median, and range. Summarize categorical variables such as gender, work type, smoking, medication use, BMI group, blood pressure group, and blood sugar group using numbers and percentages. These data is presented in age- and gender groups. 

''3. Prevalence estimates''


Calculate the prevalence of overweight, obesity, prediabetes, diabetes, prehypertension, and hypertension. Report each prevalence as a percentage with a 95% confidence interval.

''4. Group comparisons''


Compare prevalence by age group, gender, work type, and officer/non-officer status. Use chi-square tests for categorical comparisons and t-tests or ANOVA for continuous variables such as BMI or blood pressure.

''5. Trend analysis over time''


If data are available from several years, changes in prevalence over time using tables and line graphs. Test trends using chi-square trend tests or simple logistic regression with year as the predictor.

''6. Prediabetes remission program analysis''


Among participants offered the lifestyle intervention, compare blood sugar, BMI, and blood pressure before and after the program. Use paired t-tests for continuous measures and McNemar’s test for changes in categories, such as prediabetes returning to normal blood sugar.

''7. Multivariable analysis''


Logistic regression to identify factors associated with prediabetes, obesity, and hypertension. Possible predictors include age, gender, occupation, officer status, smoking, BMI, and medication use.

''8. Missing data''

Report the amount of missing data for each variable. For the simple analysis, use available-case analysis and clearly state the number of participants included in each analysis.

''9. Statistical significance''
Use a significance level of 0.05. Present results with 95% confidence intervals rather than relying only on p-values.Principio del formulario

'''INFORMED CONSENT FORM'''

International Maritime Health Database 

You are invited to participate in the International Maritime Health Database, which aims to improve the health of seafarers, fishers, and maritime students by monitoring conditions such as prediabetes, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and obesity. If you agree to participate, information from your routine maritime medical examination (such as age, sex, height, weight, blood pressure, blood glucose, smoking status, medication, and occupation) will be included in a confidential research database. Your participation is voluntary. You may refuse to participate or withdraw your consent at any time without affecting your medical care, employment, or education. Your personal information will be kept confidential. Your data will be coded whenever possible and used only for research, education, and publication in a way that does not identify you. If your results indicate an increased risk of disease, you may be offered information about a voluntary health promotion or prevention programme. By signing below, you confirm that: • You have read and understood this information. • You have had the opportunity to ask questions. • You voluntarily agree to participate in this study. Participant Name: _______________________________ Signature: ______________________________________ Date: __________________________________________ Researcher/Health Professional: ___________________ Signature: ______________________________________ Date: __________________________________________</text>
      <sha1>0cv4dcutkf2dgqbb1ifzuyej2idoxoy</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2824170</id>
      <parentid>2824169</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T07:18:28Z</timestamp>
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        <username>NDM2024</username>
        <id>2984088</id>
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The coordinating institution that will ultimately host the central database once this has been agreed upon, to be added later

Research responsible unit: The John Snow Prediabetes Institute and….

'''Steering Committee ('''to be adjusted''') :'''

Christian Acheampong, MBA, Director of John Snow Pre-diabetes Institute. Olaf Jensen, PhD, MD, MPH, Vice director o147248@gmail.com ; Nailet Delgado Mujica, Ing. M.Sc. Vice director: Joseph Abesamis, MD, overall data custodian, clinical data responsible Margarita Huerte, MD, Chair IMHA 2025-27
1. Clinical and maritime-health input into the study design
2. Identification or coordination of potential Philippine participating sites; 
3. Review of available PEME data and variables * 
4. Participation in the research/steering group; or 
5. Assistance in developing the broader international collaboration through IMHA. 
-------------

'''Design of the project''' (Informed Consent Form below) 

This project is an international, multicentre, observational longitudinal health database that uses routinely collected maritime health examination data to monitor the prevalence and trends of prediabetes, diabetes T-2, hypertension, prehypertension, overweight, obesity and established prevention among maritime workers and students. The intention is to register and offer standardized prevention Inspired by the “Danish health database” (ref. 1)References 
1.	Health of the Danes  https://www.danskernessundhed.dk/

'''Strengths of the design''' • Uses routinely collected data, making it relatively inexpensive. • Can accumulate large international datasets. • Reflects real-world clinical practice. • Supports long-term surveillance of maritime workers' health. • Allow for evaluation of preventive interventions within routine healthcare. Organisers• The John Snow Prediabetes Institute in collaboration with: • Maritime Medical Health Clinics

'''Objectives'''

• To establish an “International maritime health database” with samples of health examination data from the maritime clinics and the maritime schools. • To carry out literature studies on lifestyle intervention in the contexts • To describe and follow the prevalence of the target variables by age and gender over the years. (Prediabetes, T2DM, Blood pressure, BMI etc.) • To identify and offer the prediabetes remission program and to follow the effects.

'''Data content'''

Random samples of data extracted from the routine maritime health examinations in specified calendar periods.

Variables • Age • Gender: m/f • Height: cm • Weight: kg or pounds • Work: fisher, seafarer, other (student) • Officer or non-officer on board • Blood pressure • Blood sugar HbA1c or Fasting Glucose, or Post prandial • Smoking: y/n • Taking medicine: None, Metformin, Wegovy, other • Participating in a life-style health promotion plan y/n

Automatic recoding of data Excel-recoding formulas-Dec-1-2024 • Blood pressure: Normal, prehypertension, stage 1, 2 • Blood sugar: Normal, prediabetes, diabetes mellitus type 2, • BMI: normal, overweight, obese

'''Blood-sugar-Measurements'''

Either A1c mmol/mol or Fasting mg/dl (glucometer) or Postprandial sugar: mg/dl (glucometer) Validity of the method. (ref 2) Clinics without all the variables are invited to give the data they have.

'''&lt;br /&gt;
'''Use of the data for prevention'''

To describe the prevalence of Prediabetes, T2DM, Hypertension, Prehypertension and BMI in the age- and gender groups and occupational groups. Possibly, to offer a prediabetes, prehypertension remission program. To propose (inter) national maritime health policies. To be used for the student’s theses. To publish in international health journals.

'''Type of study •''' International, multicenter observational prevalence database, • Longitudinal surveillance system using repeated routine maritime health prevalence examination data. • Includes an intervention component for individuals identified with prediabetes.

'''Populations sources''' 

The database will include random samples of data extracted from routine health examinations conducted at: • Maritime clinics • Maritime schools Participants may include: • Seafarers • Fishers • Maritime students • Officers and non-officers

'''Data collection''' 

Retrospectively, the study uses secondary data obtained from existing routine medical examinations but can also collect new research-specific measurements prospectively. Key variables include: • Age • Gender: m/f • Height: cm • Weight: kg or pounds • Work: fisher, seafarer, other (student) • Officer on board7 non officer • Blood pressure • Blood sugar HbA1c or Fasting Glucose • Smoking: y/n • Taking medicine: None, Metformin, Wegovy, other • Actually, included in a health promotion program 

'''Ethics and data governance Need for ethics review.'''

This study uses sensitive health data and follows people over time. Linking records, international data sharing, and testing a prevention programme can create risks, even when names are removed. Before collecting, linking, sharing, or analysing data, each study site must send the study plan and participant information, consent process, data-flow description, and data-management plan to the appropriate ethics committee. Each site needs written approval or a legally permitted exemption. Major changes must be approved before use. If the study involves only non-sensitive health data, the Ethics committees should be involved.

'''Ethical framework and legal compliance.'''

The study will follow the Declaration of Helsinki, national research rules, the EU General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) where it applies, and the rules of participating countries. Before enrolment or data transfer, the team must record who controls and processes the data and the legal reason for using health information.

'''Consent and participant rights.'''

Participants will receive clear information about the study’s length, health data, follow-up, record linking, international sharing, and approved future research. Consent will be obtained when required. An ethics committee must approve use of data without consent. Refusing or leaving will not affect healthcare, work, training, or education. No new data will be collected after withdrawal, but anonymous data or completed analyses may not be removable. Participants will be told this beforehand.

'''Long-term follow-up and record linking.'''

Each person will receive a study code, allowing records to be linked without putting names in the central database. Each clinic or school will keep the code key separately with restricted access. The central database will hold coded data, or anonymous data when linking is finished. Exact dates and unusual details will be grouped to reduce identification risk. Further contact or record links need legal and ethics approval.

'''Where will data be stored.'''

Data will be kept only on approved servers or encrypted research systems. Names and local code keys will remain at the original site in a separate, encrypted location. Personal computers, unencrypted devices, personal email, and unapproved cloud services are banned. Security includes encryption, backups, logs, malware protection, and an incident plan. Study documents must name the host institution and storage location.

'''Who can access the data.'''

Only named, authorised team members may access the minimum information needed for approved work. They must follow confidentiality rules, use individual accounts and secure sign-in, and lose access when their role ends. Collaborators may receive only necessary coded or anonymous data after approval. Employers, crewing companies, insurers, and other unauthorised parties will not receive personal-level data. Reports will hide small groups or identifying details.

'''Data sharing, retention, and destruction.'''

Institutions will sign agreements covering responsibilities, approved uses, security, breach reporting, further sharing, and data return or deletion. International transfers must follow the law and use extra safeguards when required. Before the study starts, the plan must state how long data will be kept (e.g. 5 years). Afterwards, files and backups will be securely deleted or made permanently anonymous. Code keys will be destroyed unless longer storage is approved.

'''Risk management and oversight.'''

The main risk is that private information could be exposed or linked to a person, causing work, social, or insurance harm. The team will collect only necessary data, separate names from research data, limit access, train staff, secure transfers and storage, keep logs, and respond quickly to suspected breaches. The coordinating researcher will record approvals, access permissions, agreements, and incidents. Any prevention or lifestyle programme tested as research needs ethics approval before it begins.

'''Exclusion Criteria''' 

• Inability to provide informed consent  

• Expressed no-interest to participate 

'''The primary outcomes include''' • Prevalence of Prediabetes, and T2DM • Prevalence of Hypertension and Prehypertension • Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity • Trends by age and sex over time • Prevalence of participation in a prevention program Planned analyses • Estimate disease prevalence. • Compare health indicators across age, gender and working groups. • Monitor trends over multiple years. • Evaluate outcomes of lifestyle interventions. • Support health policy development, student research, and scientific publications.

'''Statistical analysis plan'''

''1. Data preparation''

Check the dataset for missing values, impossible values, and duplicates. Recode the main variables into categories: BMI as normal, overweight, or obese; blood pressure as normal, prehypertension, stage 1, or stage 2; and blood sugar as normal, prediabetes, or type 2 diabetes.

''2. Descriptive statistics''

Summarize age using mean, standard deviation, median, and range. Summarize categorical variables such as gender, work type, smoking, medication use, BMI group, blood pressure group, and blood sugar group using numbers and percentages. These data is presented in age- and gender groups. 

''3. Prevalence estimates''


Calculate the prevalence of overweight, obesity, prediabetes, diabetes, prehypertension, and hypertension. Report each prevalence as a percentage with a 95% confidence interval.

''4. Group comparisons''


Compare prevalence by age group, gender, work type, and officer/non-officer status. Use chi-square tests for categorical comparisons and t-tests or ANOVA for continuous variables such as BMI or blood pressure.

''5. Trend analysis over time''


If data are available from several years, changes in prevalence over time using tables and line graphs. Test trends using chi-square trend tests or simple logistic regression with year as the predictor.

''6. Prediabetes remission program analysis''


Among participants offered the lifestyle intervention, compare blood sugar, BMI, and blood pressure before and after the program. Use paired t-tests for continuous measures and McNemar’s test for changes in categories, such as prediabetes returning to normal blood sugar.

''7. Multivariable analysis''


Logistic regression to identify factors associated with prediabetes, obesity, and hypertension. Possible predictors include age, gender, occupation, officer status, smoking, BMI, and medication use.

''8. Missing data''

Report the amount of missing data for each variable. For the simple analysis, use available-case analysis and clearly state the number of participants included in each analysis.

''9. Statistical significance''
Use a significance level of 0.05. Present results with 95% confidence intervals rather than relying only on p-values.Principio del formulario

'''INFORMED CONSENT FORM'''

International Maritime Health Database 

You are invited to participate in the International Maritime Health Database, which aims to improve the health of seafarers, fishers, and maritime students by monitoring conditions such as prediabetes, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and obesity. If you agree to participate, information from your routine maritime medical examination (such as age, sex, height, weight, blood pressure, blood glucose, smoking status, medication, and occupation) will be included in a confidential research database. Your participation is voluntary. You may refuse to participate or withdraw your consent at any time without affecting your medical care, employment, or education. Your personal information will be kept confidential. Your data will be coded whenever possible and used only for research, education, and publication in a way that does not identify you. If your results indicate an increased risk of disease, you may be offered information about a voluntary health promotion or prevention programme. By signing below, you confirm that: • You have read and understood this information. • You have had the opportunity to ask questions. • You voluntarily agree to participate in this study. Participant Name: _______________________________ Signature: ______________________________________ Date: __________________________________________ Researcher/Health Professional: ___________________ Signature: ______________________________________ Date: __________________________________________</text>
      <sha1>p2u1zttnmpbjt4r31i9hdo1ecuhex3e</sha1>
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      <id>2824204</id>
      <parentid>2824170</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T08:33:42Z</timestamp>
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        <id>2984088</id>
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      <text bytes="13551" sha1="82qqden2sr5jrvclakl0g3k5925cffs" xml:space="preserve">
The coordinating institution that will ultimately host the central database once this has been agreed upon, to be added later

Research responsible unit: The John Snow Prediabetes Institute and….

'''Steering Committee ('''to be adjusted''') :'''

Christian Acheampong, MBA, Director of John Snow Pre-diabetes Institute. Olaf Jensen, PhD, MD, MPH, Vice director o147248@gmail.com ; Nailet Delgado Mujica, Ing. M.Sc. Vice director: Joseph Abesamis, MD, overall data custodian, clinical data responsible Margarita Huerte, MD, Chair IMHA 2025-27
1. Clinical and maritime-health input into the study design
2. Identification or coordination of potential Philippine participating sites; 
3. Review of available PEME data and variables * 
4. Participation in the research/steering group; or 
5. Assistance in developing the broader international collaboration through IMHA. 
-------------

'''Design of the project''' (Informed Consent Form below) 

This project is an international, multicentre, observational longitudinal health database that uses routinely collected maritime health examination data to monitor the prevalence and trends of prediabetes, diabetes T-2, hypertension, prehypertension, overweight, obesity and established prevention among maritime workers and students. The intention is to register and offer standardized prevention Inspired by the “Danish health database” (ref. 1)References 
1.	Health of the Danes  https://www.danskernessundhed.dk/

'''Strengths of the design''' • Uses routinely collected data, making it relatively inexpensive. • Can accumulate large international datasets. • Reflects real-world clinical practice. • Supports long-term surveillance of maritime workers' health. • Allow for evaluation of preventive interventions within routine healthcare. Organisers• The John Snow Prediabetes Institute in collaboration with: • Maritime Medical Health Clinics,  • The International Maritime Health Associtation (IMHA), • the Filippine Maritime Health Association

'''Objectives'''

• To establish an “International maritime health database” with samples of health examination data from the maritime clinics and the maritime schools. • To carry out literature studies on lifestyle intervention in the contexts • To describe and follow the prevalence of the target variables by age and gender over the years. (Prediabetes, T2DM, Blood pressure, BMI etc.) • To identify and offer the prediabetes remission program and to follow the effects.

'''Data content'''

Random samples of data extracted from the routine maritime health examinations in specified calendar periods.

Variables • Age • Gender: m/f • Height: cm • Weight: kg or pounds • Work: fisher, seafarer, other (student) • Officer or non-officer on board • Blood pressure • Blood sugar HbA1c or Fasting Glucose, or Post prandial • Smoking: y/n • Taking medicine: None, Metformin, Wegovy, other • Participating in a life-style health promotion plan y/n

Automatic recoding of data Excel-recoding formulas-Dec-1-2024 • Blood pressure: Normal, prehypertension, stage 1, 2 • Blood sugar: Normal, prediabetes, diabetes mellitus type 2, • BMI: normal, overweight, obese

'''Blood-sugar-Measurements'''

Either A1c mmol/mol or Fasting mg/dl (glucometer) or Postprandial sugar: mg/dl (glucometer) Validity of the method. (ref 2) Clinics without all the variables are invited to give the data they have.

'''&lt;br /&gt;
'''Use of the data for prevention'''

To describe the prevalence of Prediabetes, T2DM, Hypertension, Prehypertension and BMI in the age- and gender groups and occupational groups. Possibly, to offer a prediabetes, prehypertension remission program. To propose (inter) national maritime health policies. To be used for the student’s theses. To publish in international health journals.

'''Type of study •''' International, multicenter observational prevalence database, • Longitudinal surveillance system using repeated routine maritime health prevalence examination data. • Includes an intervention component for individuals identified with prediabetes.

'''Populations sources''' 

The database will include random samples of data extracted from routine health examinations conducted at: • Maritime clinics • Maritime schools Participants may include: • Seafarers • Fishers • Maritime students • Officers and non-officers

'''Data collection''' 

Retrospectively, the study uses secondary data obtained from existing routine medical examinations but can also collect new research-specific measurements prospectively. Key variables include: • Age • Gender: m/f • Height: cm • Weight: kg or pounds • Work: fisher, seafarer, other (student) • Officer on board7 non officer • Blood pressure • Blood sugar HbA1c or Fasting Glucose • Smoking: y/n • Taking medicine: None, Metformin, Wegovy, other • Actually, included in a health promotion program 

'''Ethics and data governance Need for ethics review.'''

This study uses sensitive health data and follows people over time. Linking records, international data sharing, and testing a prevention programme can create risks, even when names are removed. Before collecting, linking, sharing, or analysing data, each study site must send the study plan and participant information, consent process, data-flow description, and data-management plan to the appropriate ethics committee. Each site needs written approval or a legally permitted exemption. Major changes must be approved before use. If the study involves only non-sensitive health data, the Ethics committees should be involved.

'''Ethical framework and legal compliance.'''

The study will follow the Declaration of Helsinki, national research rules, the EU General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) where it applies, and the rules of participating countries. Before enrolment or data transfer, the team must record who controls and processes the data and the legal reason for using health information.

'''Consent and participant rights.'''

Participants will receive clear information about the study’s length, health data, follow-up, record linking, international sharing, and approved future research. Consent will be obtained when required. An ethics committee must approve use of data without consent. Refusing or leaving will not affect healthcare, work, training, or education. No new data will be collected after withdrawal, but anonymous data or completed analyses may not be removable. Participants will be told this beforehand.

'''Long-term follow-up and record linking.'''

Each person will receive a study code, allowing records to be linked without putting names in the central database. Each clinic or school will keep the code key separately with restricted access. The central database will hold coded data, or anonymous data when linking is finished. Exact dates and unusual details will be grouped to reduce identification risk. Further contact or record links need legal and ethics approval.

'''Where will data be stored.'''

Data will be kept only on approved servers or encrypted research systems. Names and local code keys will remain at the original site in a separate, encrypted location. Personal computers, unencrypted devices, personal email, and unapproved cloud services are banned. Security includes encryption, backups, logs, malware protection, and an incident plan. Study documents must name the host institution and storage location.

'''Who can access the data.'''

Only named, authorised team members may access the minimum information needed for approved work. They must follow confidentiality rules, use individual accounts and secure sign-in, and lose access when their role ends. Collaborators may receive only necessary coded or anonymous data after approval. Employers, crewing companies, insurers, and other unauthorised parties will not receive personal-level data. Reports will hide small groups or identifying details.

'''Data sharing, retention, and destruction.'''

Institutions will sign agreements covering responsibilities, approved uses, security, breach reporting, further sharing, and data return or deletion. International transfers must follow the law and use extra safeguards when required. Before the study starts, the plan must state how long data will be kept (e.g. 5 years). Afterwards, files and backups will be securely deleted or made permanently anonymous. Code keys will be destroyed unless longer storage is approved.

'''Risk management and oversight.'''

The main risk is that private information could be exposed or linked to a person, causing work, social, or insurance harm. The team will collect only necessary data, separate names from research data, limit access, train staff, secure transfers and storage, keep logs, and respond quickly to suspected breaches. The coordinating researcher will record approvals, access permissions, agreements, and incidents. Any prevention or lifestyle programme tested as research needs ethics approval before it begins.

'''Exclusion Criteria''' 

• Inability to provide informed consent  

• Expressed no-interest to participate 

'''The primary outcomes include''' • Prevalence of Prediabetes, and T2DM • Prevalence of Hypertension and Prehypertension • Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity • Trends by age and sex over time • Prevalence of participation in a prevention program Planned analyses • Estimate disease prevalence. • Compare health indicators across age, gender and working groups. • Monitor trends over multiple years. • Evaluate outcomes of lifestyle interventions. • Support health policy development, student research, and scientific publications.

'''Statistical analysis plan'''

''1. Data preparation''

Check the dataset for missing values, impossible values, and duplicates. Recode the main variables into categories: BMI as normal, overweight, or obese; blood pressure as normal, prehypertension, stage 1, or stage 2; and blood sugar as normal, prediabetes, or type 2 diabetes.

''2. Descriptive statistics''

Summarize age using mean, standard deviation, median, and range. Summarize categorical variables such as gender, work type, smoking, medication use, BMI group, blood pressure group, and blood sugar group using numbers and percentages. These data is presented in age- and gender groups. 

''3. Prevalence estimates''


Calculate the prevalence of overweight, obesity, prediabetes, diabetes, prehypertension, and hypertension. Report each prevalence as a percentage with a 95% confidence interval.

''4. Group comparisons''


Compare prevalence by age group, gender, work type, and officer/non-officer status. Use chi-square tests for categorical comparisons and t-tests or ANOVA for continuous variables such as BMI or blood pressure.

''5. Trend analysis over time''


If data are available from several years, changes in prevalence over time using tables and line graphs. Test trends using chi-square trend tests or simple logistic regression with year as the predictor.

''6. Prediabetes remission program analysis''


Among participants offered the lifestyle intervention, compare blood sugar, BMI, and blood pressure before and after the program. Use paired t-tests for continuous measures and McNemar’s test for changes in categories, such as prediabetes returning to normal blood sugar.

''7. Multivariable analysis''


Logistic regression to identify factors associated with prediabetes, obesity, and hypertension. Possible predictors include age, gender, occupation, officer status, smoking, BMI, and medication use.

''8. Missing data''

Report the amount of missing data for each variable. For the simple analysis, use available-case analysis and clearly state the number of participants included in each analysis.

''9. Statistical significance''
Use a significance level of 0.05. Present results with 95% confidence intervals rather than relying only on p-values.Principio del formulario

'''INFORMED CONSENT FORM'''

International Maritime Health Database 

You are invited to participate in the International Maritime Health Database, which aims to improve the health of seafarers, fishers, and maritime students by monitoring conditions such as prediabetes, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and obesity. If you agree to participate, information from your routine maritime medical examination (such as age, sex, height, weight, blood pressure, blood glucose, smoking status, medication, and occupation) will be included in a confidential research database. Your participation is voluntary. You may refuse to participate or withdraw your consent at any time without affecting your medical care, employment, or education. Your personal information will be kept confidential. Your data will be coded whenever possible and used only for research, education, and publication in a way that does not identify you. If your results indicate an increased risk of disease, you may be offered information about a voluntary health promotion or prevention programme. By signing below, you confirm that: • You have read and understood this information. • You have had the opportunity to ask questions. • You voluntarily agree to participate in this study. Participant Name: _______________________________ Signature: ______________________________________ Date: __________________________________________ Researcher/Health Professional: ___________________ Signature: ______________________________________ Date: __________________________________________</text>
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To be adjusted

The coordinating institution that will ultimately host the central database once this has been agreed upon, to be added later

Research responsible unit: The John Snow Prediabetes Institute and….

'''Steering Committee ('''to be adjusted''') :'''

Christian Acheampong, MBA, Director of John Snow Pre-diabetes Institute. Olaf Jensen, PhD, MD, MPH, Vice director o147248@gmail.com ; Nailet Delgado Mujica, Ing. M.Sc. Vice director: Joseph Abesamis, MD, overall data custodian, clinical data responsible Margarita Huerte, MD, Chair IMHA 2025-27
1. Clinical and maritime-health input into the study design
2. Identification or coordination of potential Philippine participating sites; 
3. Review of available PEME data and variables * 
4. Participation in the research/steering group; or 
5. Assistance in developing the broader international collaboration through IMHA. 
-------------

'''Design of the project''' (Informed Consent Form below) 

This project is an international, multicentre, observational longitudinal health database that uses routinely collected maritime health examination data to monitor the prevalence and trends of prediabetes, diabetes T-2, hypertension, prehypertension, overweight, obesity and established prevention among maritime workers and students. The intention is to register and offer standardized prevention Inspired by the “Danish health database” (ref. 1)References 
1.	Health of the Danes  https://www.danskernessundhed.dk/

'''Strengths of the design''' • Uses routinely collected data, making it relatively inexpensive. • Can accumulate large international datasets. • Reflects real-world clinical practice. • Supports long-term surveillance of maritime workers' health. • Allow for evaluation of preventive interventions within routine healthcare. Organisers• The John Snow Prediabetes Institute in collaboration with: • Maritime Medical Health Clinics,  • The International Maritime Health Associtation (IMHA), • the Filippine Maritime Health Association

'''Objectives'''

• To establish an “International maritime health database” with samples of health examination data from the maritime clinics and the maritime schools. • To carry out literature studies on lifestyle intervention in the contexts • To describe and follow the prevalence of the target variables by age and gender over the years. (Prediabetes, T2DM, Blood pressure, BMI etc.) • To identify and offer the prediabetes remission program and to follow the effects.

'''Data content'''

Random samples of data extracted from the routine maritime health examinations in specified calendar periods.

Variables • Age • Gender: m/f • Height: cm • Weight: kg or pounds • Work: fisher, seafarer, other (student) • Officer or non-officer on board • Blood pressure • Blood sugar HbA1c or Fasting Glucose, or Post prandial • Smoking: y/n • Taking medicine: None, Metformin, Wegovy, other • Participating in a life-style health promotion plan y/n

Automatic recoding of data Excel-recoding formulas-Dec-1-2024 • Blood pressure: Normal, prehypertension, stage 1, 2 • Blood sugar: Normal, prediabetes, diabetes mellitus type 2, • BMI: normal, overweight, obese

'''Blood-sugar-Measurements'''

Either A1c mmol/mol or Fasting mg/dl (glucometer) or Postprandial sugar: mg/dl (glucometer) Validity of the method. (ref 2) Clinics without all the variables are invited to give the data they have.

'''&lt;br /&gt;
'''Use of the data for prevention'''

To describe the prevalence of Prediabetes, T2DM, Hypertension, Prehypertension and BMI in the age- and gender groups and occupational groups. Possibly, to offer a prediabetes, prehypertension remission program. To propose (inter) national maritime health policies. To be used for the student’s theses. To publish in international health journals.

'''Type of study •''' International, multicenter observational prevalence database, • Longitudinal surveillance system using repeated routine maritime health prevalence examination data. • Includes an intervention component for individuals identified with prediabetes.

'''Populations sources''' 

The database will include random samples of data extracted from routine health examinations conducted at: • Maritime clinics • Maritime schools Participants may include: • Seafarers • Fishers • Maritime students • Officers and non-officers

'''Data collection''' 

Retrospectively, the study uses secondary data obtained from existing routine medical examinations but can also collect new research-specific measurements prospectively. Key variables include: • Age • Gender: m/f • Height: cm • Weight: kg or pounds • Work: fisher, seafarer, other (student) • Officer on board7 non officer • Blood pressure • Blood sugar HbA1c or Fasting Glucose • Smoking: y/n • Taking medicine: None, Metformin, Wegovy, other • Actually, included in a health promotion program 

'''Ethics and data governance Need for ethics review.'''

This study uses sensitive health data and follows people over time. Linking records, international data sharing, and testing a prevention programme can create risks, even when names are removed. Before collecting, linking, sharing, or analysing data, each study site must send the study plan and participant information, consent process, data-flow description, and data-management plan to the appropriate ethics committee. Each site needs written approval or a legally permitted exemption. Major changes must be approved before use. If the study involves only non-sensitive health data, the Ethics committees should be involved.

'''Ethical framework and legal compliance.'''

The study will follow the Declaration of Helsinki, national research rules, the EU General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) where it applies, and the rules of participating countries. Before enrolment or data transfer, the team must record who controls and processes the data and the legal reason for using health information.

'''Consent and participant rights.'''

Participants will receive clear information about the study’s length, health data, follow-up, record linking, international sharing, and approved future research. Consent will be obtained when required. An ethics committee must approve use of data without consent. Refusing or leaving will not affect healthcare, work, training, or education. No new data will be collected after withdrawal, but anonymous data or completed analyses may not be removable. Participants will be told this beforehand.

'''Long-term follow-up and record linking.'''

Each person will receive a study code, allowing records to be linked without putting names in the central database. Each clinic or school will keep the code key separately with restricted access. The central database will hold coded data, or anonymous data when linking is finished. Exact dates and unusual details will be grouped to reduce identification risk. Further contact or record links need legal and ethics approval.

'''Where will data be stored.'''

Data will be kept only on approved servers or encrypted research systems. Names and local code keys will remain at the original site in a separate, encrypted location. Personal computers, unencrypted devices, personal email, and unapproved cloud services are banned. Security includes encryption, backups, logs, malware protection, and an incident plan. Study documents must name the host institution and storage location.

'''Who can access the data.'''

Only named, authorised team members may access the minimum information needed for approved work. They must follow confidentiality rules, use individual accounts and secure sign-in, and lose access when their role ends. Collaborators may receive only necessary coded or anonymous data after approval. Employers, crewing companies, insurers, and other unauthorised parties will not receive personal-level data. Reports will hide small groups or identifying details.

'''Data sharing, retention, and destruction.'''

Institutions will sign agreements covering responsibilities, approved uses, security, breach reporting, further sharing, and data return or deletion. International transfers must follow the law and use extra safeguards when required. Before the study starts, the plan must state how long data will be kept (e.g. 5 years). Afterwards, files and backups will be securely deleted or made permanently anonymous. Code keys will be destroyed unless longer storage is approved.

'''Risk management and oversight.'''

The main risk is that private information could be exposed or linked to a person, causing work, social, or insurance harm. The team will collect only necessary data, separate names from research data, limit access, train staff, secure transfers and storage, keep logs, and respond quickly to suspected breaches. The coordinating researcher will record approvals, access permissions, agreements, and incidents. Any prevention or lifestyle programme tested as research needs ethics approval before it begins.

'''Exclusion Criteria''' 

• Inability to provide informed consent  

• Expressed no-interest to participate 

'''The primary outcomes include''' • Prevalence of Prediabetes, and T2DM • Prevalence of Hypertension and Prehypertension • Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity • Trends by age and sex over time • Prevalence of participation in a prevention program Planned analyses • Estimate disease prevalence. • Compare health indicators across age, gender and working groups. • Monitor trends over multiple years. • Evaluate outcomes of lifestyle interventions. • Support health policy development, student research, and scientific publications.

'''Statistical analysis plan'''

''1. Data preparation''

Check the dataset for missing values, impossible values, and duplicates. Recode the main variables into categories: BMI as normal, overweight, or obese; blood pressure as normal, prehypertension, stage 1, or stage 2; and blood sugar as normal, prediabetes, or type 2 diabetes.

''2. Descriptive statistics''

Summarize age using mean, standard deviation, median, and range. Summarize categorical variables such as gender, work type, smoking, medication use, BMI group, blood pressure group, and blood sugar group using numbers and percentages. These data is presented in age- and gender groups. 

''3. Prevalence estimates''


Calculate the prevalence of overweight, obesity, prediabetes, diabetes, prehypertension, and hypertension. Report each prevalence as a percentage with a 95% confidence interval.

''4. Group comparisons''


Compare prevalence by age group, gender, work type, and officer/non-officer status. Use chi-square tests for categorical comparisons and t-tests or ANOVA for continuous variables such as BMI or blood pressure.

''5. Trend analysis over time''


If data are available from several years, changes in prevalence over time using tables and line graphs. Test trends using chi-square trend tests or simple logistic regression with year as the predictor.

''6. Prediabetes remission program analysis''


Among participants offered the lifestyle intervention, compare blood sugar, BMI, and blood pressure before and after the program. Use paired t-tests for continuous measures and McNemar’s test for changes in categories, such as prediabetes returning to normal blood sugar.

''7. Multivariable analysis''


Logistic regression to identify factors associated with prediabetes, obesity, and hypertension. Possible predictors include age, gender, occupation, officer status, smoking, BMI, and medication use.

''8. Missing data''

Report the amount of missing data for each variable. For the simple analysis, use available-case analysis and clearly state the number of participants included in each analysis.

''9. Statistical significance''
Use a significance level of 0.05. Present results with 95% confidence intervals rather than relying only on p-values.Principio del formulario

'''INFORMED CONSENT FORM'''

International Maritime Health Database 

You are invited to participate in the International Maritime Health Database, which aims to improve the health of seafarers, fishers, and maritime students by monitoring conditions such as prediabetes, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and obesity. If you agree to participate, information from your routine maritime medical examination (such as age, sex, height, weight, blood pressure, blood glucose, smoking status, medication, and occupation) will be included in a confidential research database. Your participation is voluntary. You may refuse to participate or withdraw your consent at any time without affecting your medical care, employment, or education. Your personal information will be kept confidential. Your data will be coded whenever possible and used only for research, education, and publication in a way that does not identify you. If your results indicate an increased risk of disease, you may be offered information about a voluntary health promotion or prevention programme. By signing below, you confirm that: • You have read and understood this information. • You have had the opportunity to ask questions. • You voluntarily agree to participate in this study. Participant Name: _______________________________ Signature: ______________________________________ Date: __________________________________________ Researcher/Health Professional: ___________________ Signature: ______________________________________ Date: __________________________________________</text>
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    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral emotions and ethical behaviour</title>
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&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit above to match the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) in the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|2026 list of topics]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not include your name (authorship is as per the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page's history]]).&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example:

{{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)&lt;br&gt;{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings:
** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings)
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

==Key points==
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion 
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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      <text bytes="11329" sha1="14adsuvhgs4fcffhivokm74bk4p2cp7" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Moral emotions and ethical behaviour&lt;br&gt;How do moral emotions motivate ethical and prosocial action?}}
__TOC__
==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example:

{{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)&lt;br&gt;{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings:
** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings)
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

==Moral Emotions==
* General introduction into what moral emotions are; moral emotions are linked to a person's moral compass and conscious and help establish the development of an individual's learning of the difference between right and wrong. Explain the different types of moral emotions of shame, guilt, sympathy, empathy, contempt, anger and disgust (Turner, J.H., Stets, J.E. (2006). 
* Self- conscious emotions - Shame, guilt, embarrassment, and pride (June Price Tangney, Jeff Stuewig, Debra J. Mashek. 2007. Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior. ''Annual Review of Psychology'' 58:345-372. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145) 
* other-focused moral emotions - Righteous anger, Contempt, Disgust, elevation and gratitude

=== Background ===

* Plato
* Kant
* Adam Smith
* David Hume

=== Modern theories ===

* Piaget
* Kohlberg

=== Environmental influences ===

* Adverse Childhood experiences - (Katharine D. Wojcik, Daniel W. Cox, David Kealy, Adverse childhood experiences and shame- and guilt-proneness: Examining the mediating roles of interpersonal problems in a community sample, Child Abuse &amp; Neglect, Volume 98, 2019, 104233, ISSN 0145-2134, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104233&lt;/nowiki&gt; .)

=== Development ===

* theory of mind

== Ethical and Pro-social action ==

== How moral emotions influence Moral life ==
*
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>14adsuvhgs4fcffhivokm74bk4p2cp7</sha1>
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    <revision>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Morality]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]]</comment>
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__TOC__
==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example:

{{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)&lt;br&gt;{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings:
** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings)
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

==Moral Emotions==
* General introduction into what moral emotions are; moral emotions are linked to a person's moral compass and conscious and help establish the development of an individual's learning of the difference between right and wrong. Explain the different types of moral emotions of shame, guilt, sympathy, empathy, contempt, anger and disgust (Turner, J.H., Stets, J.E. (2006). 
* Self- conscious emotions - Shame, guilt, embarrassment, and pride (June Price Tangney, Jeff Stuewig, Debra J. Mashek. 2007. Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior. ''Annual Review of Psychology'' 58:345-372. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145) 
* other-focused moral emotions - Righteous anger, Contempt, Disgust, elevation and gratitude

=== Background ===

* Plato
* Kant
* Adam Smith
* David Hume

=== Modern theories ===

* Piaget
* Kohlberg

=== Environmental influences ===

* Adverse Childhood experiences - (Katharine D. Wojcik, Daniel W. Cox, David Kealy, Adverse childhood experiences and shame- and guilt-proneness: Examining the mediating roles of interpersonal problems in a community sample, Child Abuse &amp; Neglect, Volume 98, 2019, 104233, ISSN 0145-2134, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104233&lt;/nowiki&gt; .)

=== Development ===

* theory of mind

== Ethical and Pro-social action ==

== How moral emotions influence Moral life ==
*
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Morality]]</text>
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        <id>10242</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>added [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]]</comment>
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__TOC__
==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example:

{{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)&lt;br&gt;{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings:
** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings)
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

==Moral Emotions==
* General introduction into what moral emotions are; moral emotions are linked to a person's moral compass and conscious and help establish the development of an individual's learning of the difference between right and wrong. Explain the different types of moral emotions of shame, guilt, sympathy, empathy, contempt, anger and disgust (Turner, J.H., Stets, J.E. (2006). 
* Self- conscious emotions - Shame, guilt, embarrassment, and pride (June Price Tangney, Jeff Stuewig, Debra J. Mashek. 2007. Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior. ''Annual Review of Psychology'' 58:345-372. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145) 
* other-focused moral emotions - Righteous anger, Contempt, Disgust, elevation and gratitude

=== Background ===

* Plato
* Kant
* Adam Smith
* David Hume

=== Modern theories ===

* Piaget
* Kohlberg

=== Environmental influences ===

* Adverse Childhood experiences - (Katharine D. Wojcik, Daniel W. Cox, David Kealy, Adverse childhood experiences and shame- and guilt-proneness: Examining the mediating roles of interpersonal problems in a community sample, Child Abuse &amp; Neglect, Volume 98, 2019, 104233, ISSN 0145-2134, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104233&lt;/nowiki&gt; .)

=== Development ===

* theory of mind

== Ethical and Pro-social action ==

== How moral emotions influence Moral life ==
*
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Morality]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]]</text>
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      <text bytes="12534" sha1="m7fe3vpp4pjukieilby32vj5h8do7kw" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Moral emotions and ethical behaviour&lt;br&gt;How do moral emotions motivate ethical and prosocial action?}}
__TOC__
==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]
Imagine that you are doing your weekly shopping and you come across a homeless person who is asking for food or money. The person present in an unkempt state and initially you make sure you walk past, your stomach drops, and subconsciously wrinkle your nose and you decide to take a longer path to the shops in order to avoid them. When paying for your groceries, you realise that you don’t have quite enough to pay the full amount, instantly, your face gets hot as there is a line of people waiting behind you and it seems they are all staring at you, judging your error. Whilst you are talking to the register assistant, asking for some time to go through your groceries to determine which items are a priority, the person behind you offers to make up the difference. Suddenly, the hot feeling in your face becomes a warm feeling in your chest and you start profusely thanking the person and ask if there is anything you can do to make it up to them, they respond with “when you are in a position to pay it forward to some else, please do so.”
You walk back to the car and are amazed at the kindness of strangers and come across the person who was asking for money again. This time, you decide that even though you don’t have much in the way of money, you want to offer the person one of the ready meals in your shopping and wish the person a good day. Walking away, you feel a warm sensation in your chest and your back straightened and you find you are smiling to yourself.{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example:

{{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)&lt;br&gt;{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings:
** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings)
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

==Moral Emotions==
* General introduction into what moral emotions are; moral emotions are linked to a person's moral compass and conscious and help establish the development of an individual's learning of the difference between right and wrong. Explain the different types of moral emotions of shame, guilt, sympathy, empathy, contempt, anger and disgust (Turner, J.H., Stets, J.E. (2006). 
* Self- conscious emotions - Shame, guilt, embarrassment, and pride (June Price Tangney, Jeff Stuewig, Debra J. Mashek. 2007. Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior. ''Annual Review of Psychology'' 58:345-372. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145) 
* other-focused moral emotions - Righteous anger, Contempt, Disgust, elevation and gratitude

=== Background ===

* Plato
* Kant
* Adam Smith
* David Hume

=== Modern theories ===

* Piaget
* Kohlberg

=== Environmental influences ===

* Adverse Childhood experiences - (Katharine D. Wojcik, Daniel W. Cox, David Kealy, Adverse childhood experiences and shame- and guilt-proneness: Examining the mediating roles of interpersonal problems in a community sample, Child Abuse &amp; Neglect, Volume 98, 2019, 104233, ISSN 0145-2134, &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104233&lt;/nowiki&gt; .)

=== Development ===

* theory of mind

== Ethical and Pro-social action ==

== How moral emotions influence Moral life ==
*
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Morality]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]]</text>
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      <text bytes="898" sha1="371lahaxjyu639fudosm85ypmfljjs2" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==


My name is Tamara and I am studying a Bachelor of Science of Psychology at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra].

My hobbies include:

* Netball
* Running
* Spending time with my friends
* Reading

[[File:Cavapoo dog chasing a maltipoo with a ball (11881).jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Two Cavoodles playing with a ball. ]]
I have two Cavoodle dogs:

* Maggie
* Rosie

== Book chapter I am working on ==
The list of topics is available [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|here]]. The chapter I am working on is [[Athletic identity loss and returning to sport after injury]]. 

== Social contributions ==
List three types of social contributions from 2026 or past book chapters. 

Include a numbered list with what action you took and link to the edit (Tute 2 describes how).

# Edit 1 eg. Added a title
# Edit 2 eg. Asked a question
# Edit 3 eg. Added to discussion</text>
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      <text bytes="989" sha1="q60sdhdhhuv5pehew289u9z2x0s40uw" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==


My name is Tamara and I am studying a Bachelor of Science of Psychology at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra].

My hobbies include:

* Netball
* Running
* Spending time with my friends
* Reading

[[File:Cavapoo dog chasing a maltipoo with a ball (11881).jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Two Cavoodles playing with a ball. ]]
I have two Cavoodle dogs:

* Maggie
* Rosie

== Book chapter I am working on ==
The list of topics is available [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026|here]]. The chapter I am working on is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Athletic identity loss and returning to sport after injury|Athletic identity loss and returning to sport after injury]].

== Social contributions ==
List three types of social contributions from 2026 or past book chapters. 

Include a numbered list with what action you took and link to the edit (Tute 2 describes how).

# Edit 1 eg. Added a title
# Edit 2 eg. Asked a question
# Edit 3 eg. Added to discussion</text>
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I am studying psychology at the University of Canberra

== Book chapter ==

== Social contributions ==
[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Need_to_love_and_be_loved&amp;action=history Created a subtitle on a current book chapter]</text>
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I am studying psychology at the University of Canberra

== Book chapter ==

== Social contributions ==

* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Need_to_love_and_be_loved&amp;action=history Created a subtitle on a current book chapter]</text>
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      <comment>/* Brief Biography */</comment>
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      <text bytes="1065" sha1="03d2pnx69menfcwbe66sa3a3m9x785a" xml:space="preserve">== Brief Biography ==

Hi,

My name is Xander and I am third year student at the University of Canberra who is studying psychology. 

I am very passionate about:

* Music;
* Film; and
* Television. 

== Book Chapter ==

I am working on the chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Social connection and emotion regulation|social connection and emotion regulation]]. Feel free to suggest any references or content that I should address in the discussion page!

== Social Contributions ==

* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FGetting_started&amp;diff=2823064&amp;oldid=2823062 Added the template and edited the title for this page (19/08/2026)]

* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FMental_health_first_aid_and_helping_behaviour&amp;diff=2823426&amp;oldid=2823423 Added the template and edited the title for this page (20/08/2026)]

* [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=806521 Posted a reply to a UCLearn discussion post (20/08/2026)]</text>
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      <text bytes="1624" sha1="rxkpdorsl128d4ef0flxt4mtxy78p97" xml:space="preserve">== Brief Biography ==

Hi,

My name is Xander and I am third year student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] who is studying psychology. 

I am very passionate about:

* Music
* Film and television
* Things associated with fantasy or the medieval period
Some of my favourite films and television shows (not in order) include:

* [[wikipedia:The_Lord_of_the_Rings_(film_series)|Lord of the Rings]] (the whole trilogy)
* [[w:Buffy_the_Vampire_Slayer|Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]
* [[w:Good_Will_Hunting|Good Will Hunting]]
* [[w:Adventure_Time|Adventure Time]]
* [[w:The_Dark_Knight|The Dark Knight]]

When it comes to music I mainly listen to genres ranging from [[w:2000s_in_music|2000s pop]] to [[w:Heavy_metal_music|heavy metal]]. 

== Book Chapter ==

I am working on the chapter [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Social connection and emotion regulation|social connection and emotion regulation]]. Feel free to suggest any references or content that I should address in the discussion page!

== Social Contributions ==

* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FGetting_started&amp;diff=2823064&amp;oldid=2823062 Added the template and edited the title for this page (19/08/2026)]

* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FMental_health_first_aid_and_helping_behaviour&amp;diff=2823426&amp;oldid=2823423 Added the template and edited the title for this page (20/08/2026)]

* [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/455261?entry_id=806521 Posted a reply to a UCLearn discussion post (20/08/2026)]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Perfectionism and procrastination</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>331301</id>
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      <id>2824248</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>U3222012</username>
        <id>2968463</id>
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      <comment>/* Reference material */ Reply</comment>
      <origin>2824248</origin>
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      <text bytes="1830" sha1="28oosb1uu3pnch2ag6em1qozcoobyml" xml:space="preserve">== Reference material ==

Hi, I recently did some work on aspects of perfectionism and procrastination. You may find these starter references helpful. Goodluck.

Flett, G. L., Blankstein, K. R., Hewitt, P. L., &amp; Koledin, S. (1992). Components of perfectionism and procrastination in college students. ''Social Behavior &amp; Personality: An International Journal'', 20(2), 85-93. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.1992.20.2.85

Frost, R. O., Marten, P., Lahart, C., &amp; Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism. ''Cognitive Therapy and Research'', 14(5), 449-468. [https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1007/BF01172967 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01172967]

Holden, C. L. (2020). The 'perfect' counsellor: Personality factors and multidimensional perfectionism. ''British Journal of Guidance &amp; Counselling'', 48(2), 183-194. https://doi.org/10.1080/03069885.2019.1682122

Stoeber, J., &amp; Otto, K. (2006). Positive conceptions of perfectionism: Approaches, evidence, challenges. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', 10(4), 295-319. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_2

[[User:StretchBeyond|StretchBeyond]] ([[User talk:StretchBeyond|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/StretchBeyond|contribs]]) 22:10, 19 August 2026 (UTC)

:Hi, thank you so much! I already had some of these articals, but one of them was new to me. This was really helpful! [[User:U3222012|U3222012]] ([[User talk:U3222012|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3222012|contribs]]) 09:30, 22 August 2026 (UTC)

== Check out other chapters about procrastination ==

There have been several previous procrastination chapters, so make sure to check them out: [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Procrastination]]. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 02:12, 20 August 2026 (UTC)</text>
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      <text bytes="848" sha1="jjvp582kr094x5u65csbutunsc15skt" xml:space="preserve">== ABOUT ME ==
I am studying [[Motivation and emotion]] and studying at the [http://Canberra.edu.au University of Canberra] 
[[File:Old man reading newspaper early in the morning at Basantapur-IMG 6800.jpg|thumb|375x375px|'''Figure 1.''' ''Reading is one of my hobbies and interests.'']] 

Some of my hobbies include: 

* [[w:Reading|Reading]]
* Gymming 
* Painting 
* Trying different cuisines 

== Book Chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing|Emotional Intelligence and Emotional Wellbeing]]

 
== Social contributions ==

# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmotional_intelligence_and_emotional_wellbeing&amp;diff=2821919&amp;oldid=2821918 Removed unnecessary info]
# Suggested chapters 
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== ABOUT ME ==
I am studying [[Motivation and emotion]] and studying at the [http://Canberra.edu.au University of Canberra]

Some of my hobbies include: 

* [[w:Reading|Reading]]
* Gymming 
* Painting 
* Trying different cuisines 

== Book Chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing|Emotional Intelligence and Emotional Wellbeing]]

 
== Social contributions ==

# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEmotional_intelligence_and_emotional_wellbeing&amp;diff=2821919&amp;oldid=2821918 Removed unnecessary info]
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      <text bytes="532" sha1="6kfpfex8xa8rxzfe7akcz42l17cxyfx" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi! My name is Georgia and I am a third-year student studying at the University of Canberra. I am interested in studying psychology and hope to become a psychologist specialising in ADF and Military veterans! 

== Book Chapter ==
This is my book chapter for Motivation and Emotion 2026: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-determination theory and military veteran reintegration]]

== Social Contributions ==
#Contributed to discussion forum: https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558</text>
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      <text bytes="830" sha1="itfnz2pp11n8tcouk5jyfqwh0ur6ayr" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi, I am a third year student and I am currently studying Psychology and Law at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. This semester I am completing the unit [[motivation and emotion]].

== Hobbies ==
[[File:Sulphur-crested cockatoos on a gum tree.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Nature walks are a perfect way to experience native flora and fauna|200x200px]]
* Hockey
*# [[w:Field_hockey|Field]]
*# [[w:Indoor_hockey|Indoor]]
* Karaoke
* Nature Walking 

== Book Chapter ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Moral emotions and ethical behaviour|Moral emotions and ethical behaviour]]

== Social Contributions ==

# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FAdolescent_risk-taking_and_reward-system_development&amp;diff=2823864&amp;oldid=2822474 Added a subtitle]
#</text>
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      <comment>advert1 ([[m:User:ZbVl/VD|Vandoom]])</comment>
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== 2026-08-21 ==
&lt;div class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot;&gt;[[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Hello. Apologies for writing this in English, but I wanted to let you know that one or more of [[Special:Contributions/&amp;#126;2026-45454-05|your recent contributions]] have been undone because they appeared to be promotional. [[:m:en:WP:SOAPBOX|Advertising or using &lt;span style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot;&gt;Wikiversity&lt;/span&gt; as a &quot;soapbox&quot;]] are not permitted. Take a look at the welcome pages to learn more about &lt;span style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot;&gt;Wikiversity&lt;/span&gt;. Thanks. &lt;/div&gt;&lt;!-- Glow-advert1 @ 1787315700262.7s --&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:35, 21 August 2026 (UTC)</text>
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== Licensing ==
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== Licensing ==
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== Licensing ==
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    <title>User:Reillyu3280706</title>
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      <contributor>
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      <comment>added bio</comment>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1303" sha1="olswuqzz7z5ly6hx6v68ak377igjn32" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==

Hi! I'm an undergraduate psychology student in Australia with an interest in understanding human behaviour, individual differences, motivation, and wellbeing. Through my studies, I have particularly enjoyed exploring how psychological research can be applied to everyday behaviour and real-world contexts.

== Academic interests ==

My academic interests include personality and individual differences, motivation and emotion, psychological wellbeing, risk-taking behaviour, and the application of psychology within community settings. I am particularly interested in how individual differences can influence why people behave differently in similar situations.

== Interests ==

Outside of psychology, I enjoy art, drawing and creative projects, journalling, fitness, cooking, and spending time outdoors. I particularly enjoy opportunities that combine creativity with learning and communication.

== Motivation and Emotion project ==

For the Motivation and Emotion book project, I am developing a chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Impulsivity versus sensation-seeking|impulsivity and sensation-seeking]]. The chapter explores how these related but distinguishable psychological constructs can influence behaviour, particularly risk-taking and alcohol-related behaviour.</text>
      <sha1>olswuqzz7z5ly6hx6v68ak377igjn32</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2823924</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Reillyu3280706</username>
        <id>3106308</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* About me */</comment>
      <origin>2823924</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1317" sha1="7jl8eurdzus97lasxvq2omdemw3hgyv" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==

Hello! I'm a Bachelors of Science (Psychology) student in Australia with an interest in understanding human behaviour, individual differences, motivation, and wellbeing. Throughout my studies, I have particularly enjoyed exploring how psychological research can be applied to everyday behaviour and real world contexts.

== Academic interests ==

My academic interests include personality and individual differences, motivation and emotion, psychological wellbeing, risk taking behaviour, and the application of psychology within community settings. I am particularly interested in how individual differences can influence why people behave differently in similar situations.

== Interests ==

Outside of psychology, I enjoy art, drawing and creative projects, journalling, fitness, cooking, and spending time outdoors. I particularly enjoy opportunities that combine creativity with learning and communication.

== Motivation and Emotion project ==

For the Motivation and Emotion book project, I am developing a chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Impulsivity versus sensation-seeking|impulsivity and sensation-seeking]]. The chapter explores how these related but distinguishable psychological constructs can influence behaviour, particularly risk taking and alcohol related behaviour.</text>
      <sha1>7jl8eurdzus97lasxvq2omdemw3hgyv</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2823927</id>
      <parentid>2823924</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-21T20:16:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Reillyu3280706</username>
        <id>3106308</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added in social contributions.</comment>
      <origin>2823927</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2645" sha1="gfmsodm07zm91hd4rrmtt04q0x5qtbr" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==

Hello! I'm a Bachelors of Science (Psychology) student in Australia with an interest in understanding human behaviour, individual differences, motivation, and wellbeing. Throughout my studies, I have particularly enjoyed exploring how psychological research can be applied to everyday behaviour and real world contexts.

== Academic interests ==

My academic interests include personality and individual differences, motivation and emotion, psychological wellbeing, risk taking behaviour, and the application of psychology within community settings. I am particularly interested in how individual differences can influence why people behave differently in similar situations.

== Interests ==

Outside of psychology, I enjoy art, drawing and creative projects, journalling, fitness, cooking, and spending time outdoors. I particularly enjoy opportunities that combine creativity with learning and communication.

== Motivation and Emotion project ==

For the Motivation and Emotion book project, I am developing a chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Impulsivity versus sensation-seeking|impulsivity and sensation-seeking]]. The chapter explores how these related but distinguishable psychological constructs can influence behaviour, particularly risk taking and alcohol related behaviour.

== Social contributions ==

# '''Talk page peer feedback:''' I provided constructive feedback on the [[Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Consumer emotion measurement#Social Contribution from Reillyu3280706|Consumer emotion measurement chapter]], commenting on the effectiveness of its opening scenario and focus questions and suggesting a stronger connection between emotional responses and consumer behaviour.

# '''Direct Wikiversity edit:''' I contributed to the Self-determination theory and social media use chapter by identifying and removing an accidentally duplicated set of focus questions from the Overview, improving the clarity and organisation of the page. [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Self-determination_theory_and_social_media_use&amp;diff=prev&amp;oldid=2823926 View direct editing evidence]

# '''UCLearn discussion contribution:''' I contributed to the Topic Development discussion by sharing guidance with other students about creating an original educational figure, uploading it to Wikimedia Commons, embedding it within a Wikiversity chapter, providing a descriptive caption, and appropriately acknowledging the psychological research informing the figure. [https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456861 View discussion contribution]</text>
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    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Athletic identity loss and returning to sport after injury</title>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;Under development.&quot;</comment>
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    <revision>
      <id>2823947</id>
      <parentid>2823944</parentid>
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      <text bytes="10260" sha1="ox2sw4k2tc7givy65n0ipks331ox7pp" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Title goes here:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle goes here?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) above so that it matches the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/Current|topic list]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not add your name; authorship is shown in the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page history]].&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example:

{{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)&lt;br&gt;{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings:
** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings)
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

==Key points==
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion 
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>ox2sw4k2tc7givy65n0ipks331ox7pp</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2823959</id>
      <parentid>2823947</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T00:59:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tammysaurus</username>
        <id>3103734</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Title update</comment>
      <origin>2823959</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="10377" sha1="dcb2q9cuqtbuguop0q7mxulmelbdg1o" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Athletic identity loss and returning to sport after injury:&lt;br&gt;How does injury related disruption to athletic identity affect motivation to return to sport?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) above so that it matches the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/Current|topic list]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not add your name; authorship is shown in the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page history]].&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example:

{{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)&lt;br&gt;{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings:
** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings)
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

==Key points==
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion 
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>dcb2q9cuqtbuguop0q7mxulmelbdg1o</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824227</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-08-22T09:06:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Jtneill moved page [[Athletic identity loss and returning to sport after injury]] to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Athletic identity loss and returning to sport after injury]] without leaving a redirect: Move to sub-page</comment>
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      <text bytes="10377" sha1="dcb2q9cuqtbuguop0q7mxulmelbdg1o" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Athletic identity loss and returning to sport after injury:&lt;br&gt;How does injury related disruption to athletic identity affect motivation to return to sport?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) above so that it matches the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/Current|topic list]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not add your name; authorship is shown in the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page history]].&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example:

{{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)&lt;br&gt;{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings:
** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings)
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

==Key points==
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion 
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>dcb2q9cuqtbuguop0q7mxulmelbdg1o</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Zozo06</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>331381</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2823953</id>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T00:48:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zozo06</username>
        <id>3108967</id>
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      <comment>started page</comment>
      <origin>2823953</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9" sha1="bx0995d93s92quekz5k7ytcatvbrsec" xml:space="preserve">Hi I'm Zo</text>
      <sha1>bx0995d93s92quekz5k7ytcatvbrsec</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2823954</id>
      <parentid>2823953</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T00:52:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zozo06</username>
        <id>3108967</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added headings</comment>
      <origin>2823954</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="164" sha1="2taek2tjavuxprrw73rj0p686xot4x9" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi I'm Zo

- template is on topic page. 

== Hobbies ==

# horse riding 
# eating and playing sims 4 

== Book chapter ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>2taek2tjavuxprrw73rj0p686xot4x9</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2823955</id>
      <parentid>2823954</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T00:53:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zozo06</username>
        <id>3108967</id>
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      <origin>2823955</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="165" sha1="jbscsx7g94frqbjtcxlkctc0inj85wo" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi I'm Zo

- template is on topic page. 

== Hobbies ==

# horse riding 
# eating and playing sims 4 


== Book chapter ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>jbscsx7g94frqbjtcxlkctc0inj85wo</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2823958</id>
      <parentid>2823955</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T00:56:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zozo06</username>
        <id>3108967</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* About me */ add links</comment>
      <origin>2823958</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="277" sha1="11kz40gv07p8g8iqwvauwxy1k5r7pm4" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi I'm Zo

[https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/assignments/syllabus motivation and emotion]

- template is on topic page. 

== Hobbies ==

# [[w:Equestrianism|horse riding]]
# eating and playing sims 4 


== Book chapter ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>11kz40gv07p8g8iqwvauwxy1k5r7pm4</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Mesolimbic pathway and addiction motivation</title>
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      <text bytes="159" sha1="e31l7bx6s4g8oke8zccl1a9aytqrc2o" xml:space="preserve">== Mesolimbic pathway and addiction motivation ==

=== What role does the ventral tegmental area to nucleus accumbens pathway play in addictive behaviours? ===</text>
      <sha1>e31l7bx6s4g8oke8zccl1a9aytqrc2o</sha1>
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    <revision>
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      <contributor>
        <username>U3280499</username>
        <id>3106560</id>
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      <comment>insert template</comment>
      <origin>2823967</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="10260" sha1="ox2sw4k2tc7givy65n0ipks331ox7pp" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Title goes here:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle goes here?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) above so that it matches the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/Current|topic list]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not add your name; authorship is shown in the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page history]].&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example:

{{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)&lt;br&gt;{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings:
** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings)
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

==Key points==
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion 
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>ox2sw4k2tc7givy65n0ipks331ox7pp</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2823976</id>
      <parentid>2823967</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T01:33:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3280499</username>
        <id>3106560</id>
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      <origin>2823976</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) above so that it matches the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/Current|topic list]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not add your name; authorship is shown in the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page history]].&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example:

{{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)&lt;br&gt;{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings:
** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings)
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

==Key points==
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion 
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>q8pypnr8l0pclx8q4zkofyfl8ma2awn</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neuroscience]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]]</comment>
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&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) above so that it matches the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/Current|topic list]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not add your name; authorship is shown in the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page history]].&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example:

{{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)&lt;br&gt;{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings:
** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings)
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

==Key points==
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion 
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
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My name is Felicity (Flick) and I am a third-year Psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

== My interests ==

== Book chapter I'm working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <comment>added an image</comment>
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      <text bytes="368" sha1="k1it3rn7zbmpvqsfbhx1s9shhafzw2a" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
My name is Felicity (Flick) and I am a third-year Psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

== My hobbies ==
[[File:Three point shoot.JPG|thumb|135x135px|'''Figure 1.''' Basketball]]

* Watching basketball
* Cooking
* Reading non-fiction
* Travelling

== Book chapter I'm working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
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My name is Felicity (Flick) and I am a third-year Psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

== My hobbies ==
[[File:Three point shoot.JPG|thumb|135x135px|'''Figure 1.''' Basketball]]

* Watching basketball
* Cooking
* Reading non-fiction
* Travelling

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="502" sha1="hbouaclesixvjz34jh8v9oprq5asf82" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
My name is Felicity (Flick) and I am a third-year Psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

== My hobbies ==
[[File:Three point shoot.JPG|thumb|251x251px|'''Figure 1.''' Basketball]]

* Watching basketball
* Cooking
* Reading non-fiction books
* Travelling

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="505" sha1="kb5x81u5s7ngrqyrnpircw7m7m99sdo" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
My name is Felicity (Flick) and I am a third-year Psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

== My hobbies ==
[[File:Three point shoot.JPG|thumb|251x251px|'''Figure 1.''' Basketball]]

* Watching basketball
* Cooking
* Reading non-fiction books
* Travelling

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

== Social contributions ==

#</text>
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      <text bytes="593" sha1="hkowa7shk64ecduet585dlrx3nhc51d" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
My name is Felicity (Flick) and I am a third-year Psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

== My hobbies ==
[[File:Three point shoot.JPG|thumb|251x251px|'''Figure 1.''' Basketball]]

* Watching basketball
* Cooking
* Reading non-fiction books
* Travelling

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

== Social contributions ==

#https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558?entry_id=806474
#</text>
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My name is Felicity (Flick) and I am a third-year Psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

== My hobbies ==
[[File:Three point shoot.JPG|thumb|251x251px|'''Figure 1.''' Basketball]]

* Watching basketball
* Cooking
* Reading non-fiction books
* Travelling

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

== Social contributions ==

#https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558?entry_id=806474
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Developing_a_growth_mindset&amp;veaction=edit Added a title and sub-title to the page. Editing Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Developing a growth mindset - Wikiversity]</text>
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My name is Felicity (Flick) and I am a third-year Psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

== My hobbies ==
[[File:Three point shoot.JPG|thumb|150x150px|'''Figure 1.''' Basketball]]

* Watching basketball
* Cooking
* Reading non-fiction books
* Travelling

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

== Social contributions ==

#https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558?entry_id=806474
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Developing_a_growth_mindset&amp;veaction=edit Added a title and sub-title to the page. Editing Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Developing a growth mindset - Wikiversity]</text>
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My name is Felicity (Flick) and I am a third-year Psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

== My hobbies ==
[[File:Three point shoot.JPG|thumb|150x150px|'''Figure 1.''' Basketball]]I enjoy a variety of hobbies including:
* Watching basketball
* Cooking
* Reading non-fiction books
* Travelling
* Learning new things

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

== Social contributions ==

#https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558?entry_id=806474
#[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2026/Developing_a_growth_mindset&amp;veaction=edit Added a title and sub-title to the page. Editing Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Developing a growth mindset - Wikiversity]</text>
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      <text bytes="629" sha1="q7a3wqa9wwu55452sm00dnjqozpnia5" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
My name is [[wikipedia:Felicity_(given_name)|Felicity]] (Flick) and I am a third-year Psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

== My hobbies ==
[[File:Three point shoot.JPG|thumb|251x251px|'''Figure 1.''' Basketball]]

* Watching basketball
* Cooking
* Reading non-fiction books
* Travelling

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

== Social contributions ==

#https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558?entry_id=806474
#</text>
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      <contributor>
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My name is [[wikipedia:Felicity_(given_name)|Felicity]] (Flick) and I am a third-year Psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

== My hobbies ==
[[File:Three point shoot.JPG|thumb|251x251px|'''Figure 1.''' Basketball]]I work full-time and study part-time. I am also a Mum to two busy and hungry teenagers although in my downtime, I enjoy:
* Watching basketball
* Cooking
* Reading non-fiction books
* Travelling
* Learning new things

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

== Social contributions ==

#https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558?entry_id=806474
#</text>
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      <comment>reduced image size</comment>
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      <text bytes="770" sha1="4km216bjbnr418icbuxrsawmaissa64" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
My name is [[wikipedia:Felicity_(given_name)|Felicity]] (Flick) and I am a third-year Psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

== My hobbies ==
[[File:Three point shoot.JPG|thumb|200x200px|'''Figure 1.''' Basketball]]I work full-time and study part-time. I am also a Mum to two busy and hungry teenagers although in my downtime, I enjoy:
* Watching basketball
* Cooking
* Reading non-fiction books
* Travelling
* Learning new things

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

== Social contributions ==

#https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558?entry_id=806474
#</text>
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My name is [[wikipedia:Felicity_(given_name)|Felicity]] (Flick) and I am a third-year Psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

== My hobbies ==
[[File:Three point shoot.JPG|thumb|200x200px|'''Figure 1.''' Basketball]]I work full-time and study part-time. I am also a Mum to two busy and hungry teenagers although in my downtime, I enjoy:
* Watching basketball
* Cooking
* Reading non-fiction books
* Travelling
* Learning new things

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

== Social contributions ==

#https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558?entry_id=806474
#
#</text>
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My name is [[wikipedia:Felicity_(given_name)|Felicity]] (Flick) and I am a third-year Psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

== My hobbies ==
[[File:Three point shoot.JPG|thumb|200x200px|'''Figure 1.''' Basketball]]I work full-time and study part-time. I am also a Mum to two busy and hungry teenagers although in my downtime, I enjoy:
* Watching basketball
* Cooking
* Reading non-fiction books
* Travelling
* Learning new things

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

== Social contributions ==

#https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558?entry_id=806474
#[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Developing a growth mindset|Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Developing a growth mindset - Wikiversity]] (added a title and sub-title to the page)
#</text>
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      <contributor>
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      <comment>added university of canberra link</comment>
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My name is [[wikipedia:Felicity_(given_name)|Felicity]] (Flick) and I am a third-year Psychology student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I also hold a Bachelor of Communication majoring in Public Relations and Creative Writing from the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.]

== My hobbies ==
[[File:Three point shoot.JPG|thumb|200x200px|'''Figure 1.''' Basketball]]I work full-time and study part-time. I am also a Mum to two busy and hungry teenagers although in my downtime, I enjoy:
* Watching basketball
* Cooking
* Reading non-fiction books
* Travelling
* Learning new things

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace|Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Envy in the workplace - Wikiversity]]

== Social contributions ==

#https://uclearn.canberra.edu.au/courses/20143/discussion_topics/456558?entry_id=806474
#[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Developing a growth mindset|Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Developing a growth mindset - Wikiversity]] (added a title and sub-title to the page)
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      <text bytes="188" sha1="7klswrgdjexrrd88syt3g2wwj1pzle4" xml:space="preserve">Hi, I'm Lara. I am a student of a Bachelor of Psychology at the University of Canberra. I am majoring in Forensic and Criminal Psychology. I am enrolled in the Motivation and Emotion unit.</text>
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      <comment>corrected</comment>
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      <text bytes="185" sha1="izhq24bz6xde4vjmdw2zax6ri98biys" xml:space="preserve">Hi, I'm Lara. I am a student of a Bachelor of Psychology at the University of Canberra. I am majoring in Forensic and Legal Psychology. I am enrolled in the Motivation and Emotion unit.</text>
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      <text bytes="186" sha1="q3ujwyzphsndfhorzkoutgqvw9czgsz" xml:space="preserve">Hi, I'm Lara.

I am a student of a Bachelor of Psychology at the University of Canberra. I am majoring in Forensic and Legal Psychology. I am enrolled in the Motivation and Emotion unit.</text>
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      <contributor>
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      <comment>Added headings</comment>
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      <text bytes="426" sha1="m7i15ph4ravokje1isk7bdvumqbqcji" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi, I'm Lara.

I am a student of a Bachelor of Psychology at the University of Canberra. I am majoring in Forensic and Legal Psychology. I am enrolled in the Motivation and Emotion unit.

== Hobbies ==

* Dancing
** Hip Hop
** Musical Theatre
* Reading 
** Romance and Fantasy 
** Crime fiction
* Singing
* Gym
** Weight Training 
** Running 
* Outdoor exploring 

== Book Chapter ==

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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      <contributor>
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      <comment>/* About me */ Added links</comment>
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      <text bytes="993" sha1="s10c5j33ketollq7kyz4ex1szcs6gyf" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi, I'm Lara.

I am a student of a Bachelor of Psychology at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/?utm_source=google&amp;utm_medium=search&amp;utm_campaign=Always+On+Domestic+Search+2026&amp;utm_term=exact+match&amp;utm_content=study+at+uc&amp;ef_id=CjwKCAjw7p_UBhBlEiwAhpIs77x4iC4iEG5Ntlkxa6dYyZjS5xiDk2szB7gQSz_PO2NrHkAecH3ZkxoCEi0QAvD_BwE:G:s&amp;s_kwcid=AL!10441!3!793469273490!e!!g!!university%20of%20canberra!20950742786!163508319248&amp;gad_source=1&amp;gad_campaignid=20950742786&amp;gbraid=0AAAAADQmSqtWH8Lw6R_QcCwdCBQ0ibjDW&amp;gclid=CjwKCAjw7p_UBhBlEiwAhpIs77x4iC4iEG5Ntlkxa6dYyZjS5xiDk2szB7gQSz_PO2NrHkAecH3ZkxoCEi0QAvD_BwE University of Canberra]. I am majoring in Forensic and Legal Psychology. I am enrolled in the [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit.

== Hobbies ==

* Dancing
** Hip Hop
** Musical Theatre
* Reading 
** [[w:Romantic_fantasy|Romantasy]]
** Crime fiction
* Singing
* Gym
** Weight Training 
** Running 
* Outdoor exploring 

== Book Chapter ==

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="1108" sha1="44xpzvibitib7e6na1vtlfkmmpsqe9e" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi, I'm Lara.

I am a student of a Bachelor of Psychology at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/?utm_source=google&amp;utm_medium=search&amp;utm_campaign=Always+On+Domestic+Search+2026&amp;utm_term=exact+match&amp;utm_content=study+at+uc&amp;ef_id=CjwKCAjw7p_UBhBlEiwAhpIs77x4iC4iEG5Ntlkxa6dYyZjS5xiDk2szB7gQSz_PO2NrHkAecH3ZkxoCEi0QAvD_BwE:G:s&amp;s_kwcid=AL!10441!3!793469273490!e!!g!!university%20of%20canberra!20950742786!163508319248&amp;gad_source=1&amp;gad_campaignid=20950742786&amp;gbraid=0AAAAADQmSqtWH8Lw6R_QcCwdCBQ0ibjDW&amp;gclid=CjwKCAjw7p_UBhBlEiwAhpIs77x4iC4iEG5Ntlkxa6dYyZjS5xiDk2szB7gQSz_PO2NrHkAecH3ZkxoCEi0QAvD_BwE University of Canberra]. I am majoring in Forensic and Legal Psychology. I am enrolled in the [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit.

The book chapter I am working on is about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Apocalyptic fear|Apocalyptic Fear]].

== Hobbies ==

* Dancing
** Hip Hop
** Musical Theatre
* Reading 
** [[w:Romantic_fantasy|Romantasy]]
** Crime fiction
* Singing
* Gym
** Weight Training 
** Running 
* Outdoor exploring 

== Book Chapter ==

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="1349" sha1="acwni9x0f1ox79sh9jqumystp06vnw1" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==

* Hi, I'm Lara.

I am a student of a Bachelor of Psychology at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/?utm_source=google&amp;utm_medium=search&amp;utm_campaign=Always+On+Domestic+Search+2026&amp;utm_term=exact+match&amp;utm_content=study+at+uc&amp;ef_id=CjwKCAjw7p_UBhBlEiwAhpIs77x4iC4iEG5Ntlkxa6dYyZjS5xiDk2szB7gQSz_PO2NrHkAecH3ZkxoCEi0QAvD_BwE:G:s&amp;s_kwcid=AL!10441!3!793469273490!e!!g!!university%20of%20canberra!20950742786!163508319248&amp;gad_source=1&amp;gad_campaignid=20950742786&amp;gbraid=0AAAAADQmSqtWH8Lw6R_QcCwdCBQ0ibjDW&amp;gclid=CjwKCAjw7p_UBhBlEiwAhpIs77x4iC4iEG5Ntlkxa6dYyZjS5xiDk2szB7gQSz_PO2NrHkAecH3ZkxoCEi0QAvD_BwE University of Canberra]. I am majoring in Forensic and Legal Psychology. I am enrolled in the [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit.

The book chapter I am working on is about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Apocalyptic fear|Apocalyptic Fear]].

== Hobbies ==
[[File:Generic look of Romantic Fantasy 2 - made with DALL-E 3.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Depiction of Romantic Fantasy Fiction]]
* Dancing
* Hip Hop
* Musical Theatre

* Reading 
** [[w:Romantic_fantasy|Romantasy]]
** Crime fiction
* Singing
* Gym
** Weight Training
** Running
* Outdoor exploring

== Book Chapter ==
The book chapter I am working on is about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Apocalyptic fear|Apocalyptic Fear]].

== Social Contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>acwni9x0f1ox79sh9jqumystp06vnw1</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2823990</id>
      <parentid>2823988</parentid>
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      <contributor>
        <username>LazPulch</username>
        <id>3105917</id>
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      <text bytes="1351" sha1="6u364uwo5kzg0ymjjxnfzz2d271zx0s" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==

* Hi, I'm Lara.

I am a student of a Bachelor of Psychology at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/?utm_source=google&amp;utm_medium=search&amp;utm_campaign=Always+On+Domestic+Search+2026&amp;utm_term=exact+match&amp;utm_content=study+at+uc&amp;ef_id=CjwKCAjw7p_UBhBlEiwAhpIs77x4iC4iEG5Ntlkxa6dYyZjS5xiDk2szB7gQSz_PO2NrHkAecH3ZkxoCEi0QAvD_BwE:G:s&amp;s_kwcid=AL!10441!3!793469273490!e!!g!!university%20of%20canberra!20950742786!163508319248&amp;gad_source=1&amp;gad_campaignid=20950742786&amp;gbraid=0AAAAADQmSqtWH8Lw6R_QcCwdCBQ0ibjDW&amp;gclid=CjwKCAjw7p_UBhBlEiwAhpIs77x4iC4iEG5Ntlkxa6dYyZjS5xiDk2szB7gQSz_PO2NrHkAecH3ZkxoCEi0QAvD_BwE University of Canberra]. I am majoring in Forensic and Legal Psychology. I am enrolled in the [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit.

The book chapter I am working on is about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Apocalyptic fear|Apocalyptic Fear]].

== Hobbies ==
[[File:Generic look of Romantic Fantasy 2 - made with DALL-E 3.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Depiction of Romantic Fantasy Fiction]]
* Dancing
** Hip Hop
** Musical Theatre

* Reading 
** [[w:Romantic_fantasy|Romantasy]]
** Crime fiction
* Singing
* Gym
** Weight Training
** Running
* Outdoor exploring

== Book Chapter ==
The book chapter I am working on is about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Apocalyptic fear|Apocalyptic Fear]].

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="1507" sha1="qkv6pyhpfl1527wvxy1oyqugrlelfym" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==

* Hi, I'm Lara.

I am a student of a Bachelor of Psychology at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/?utm_source=google&amp;utm_medium=search&amp;utm_campaign=Always+On+Domestic+Search+2026&amp;utm_term=exact+match&amp;utm_content=study+at+uc&amp;ef_id=CjwKCAjw7p_UBhBlEiwAhpIs77x4iC4iEG5Ntlkxa6dYyZjS5xiDk2szB7gQSz_PO2NrHkAecH3ZkxoCEi0QAvD_BwE:G:s&amp;s_kwcid=AL!10441!3!793469273490!e!!g!!university%20of%20canberra!20950742786!163508319248&amp;gad_source=1&amp;gad_campaignid=20950742786&amp;gbraid=0AAAAADQmSqtWH8Lw6R_QcCwdCBQ0ibjDW&amp;gclid=CjwKCAjw7p_UBhBlEiwAhpIs77x4iC4iEG5Ntlkxa6dYyZjS5xiDk2szB7gQSz_PO2NrHkAecH3ZkxoCEi0QAvD_BwE University of Canberra]. I am majoring in Forensic and Legal Psychology. I am enrolled in the [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] unit.

The book chapter I am working on is about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Apocalyptic fear|Apocalyptic Fear]].

== Hobbies ==
[[File:Generic look of Romantic Fantasy 2 - made with DALL-E 3.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' Depiction of Romantic Fantasy Fiction]]
* Dancing
** Hip Hop
** Musical Theatre

* Reading 
** [[w:Romantic_fantasy|Romantasy]]
** Crime fiction
* Singing
* Gym
** Weight Training
** Running
* Outdoor exploring

== Book Chapter ==
The book chapter I am working on is about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Apocalyptic fear|Apocalyptic Fear]].

== Social Contributions ==
Add links that are evidence for social contributions/edits of pages. Do it in a numbered list. Copy and paste the link of the comparison of page revisions.</text>
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      <comment>advert1 ([[m:User:ZbVl/VD|Vandoom]])</comment>
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== 2026-08-22 ==
&lt;div class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot;&gt;[[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Hello. Apologies for writing this in English, but I wanted to let you know that one or more of [[Special:Contributions/Tkdesigner22|your recent contributions]] have been undone because they appeared to be promotional. [[:m:en:WP:SOAPBOX|Advertising or using &lt;span style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot;&gt;Wikiversity&lt;/span&gt; as a &quot;soapbox&quot;]] are not permitted. Take a look at the welcome pages to learn more about &lt;span style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot;&gt;Wikiversity&lt;/span&gt;. Thanks. &lt;/div&gt;&lt;!-- Glow-advert1 @ 1787364512939.3s --&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 02:08, 22 August 2026 (UTC)</text>
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      <comment>Created page with &quot;== [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-determination theory and dementia care|Self-determination theory and dementia care]] - How can autonomy, competence, and relatedness be supported in people living with dementia? =={{subst:ME/BCS}}&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="10483" sha1="qbpm015znodirm45x71sfpkhg855k2z" xml:space="preserve">== [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Self-determination theory and dementia care|Self-determination theory and dementia care]] - How can autonomy, competence, and relatedness be supported in people living with dementia? =={{title|Title goes here:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle goes here?}}
&lt;div align=center&gt;Edit the wording (and [[w:Stylistic or specialised usage|casing]]) above so that it matches the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/Current|topic list]].&lt;br&gt;[[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|Seek approval]] for any changes.&lt;br&gt;Do not add your name; authorship is shown in the [[Special:History/{{PAGENAME}}|page history]].&lt;/div&gt;
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example:

{{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)&lt;br&gt;{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Headings==
Use this heading structure:
* [[#Overview|Overview]]
* 3 to 6 major headings tailored to the topic; can have sub-headings:
** avoid sections with only one sub-heading (use 0 or 2+ sub-headings)
** provide an introductory paragraph before breaking into sub-sections
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

==Key points==
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion 
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

Break the sub-title down into three to five [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Focus questions|focus questions]]. Align the top-level headings with these focus questions.
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?

Ask [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] questions. For example:

{{cross}} Is there a relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (closed-ended)&lt;br&gt;{{tick}} What is the relationship between weather and criminal behaviour? (open-ended)
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Understanding dementia and modles of care ==
* Dementia is a neurodegenerative disease that progresses over time. As the disease progresses patients need more support with [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/aging-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnagi.2023.1161736/full daily functioning]. Care or support for dementia can look different for each patient and is often impacted by religious and family beliefs, socioeconomic status, location and relationship status
** What is dementia - How does it impact daily functioning? 
** The rising golbal prevalence of dementia
** Informal care - what is it, and why do people choose this over other forms?
** Formal care - what is it, and why do people choose it?
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

== Self-determination theory as a framework ==

* overview
** What is self-determination theory?
** The three psychological needs: autonomy, competence and relatedness
** The motivation continuum - from controlled to autonomous motivation

== Supporting psychological needs in formal care settings ==

* overview
** Motivations of informal caregivers through an SDT lens
** Autonomous vs controlled motivation and caregiver well-being
** Decision-making involvement and quality of life for people with dementia
** SDT-based interventions for caregivers

== Supporting psychological needs in formal care settings ==

* overview
** Supporting preferance and choice in nursing homes
** The role of staff competence and relationships
** Knowing the resident - personal characteristics and history
** Barriers to supporting autonomy in formal care

== Implications for practice ==

* overview
** Recommendations for informal caregivers
** Recommendations for formal care staff and services 
** Gaps in current research 

==Key points==
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion 
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
[[File:A picture is worth a thousand words.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Use a captioned image to illustrate the scenario]]

; Imagine this ... or Scenario ... or Case study or ... ?)

Start with an engaging [[#Scenarios|scenario, example, or case study]] which illustrates the problem and engages reader interest.

Present the scenario in a [[#Feature box|feature box]]. To change the box colour:
# Edit source
# Change &quot;theme=3&quot; to another number

Include an image and cite it (e.g., see Figure 1).

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is dementia, and what care options exsist to support people living with it?
* What does self-determination theory propose about human motivation and well-being, and why is it a useful framework for understanding dementia care? 
* How does informal caregiving affect the psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness, for both the caregiver and the person with dementia?
* What factors help or hinder autonomy, competence and relatedness for people with dementia living in aged care settings?
* What steps can caregivers take to better support anutonomy, competence and relatedness in dementia care? 


{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Understanding dementia and modles of care ==
* Dementia is a neurodegenerative disease that progresses over time. As the disease progresses patients need more support with [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/aging-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnagi.2023.1161736/full daily functioning]. Care or support for dementia can look different for each patient and is often impacted by religious and family beliefs, socioeconomic status, location and relationship status
** What is dementia - How does it impact daily functioning? 
** The rising golbal prevalence of dementia
** Informal care - what is it, and why do people choose this over other forms?
** Formal care - what is it, and why do people choose it?
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

== Self-determination theory as a framework ==

* overview
** What is self-determination theory?
** The three psychological needs: autonomy, competence and relatedness
** The motivation continuum - from controlled to autonomous motivation

== Supporting psychological needs in formal care settings ==

* overview
** Motivations of informal caregivers through an SDT lens
** Autonomous vs controlled motivation and caregiver well-being
** Decision-making involvement and quality of life for people with dementia
** SDT-based interventions for caregivers

== Supporting psychological needs in formal care settings ==

* overview
** Supporting preferance and choice in nursing homes
** The role of staff competence and relationships
** Knowing the resident - personal characteristics and history
** Barriers to supporting autonomy in formal care

== Implications for practice ==

* overview
** Recommendations for informal caregivers
** Recommendations for formal care staff and services 
** Gaps in current research 

==Key points==
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion 
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}* Study took place inside of a  psychogeriatric department that cares for people with memory loss in the Netherlands 
* Study wanted to know how people living with dementia felt about freedom and safety 
* Researches used a combination of observations, mood boards, icons, interviews and group discussions depending on the participants verbal capacity 
* Residence felt safe when they knew the people around them and could see family members. This was especially important for non-verbal residence
*  Freedom meant being aloud outside and having the trust of the staff. When this was taken away they did not feel as safe
* Residence enjoyed outside actives and eating together
* One resident described love, companionship, happiness, family and nature as important parts of their lives
*  people living with dementia value connection, time outside and independence
* Self-determination theory can help explain why connection, time outside and independence are important for people with dementia and how to better promote well-bring 
* van Andel, S., &amp; Holkenborg, A. (2024). From the Perspective of People with Dementia: Using Creative Qualitative Measures to Assess the Values and Opinions on Freedom and Safety among People Living with Dementia. Healthcare (Basel), 12(14), 1412. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12141412

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is dementia, and what care options exsist to support people living with it?
* What does self-determination theory propose about human motivation and well-being, and why is it a useful framework for understanding dementia care? 
* How does informal caregiving affect the psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness, for both the caregiver and the person with dementia?
* What factors help or hinder autonomy, competence and relatedness for people with dementia living in aged care settings?
* What steps can caregivers take to better support anutonomy, competence and relatedness in dementia care? 


{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Understanding dementia and modles of care ==
* Dementia is a neurodegenerative disease that progresses over time. As the disease progresses patients need more support with [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/aging-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnagi.2023.1161736/full daily functioning]. Care or support for dementia can look different for each patient and is often impacted by religious and family beliefs, socioeconomic status, location and relationship status
** What is dementia - How does it impact daily functioning? 
** The rising golbal prevalence of dementia
** Informal care - what is it, and why do people choose this over other forms?
** Formal care - what is it, and why do people choose it?
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

== Self-determination theory as a framework ==

* overview
** What is self-determination theory?
** The three psychological needs: autonomy, competence and relatedness
** The motivation continuum - from controlled to autonomous motivation

== Supporting psychological needs in formal care settings ==

* overview
** Motivations of informal caregivers through an SDT lens
** Autonomous vs controlled motivation and caregiver well-being
** Decision-making involvement and quality of life for people with dementia
** SDT-based interventions for caregivers

== Supporting psychological needs in formal care settings ==

* overview
** Supporting preferance and choice in nursing homes
** The role of staff competence and relationships
** Knowing the resident - personal characteristics and history
** Barriers to supporting autonomy in formal care

== Implications for practice ==

* overview
** Recommendations for informal caregivers
** Recommendations for formal care staff and services 
** Gaps in current research 

==Key points==
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion 
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}* Study took place inside of a  psychogeriatric department that cares for people with memory loss in the Netherlands 
* Study wanted to know how people living with dementia felt about freedom and safety 
* Researches used a combination of observations, mood boards, icons, interviews and group discussions depending on the participants verbal capacity 
* Residence felt safe when they knew the people around them and could see family members. This was especially important for non-verbal residence
*  Freedom meant being aloud outside and having the trust of the staff. When this was taken away they did not feel as safe
* Residence enjoyed outside actives and eating together
* One resident described love, companionship, happiness, family and nature as important parts of their lives
*  people living with dementia value connection, time outside and independence
* Self-determination theory can help explain why connection, time outside and independence are important for people with dementia and how to better promote well-bring 
* van Andel, S., &amp; Holkenborg, A. (2024). From the Perspective of People with Dementia: Using Creative Qualitative Measures to Assess the Values and Opinions on Freedom and Safety among People Living with Dementia. Healthcare (Basel), 12(14), 1412. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12141412

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Wolf Creek NFH nursing home fishing event October 2024.png|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' residences of an aged care home enjoying an outside activity ]]
The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is dementia, and what care options exsist to support people living with it?
* What does self-determination theory propose about human motivation and well-being, and why is it a useful framework for understanding dementia care? 
* How does informal caregiving affect the psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness, for both the caregiver and the person with dementia?
* What factors help or hinder autonomy, competence and relatedness for people with dementia living in aged care settings?
* What steps can caregivers take to better support anutonomy, competence and relatedness in dementia care? 


{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Understanding dementia and modles of care ==
* Dementia is a neurodegenerative disease that progresses over time. As the disease progresses patients need more support with [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/aging-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnagi.2023.1161736/full daily functioning]. Care or support for dementia can look different for each patient and is often impacted by religious and family beliefs, socioeconomic status, location and relationship status
** What is dementia - How does it impact daily functioning? 
** The rising golbal prevalence of dementia
** Informal care - what is it, and why do people choose this over other forms?
** Formal care - what is it, and why do people choose it?
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

== Self-determination theory as a framework ==

* overview
** What is self-determination theory?
** The three psychological needs: autonomy, competence and relatedness
** The motivation continuum - from controlled to autonomous motivation

== Supporting psychological needs in formal care settings ==

* overview
** Motivations of informal caregivers through an SDT lens
** Autonomous vs controlled motivation and caregiver well-being
** Decision-making involvement and quality of life for people with dementia
** SDT-based interventions for caregivers

== Supporting psychological needs in formal care settings ==

* overview
** Supporting preferance and choice in nursing homes
** The role of staff competence and relationships
** Knowing the resident - personal characteristics and history
** Barriers to supporting autonomy in formal care

== Implications for practice ==

* overview
** Recommendations for informal caregivers
** Recommendations for formal care staff and services 
** Gaps in current research 

==Key points==
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion 
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}* Study took place inside of a  psychogeriatric department that cares for people with memory loss in the Netherlands 
* Study wanted to know how people living with dementia felt about freedom and safety 
* Researches used a combination of observations, mood boards, icons, interviews and group discussions depending on the participants verbal capacity 
* Residence felt safe when they knew the people around them and could see family members. This was especially important for non-verbal residence
*  Freedom meant being aloud outside and having the trust of the staff. When this was taken away they did not feel as safe
* Residence enjoyed outside actives and eating together
* One resident described love, companionship, happiness, family and nature as important parts of their lives
*  people living with dementia value connection, time outside and independence
* Self-determination theory can help explain why connection, time outside and independence are important for people with dementia and how to better promote well-bring 
* van Andel, S., &amp; Holkenborg, A. (2024). From the Perspective of People with Dementia: Using Creative Qualitative Measures to Assess the Values and Opinions on Freedom and Safety among People Living with Dementia. Healthcare (Basel), 12(14), 1412. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12141412

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Wolf Creek NFH nursing home fishing event October 2024.png|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' residences of an aged care home enjoying an outside activity ]]
The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is dementia, and what care options exsist to support people living with it?
* What does self-determination theory propose about human motivation and well-being, and why is it a useful framework for understanding dementia care? 
* How does informal caregiving affect the psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness, for both the caregiver and the person with dementia?
* What factors help or hinder autonomy, competence and relatedness for people with dementia living in aged care settings?
* What steps can caregivers take to better support anutonomy, competence and relatedness in dementia care? 


{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Understanding dementia and modles of care ==
* Dementia is a neurodegenerative disease that progresses over time. As the disease progresses patients need more support with [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/aging-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnagi.2023.1161736/full daily functioning]. Care or support for dementia can look different for each patient and is often impacted by religious and family beliefs, socioeconomic status, location and relationship status
** What is dementia - How does it impact daily functioning? 
** The rising golbal prevalence of dementia
** Informal care - what is it, and why do people choose this over other forms?
** Formal care - what is it, and why do people choose it?
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

== Self-determination theory as a framework ==

* overview
** What is self-determination theory?
** The three psychological needs: autonomy, competence and relatedness
** The motivation continuum - from controlled to autonomous motivation

== Supporting psychological needs in formal care settings ==

* overview
** Motivations of informal caregivers through an SDT lens
** Autonomous vs controlled motivation and caregiver well-being
** Decision-making involvement and quality of life for people with dementia
** SDT-based interventions for caregivers

== Supporting psychological needs in formal care settings ==

* overview
** Supporting preferance and choice in nursing homes
** The role of staff competence and relationships
** Knowing the resident - personal characteristics and history
** Barriers to supporting autonomy in formal care

== Implications for practice ==

* overview
** Recommendations for informal caregivers
** Recommendations for formal care staff and services 
** Gaps in current research 

==Key points==
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion 
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}* Study took place inside of a  psychogeriatric department that cares for people with memory loss in the Netherlands 
* Study wanted to know how people living with dementia felt about freedom and safety 
* Researches used a combination of observations, mood boards, icons, interviews and group discussions depending on the participants verbal capacity 
* Residence felt safe when they knew the people around them and could see family members. This was especially important for non-verbal residence
*  Freedom meant being aloud outside and having the trust of the staff. When this was taken away they did not feel as safe
* Residence enjoyed outside actives and eating together
* One resident described love, companionship, happiness, family and nature as important parts of their lives
*  people living with dementia value connection, time outside and independence
* Self-determination theory can help explain why connection, time outside and independence are important for people with dementia and how to better promote well-bring 
* van Andel, S., &amp; Holkenborg, A. (2024). From the Perspective of People with Dementia: Using Creative Qualitative Measures to Assess the Values and Opinions on Freedom and Safety among People Living with Dementia. Healthcare (Basel), 12(14), 1412. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12141412

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Wolf Creek NFH nursing home fishing event October 2024.png|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' residences of an aged care home enjoying an outside activity ]]
The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is dementia, and what care options exsist to support people living with it?
* What does self-determination theory propose about human motivation and well-being, and why is it a useful framework for understanding dementia care? 
* How does informal caregiving affect the psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness, for both the caregiver and the person with dementia?
* What factors help or hinder autonomy, competence and relatedness for people with dementia living in aged care settings?
* What steps can caregivers take to better support anutonomy, competence and relatedness in dementia care? 


{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Understanding dementia and modles of care ==
* Dementia is a neurodegenerative disease that progresses over time. As the disease progresses patients need more support with [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/aging-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnagi.2023.1161736/full daily functioning]. Care or support for dementia can look different for each patient and is often impacted by religious and family beliefs, socioeconomic status, location and relationship status
** What is dementia - How does it impact daily functioning? 
** The rising golbal prevalence of dementia
** Informal care - what is it, and why do people choose this over other forms?
** Formal care - what is it, and why do people choose it?
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

== Self-determination theory as a framework ==

* overview
** What is self-determination theory?
** The three psychological needs: autonomy, competence and relatedness
** The motivation continuum - from controlled to autonomous motivation

== Supporting psychological needs in formal care settings ==

* overview
** Motivations of informal caregivers through an SDT lens
** Autonomous vs controlled motivation and caregiver well-being
** Decision-making involvement and quality of life for people with dementia
** SDT-based interventions for caregivers

== Supporting psychological needs in formal care settings ==

* overview
** Supporting preferance and choice in nursing homes
** The role of staff competence and relationships
** Knowing the resident - personal characteristics and history
** Barriers to supporting autonomy in formal care

== Implications for practice ==

* overview
** Recommendations for informal caregivers
** Recommendations for formal care staff and services 
** Gaps in current research 

==Key points==
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion 
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-determination theory]]</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}* Study took place inside of a  psychogeriatric department that cares for people with memory loss in the Netherlands 
* Study wanted to know how people living with dementia felt about freedom and safety 
* Researches used a combination of observations, mood boards, icons, interviews and group discussions depending on the participants verbal capacity 
* Residence felt safe when they knew the people around them and could see family members. This was especially important for non-verbal residence
*  Freedom meant being aloud outside and having the trust of the staff. When this was taken away they did not feel as safe
* Residence enjoyed outside actives and eating together
* One resident described love, companionship, happiness, family and nature as important parts of their lives
*  people living with dementia value connection, time outside and independence
* Self-determination theory can help explain why connection, time outside and independence are important for people with dementia and how to better promote well-bring 
* van Andel, S., &amp; Holkenborg, A. (2024). From the Perspective of People with Dementia: Using Creative Qualitative Measures to Assess the Values and Opinions on Freedom and Safety among People Living with Dementia. Healthcare (Basel), 12(14), 1412. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12141412

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
[[File:Wolf Creek NFH nursing home fishing event October 2024.png|thumb|'''Figure 1.''' residences of an aged care home enjoying an outside activity ]]
The Overview section should provide:
# '''Scenario''': A short, engaging case study or real-world example in a feature box, with an accompanying image (see above)
# '''Explanation of the problem, issue, or topc''': Briefly explain the problem, why it is important, and outline how psychological science can help
# '''Focus questions''': Unpack the sub-title into focus questions in a feature box

Recommended length: 180 to 330 words.

This template provides key headings, examples, and tips for each section. Gradually remove this generic information as the chapter develops. It is OK to retain some template material for the topic development, but it should all be removed from the book chapter.

Key resources:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] explains how to edit
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development guidelines]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]]

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions'''

* What is dementia, and what care options exsist to support people living with it?
* What does self-determination theory propose about human motivation and well-being, and why is it a useful framework for understanding dementia care? 
* How does informal caregiving affect the psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness, for both the caregiver and the person with dementia?
* What factors help or hinder autonomy, competence and relatedness for people with dementia living in aged care settings?
* What steps can caregivers take to better support anutonomy, competence and relatedness in dementia care? 


{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Understanding dementia and modles of care ==
* Dementia is a neurodegenerative disease that progresses over time. As the disease progresses patients need more support with [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/aging-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnagi.2023.1161736/full daily functioning]. Care or support for dementia can look different for each patient and is often impacted by religious and family beliefs, socioeconomic status, location and relationship status
** What is dementia - How does it impact daily functioning? 
** The rising golbal prevalence of dementia
** Informal care - what is it, and why do people choose this over other forms?
** Formal care - what is it, and why do people choose it?
* [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]
* [[#See also|See also]]
* [[#References|References]]
* [[#External links|External links]]

== Self-determination theory as a framework ==

* overview
** What is self-determination theory?
** The three psychological needs: autonomy, competence and relatedness
** The motivation continuum - from controlled to autonomous motivation

== Supporting psychological needs in formal care settings ==

* overview
** Motivations of informal caregivers through an SDT lens
** Autonomous vs controlled motivation and caregiver well-being
** Decision-making involvement and quality of life for people with dementia
** SDT-based interventions for caregivers

== Supporting psychological needs in formal care settings ==

* overview
** Supporting preferance and choice in nursing homes
** The role of staff competence and relationships
** Knowing the resident - personal characteristics and history
** Barriers to supporting autonomy in formal care

== Implications for practice ==

* overview
** Recommendations for informal caregivers
** Recommendations for formal care staff and services 
** Gaps in current research 

==Key points==
* For the topic development, provide at least three bullet-points for each heading and sub-heading, including the Overview and Conclusion 
* Include key citations

==Figures==
[[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]]

* For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples
* For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure
* Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on
* Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section
* Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text)
* Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]
* Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed
* Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2)

==Learning features==
Learning features help to bring book chapters to life and can be embedded throughout the chapter. Here are some options:

{{anchor|Scenarios}}
;Scenarios
* Scenarios, case studies, or examples that illustrate concepts in action
* Present using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]; can be split into multiple boxes throughout a chapter (e.g., to illustrate different theories or stages)
* Can be real or fictional; if real, provide citation(s)

{{anchor|Feature box}}
;Feature boxes
* Highlight key content using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Feature box|feature boxes]], but don't overuse, otherwise they lose their effect
* Consider using feature boxes for:
** [[#Scenarios|Scenarios]], case studies, or examples
** Focus questions
** Tips
** Quiz questions
** Take-home messages

;Embedded links
* When key words are introduced, use [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] to:
** Wikipedia articles (e.g., &quot;An early psychological view [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) of dreams was provided by [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]]&quot;) or
** Related book chapters (e.g., &quot;If you're feeling stuck, check out the chapter about [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]&quot;)

{{anchor|Tables}}
;Tables
* Use tables to organise and summarise information
* Cite each table at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1)
* Tables should be captioned
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|More example tables]] which can be adapted

'''Table 1''' 

A Descriptive Caption Explains The Table Contents and its Relevance to the Text e.g., 

The 2 x 2 Johari Window Model Showing the Relationship Between Known/Unknown and Self/Other

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: auto;
|-
! !! Known to self !! Not known to self
|-
| '''Known to others''' || Open area || Blind spot
|-
| '''Not known to others''' || Hidden area || Unknown
|}

;Quizzes
* One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end
* Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages
* Ask easy rather than hard questions
* Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]

Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{The purpose of quizzes is to provide an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long and complex quiz questions are recommended:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
* Arguably the most important section
* Provide at least three bullet-points for this section even at the topic development stage, based on preliminary thinking
* For the book chapter, develop clear take-home message(s) that address the focus questions based on psychological theory and research
* Together, the [[#Overview|Overview]] and Conclusion should summarise the problem, its significance, and how psychological science contributes to understanding and addressing this problem
* Recommended length: 150 to 330 words

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the sub-title question based on psychological theory and research?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses
}}

==References==
Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent.

APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Rosenberg, B. D., &amp; Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091

Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper &amp; Row.

}}

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects of APA referencing style
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop
** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable)
** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]:
*** Use &quot;Edit source&quot;
*** &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* The most common mistakes include:
** Incorrect capitalisation
** Incorrect italicisation
** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks
** Citing sources that haven't been consulted
}}

==External links==
[[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|External links]] to highly relevant resources such as podcasts and videos, news articles, and professional sites. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)

{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Link to the most relevant external resources about the topic
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}

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I am Palak.

I am currently a 3rd year psychology student at University of Canberra.</text>
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Hello Everyone,

I am Palak.

I am currently a 3rd year psychology student at University of Canberra. This semester I am studying a really interesting unit called &quot;Motivation and Emotion&quot;

== Hobbies ==

* Hiking
* Dancing
* Travelling to different countries 
* Painting 
* Cycling 
* Nature exploration
** Birdwatching
** Gardening 

== Book Chapter I'm working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="866" sha1="s1lt85jf2x9n3lfwwxjcxc7j8z9pzq5" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hello Everyone,

I am Palak.

I am currently a 3rd year psychology student at [https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&amp;rls=en&amp;q=University+of+canberra&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8 University of Canberra] This semester I am studying a really interesting unit called &quot;[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]&quot;

== Hobbies ==

* Hiking
* Dancing
* Travelling to different countries 
* Painting 
* Cycling 
* Nature exploration
** Birdwatching
** Gardening 

== Book Chapter I'm working on ==
I am working on a really interesting topic for my book chapter. My chapter title is: Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? 

Link for my book chapter: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Positive emotion dysregulation|Positive emotion dysregulation]]

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="866" sha1="ov686jexzzx0cdsbvl6j76yx0h5u0jo" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hello Everyone,

I am Palak.

I am currently a 3rd year psychology student at [https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&amp;rls=en&amp;q=University+of+canberra&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8 University of Canberra] This semester I am studying a really interesting unit called &quot;[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]&quot;

== Hobbies ==

* Dancing
* Hiking
* Travelling to different countries 
* Painting 
* Cycling 
* Nature exploration
** Birdwatching
** Gardening 

== Book Chapter I'm working on ==
I am working on a really interesting topic for my book chapter. My chapter title is: Positive emotion dysregulation: What is positive emotion dysregulation and how does it affect psychological functioning? 

Link for my book chapter: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Positive emotion dysregulation|Positive emotion dysregulation]]

== Social contributions ==</text>
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John Snow Research Institute for prediabetes and other metabolic diseases


BYLAWS

Definition of the Institute

The Institute is a non-profit, international network of clinical-, research- and educational institutes to collaborate on the early diagnostics and prevention on prediabetes, prehypertension and other metabolic diseases. (Alberto et al., 2022) The target countries are in the low- and middle-income countries where the availability of essential diagnostics remains a challenge. It is a brick-free center that unites interested institutions with activities in public- and occupational health research and education and application for fundings.

Objectives

· Create a network of health clinics producing data from the routine health examinations

· Create a network of public health schools to analyse and publish the data

· Main focus on early diagnosis and prevention of prediabetes and other metabolic diseases

· Apply for fundings to establish data collection and remission of prediabetes.

Ethical requirements

The ethical rules for database research in the respective Universities and other centers. The ICOH Code of ethics are complied with. Confidentiality in handling personal information is done according to the rules set out by the national Data Protection Agencies.Nno personal sensitive information is included so approval from the Ethics Committee is not necessary. All questionnaires ask for informed consent as the first question. The supervisors take care to secure that the data is processed under the Act on medical confidentiality as guidelines for good epidemiological practice. The participants' anonymity will be protected in every way and this will be indicated in the project description. It will be ensured that the electronic table is locked so that the information can not be seen by anyone other than the researchers. The researchers respect individual ownership of the data and share publications and the data where this is convenient and keep always good partnerships. The European Code of Conduct for Research Integrity for self-regulation in all research

Board of Directors

The Institute's main decision-making authority is the Board. The Board is made up of representatives from the associate institutions.

Institute Cordinator

· The Board of Directors selects a Coordinator of the Institute for 1 year to be reelected at the annual meeting of the Board in August, in presence and hybrid meeting

· One Board meeting is held annually, in presence and hybrid

· The Coordinator is responsible for convening Board meetings

Advisory Committee

Representatives from the relevant Universities, Clinics and Scientific Associations.

Goals

In collaboration with the Coordinator, the Board establishes objectives for which research and educational areas and applications for fundings should be prioritized and what results are expected to be obtained from research in these areas.

Evaluation of the activities of the Institute

The Board of Directors understands every year an evaluation of the activities of the Institute. The Coordinator presents an annual report to the Board in late December. Financial Accounting. There are no separate accounts for the Institute since the economy is placed with each of the participants.

Financial Accounting

There are no separate accounts for the Institute since the economy is placed with each of the participants’ projects.

Financial Resources

The main financial resources for the Institute activity is the existing resources of individual participants and national and international research foundations.

Indication of the affiliations in the publications

The publications from the Institute are listed like: Own institution, John Snow Institute ...

Annual status report

The Coordinator is responsible for preparing an annual status report that is approved by the Board of Directors. The progress report should include a brief overview of last year's results with signatures and dates


FINANCIAL FUNDS European Foundation Study of Diabetes (EFSD)- http://www.europeandiabetesfoundation.org/ ITF Seafarers Trust https://www.seafarerstrust.org/ Novo Nordisk Found https://www.eshonline.org/online-education/teaching-seminars/ Hypertension Research Foundation http://www.hypertensionresearchfoundation.ch/EN/projets.html https://research-and-innovation.ec.europa.eu/research-area/health/diabetes_en The European Social Fund Danish Diabetes Academy The European Society of Hypertension https://www.eshonline.org/

And others….


RESEARCH METHODS


PRODUCERS OF NEW DATA


1. Maritime Clinic For International Seafarers, Inc.

Director Dr, SAEME 7th Floor, INTRAMUROS CORPORATE PLAZA, Recoletos St., Intramuros, Manila 1002 PHILIPPINES (02) 5304-6700 Trunkline (+63) 920-962-5704 Follow-up Reception (Mon-Fri 8AM to 5PM) drsaeme@mcismanila.com

2. Nordic Medical Clinic

Unit 1B, Maria Daniel Building, 470 San Andres Street Corner MH Del Pilar Street, Malate, Manila, 1004, Philippines +63 2 85627774 AOH: Dr Margarita Huerte Mobile +63 917 1050252 PHILIPPINES peme@nordicmedical.no

3. Maritime health Clinics in Manila Maritime Medical &amp; Laboratory Clinic, Inc. Manila. https://mmlci.com.ph/team-of-doctors/

Director Dr. Joselito De Guzman MD, FPCOM, DPBR

Medical Director and Radiologist of Maritime Medical &amp; Laboratory Clinic, Inc. since Junhttps://mmlci.com.ph/joselito-l-de-guzman/ L US+632 8526 3809 / +632 8526 3912 / +632 8526 3815 / +632 8526 3816IT US 2nd Floor, Paragon Tower 531 A. Flores St., Ermita, Manila Philippines 1000 US admin@mmlci.com.ph


PRODUCERS OF NEW KNOWLEDGE BASED ON THE DATA 1. Public Health Schools in MANILA https://edurank.org/medicine/public/manila/

https://maritimefairtrade.org/top-maritime-schools-in-the-philippines/

2. Medical schools in MANILA https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medical_schools_in_the_Philippines 3. Public Health Schools in PANAMAMetropolitan University of Education, Science and Technology (UMECIT), University of South Florida (USF) Health

4. University of Panama: school of public health within its medical faculty

Other …..


The Prediabetes-Remission Network

https://www.prediabetes-remission.com/


Prevalence studies: 1.1. The-International-Maritime-Health-Database, 1.2. Nursing Students Health Database; 1.3. Medical student's Health Database.

Intervention studies:16-week learning and reporting study in groups of 2-4.

with weekly learning from videos and with self-monitoring of blood sugar, blood pressure, weight, diet and physical activity. Supplemented with School-based lifestyle programs focusing on physical activity and nutrition education supported by student-led health committees (health clubs).Variables: Age, Gender mf; Height: cm; Weight: kg or pounds; Blood pressure; Blood sugar (Glucometer finger prick); Smoking: y/n; Taking medicine: None, Metformin, Wegovy, and or other.


Reference:

Alberto, Nicole Rose I., Isabelle Rose I. Alberto, Michelle Ann B. Eala, Edward Christopher Dee, y Johanna Patricia A. Cañal. «Availability of essential diagnostics in the Philippines». The Lancet Regional Health: Western Pacific 19 (enero de 2022): 100375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanwpc.2021.100375.</text>
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John Snow Research Institute for prediabetes and other metabolic diseases


BYLAWS

Definition of the Institute

The Institute is a non-profit, international network of clinical-, research- and educational institutes to collaborate on the early diagnostics and prevention on prediabetes, prehypertension and other metabolic diseases. (Alberto et al., 2022) The target countries are in the low- and middle-income countries where the availability of essential diagnostics remains a challenge. It is a brick-free center that unites interested institutions with activities in public- and occupational health research and education and application for fundings.

Objectives

· Create a network of health clinics producing data from the routine health examinations

· Create a network of public health schools to analyse and publish the data

· Main focus on early diagnosis and prevention of prediabetes and other metabolic diseases

· Apply for fundings to establish data collection and remission of prediabetes.

Ethical requirements

The ethical rules for database research in the respective Universities and other centers. The ICOH Code of ethics are complied with. Confidentiality in handling personal information is done according to the rules set out by the national Data Protection Agencies.Nno personal sensitive information is included so approval from the Ethics Committee is not necessary. All questionnaires ask for informed consent as the first question. The supervisors take care to secure that the data is processed under the Act on medical confidentiality as guidelines for good epidemiological practice. The participants' anonymity will be protected in every way and this will be indicated in the project description. It will be ensured that the electronic table is locked so that the information can not be seen by anyone other than the researchers. The researchers respect individual ownership of the data and share publications and the data where this is convenient and keep always good partnerships. The European Code of Conduct for Research Integrity for self-regulation in all research

Board of Directors

The Institute's main decision-making authority is the Board. The Board is made up of representatives from the associate institutions.

Institute Cordinator

· The Board of Directors selects a Coordinator of the Institute for 1 year to be reelected at the annual meeting of the Board in August, in presence and hybrid meeting

· One Board meeting is held annually, in presence and hybrid

· The Coordinator is responsible for convening Board meetings

Advisory Committee

Representatives from the relevant Universities, Clinics and Scientific Associations.

Goals

In collaboration with the Coordinator, the Board establishes objectives for which research and educational areas and applications for fundings should be prioritized and what results are expected to be obtained from research in these areas.

Evaluation of the activities of the Institute

The Board of Directors understands every year an evaluation of the activities of the Institute. The Coordinator presents an annual report to the Board in late December. Financial Accounting. There are no separate accounts for the Institute since the economy is placed with each of the participants.

Financial Accounting

There are no separate accounts for the Institute since the economy is placed with each of the participants’ projects.

Financial Resources

The main financial resources for the Institute activity is the existing resources of individual participants and national and international research foundations.

Indication of the affiliations in the publications

The publications from the Institute are listed like: Own institution, John Snow Institute ...

Annual status report

The Coordinator is responsible for preparing an annual status report that is approved by the Board of Directors. The progress report should include a brief overview of last year's results with signatures and dates


'''FINANCIAL FUNDS''' European Foundation Study of Diabetes (EFSD)- http://www.europeandiabetesfoundation.org/ ITF Seafarers Trust https://www.seafarerstrust.org/ Novo Nordisk Found https://www.eshonline.org/online-education/teaching-seminars/ Hypertension Research Foundation http://www.hypertensionresearchfoundation.ch/EN/projets.html https://research-and-innovation.ec.europa.eu/research-area/health/diabetes_en The European Social Fund Danish Diabetes Academy The European Society of Hypertension https://www.eshonline.org/ And others….


'''DATA ORIGINE''' (proposals)

# American out-patient clinic (American Hospital,Inc) Metro Manila, National Capital Region, Philippines  Medical Director Dr. Joseph Bien Abesamis, MD

2. Nordic Medical Clinic Unit 1B, Maria Daniel Building, 470 San Andres Street Corner MH Del Pilar Street, Malate, Manila, 1004, Philippines +63 2 85627774 AOH: Medical Director Dr Margarita Huerte Mobile +63 917 1050252 PHILIPPINES peme@nordicmedical.no 

3.  Other
 

'''RESEARCHERS''' (proposals)

1. The John Snow Prediabetes Institute

2. Public Health Schools in MANILA https://edurank.org/medicine/public/manila/

https://maritimefairtrade.org/top-maritime-schools-in-the-philippines/

3. Medical schools in MANILA https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medical_schools_in_the_Philippines 3. Public Health Schools in PANAMAMetropolitan University of Education, Science and Technology (UMECIT), University of South Florida (USF) Health

4. University of Panama: school of public health within its medical faculty

Other …..
----Reference:

Alberto, Nicole Rose I., Isabelle Rose I. Alberto, Michelle Ann B. Eala, Edward Christopher Dee, y Johanna Patricia A. Cañal. «Availability of essential diagnostics in the Philippines». The Lancet Regional Health: Western Pacific 19 (enero de 2022): 100375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanwpc.2021.100375.</text>
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BYLAWS xxxx under edition 

Definition of the Institute

The Institute is a non-profit, international network of clinical-, research- and educational institutes to collaborate on the early diagnostics and prevention on prediabetes, prehypertension and other metabolic diseases. (Alberto et al., 2022) The target countries are in the low- and middle-income countries where the availability of essential diagnostics remains a challenge. It is a brick-free center that unites interested institutions with activities in public- and occupational health research and education and application for fundings.

Objectives

· Create a network of health clinics producing data from the routine health examinations

· Create a network of public health schools to analyse and publish the data

· Main focus on early diagnosis and prevention of prediabetes and other metabolic diseases

· Apply for fundings to establish data collection and remission of prediabetes.

Ethical requirements

The ethical rules for database research in the respective Universities and other centers. The ICOH Code of ethics are complied with. Confidentiality in handling personal information is done according to the rules set out by the national Data Protection Agencies.Nno personal sensitive information is included so approval from the Ethics Committee is not necessary. All questionnaires ask for informed consent as the first question. The supervisors take care to secure that the data is processed under the Act on medical confidentiality as guidelines for good epidemiological practice. The participants' anonymity will be protected in every way and this will be indicated in the project description. It will be ensured that the electronic table is locked so that the information can not be seen by anyone other than the researchers. The researchers respect individual ownership of the data and share publications and the data where this is convenient and keep always good partnerships. The European Code of Conduct for Research Integrity for self-regulation in all research

Board of Directors

The Institute's main decision-making authority is the Board. The Board is made up of representatives from the associate institutions.

Institute Cordinator

· The Board of Directors selects a Coordinator of the Institute for 1 year to be reelected at the annual meeting of the Board in August, in presence and hybrid meeting

· One Board meeting is held annually, in presence and hybrid

· The Coordinator is responsible for convening Board meetings

Advisory Committee

Representatives from the relevant Universities, Clinics and Scientific Associations.

Goals

In collaboration with the Coordinator, the Board establishes objectives for which research and educational areas and applications for fundings should be prioritized and what results are expected to be obtained from research in these areas.

Evaluation of the activities of the Institute

The Board of Directors understands every year an evaluation of the activities of the Institute. The Coordinator presents an annual report to the Board in late December. Financial Accounting. There are no separate accounts for the Institute since the economy is placed with each of the participants.

Financial Accounting

There are no separate accounts for the Institute since the economy is placed with each of the participants’ projects.

Financial Resources

The main financial resources for the Institute activity is the existing resources of individual participants and national and international research foundations.

Indication of the affiliations in the publications

The publications from the Institute are listed like: Own institution, John Snow Institute ...

Annual status report

The Coordinator is responsible for preparing an annual status report that is approved by the Board of Directors. The progress report should include a brief overview of last year's results with signatures and dates

'''FINANCIAL FUNDS''' European Foundation Study of Diabetes (EFSD)- http://www.europeandiabetesfoundation.org/ ITF Seafarers Trust https://www.seafarerstrust.org/ Novo Nordisk Found https://www.eshonline.org/online-education/teaching-seminars/ Hypertension Research Foundation http://www.hypertensionresearchfoundation.ch/EN/projets.html https://research-and-innovation.ec.europa.eu/research-area/health/diabetes_en The European Social Fund Danish Diabetes Academy The European Society of Hypertension https://www.eshonline.org/ And others….


'''DATA'''  (and others)

# American out-patient clinic (American Hospital,Inc) Metro Manila, National Capital Region, Philippines  Medical Director Dr. Joseph Bien Abesamis, MD

2. Nordic Medical Clinic Unit 1B, Maria Daniel Building, 470 San Andres Street Corner MH Del Pilar Street, Malate, Manila, 1004, Philippines +63     2 85627774 AOH: Medical Director Dr Margarita Huerte Mobile +63 917 1050252 PHILIPPINES peme@nordicmedical.no 

3.  Other
 

'''RESEARCHERS from ...'''

1. The John Snow Prediabetes Institute

2. Public Health Schools in Manila https://edurank.org/medicine/public/manila/ https://maritimefairtrade.org/top-maritime-schools-in-the-philippines/

3. Medical schools in Manila https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medical_schools_in_the_Philippines 3. Public Health Schools in PANAMAMetropolitan University of Education, Science and Technology (UMECIT), University of South Florida (USF) Health

4. University of Panama: school of public health within its medical faculty

Other …..
----'''Reference:'''

Alberto, Nicole Rose I., Isabelle Rose I. Alberto, Michelle Ann B. Eala, Edward Christopher Dee, y Johanna Patricia A. Cañal. «Availability of essential diagnostics in the Philippines». The Lancet Regional Health: Western Pacific 19 (enero de 2022): 100375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanwpc.2021.100375.</text>
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BYLAWS xxxx under edition 

'''Definition of the Institute'''

The Institute is a non-profit, international network of clinical-, research- and educational institutes to collaborate on the early diagnostics and prevention on prediabetes, prehypertension and other metabolic diseases. (Alberto et al., 2022) The target countries are in the low- and middle-income countries where the availability of essential diagnostics remains a challenge. It is a brick-free center that unites interested institutions with activities in public- and occupational health research and education and application for fundings.

'''Objectives'''

· Create a network of health clinics producing data from the routine health examinations

· Create a network of public health schools to analyse and publish the data

· Main focus on early diagnosis and prevention of prediabetes and other metabolic diseases

· Apply for fundings to establish data collection and remission of prediabetes.

'''Ethical requirements'''

The ethical rules for database research in the respective Universities and other centers. The ICOH Code of ethics are complied with. Confidentiality in handling personal information is done according to the rules set out by the national Data Protection Agencies.Nno personal sensitive information is included so approval from the Ethics Committee is not necessary. All questionnaires ask for informed consent as the first question. The supervisors take care to secure that the data is processed under the Act on medical confidentiality as guidelines for good epidemiological practice. The participants' anonymity will be protected in every way and this will be indicated in the project description. It will be ensured that the electronic table is locked so that the information can not be seen by anyone other than the researchers. The researchers respect individual ownership of the data and share publications and the data where this is convenient and keep always good partnerships. The European Code of Conduct for Research Integrity for self-regulation in all research

'''Board of Directors'''

The Institute's main decision-making authority is the Board. The Board is made up of representatives from the associate institutions.

'''Institute Cordinator'''

· The Board of Directors selects a Coordinator of the Institute for 1 year to be reelected at the annual meeting of the Board in August, in presence and hybrid meeting

· One Board meeting is held annually, in presence and hybrid

· The Coordinator is responsible for convening Board meetings

'''Advisory Committee'''

Representatives from the relevant Universities, Clinics and Scientific Associations.

'''Goals'''

In collaboration with the Coordinator, the Board establishes objectives for which research and educational areas and applications for fundings should be prioritized and what results are expected to be obtained from research in these areas.

'''Evaluation of the activities of the Institute'''

The Board of Directors understands every year an evaluation of the activities of the Institute. The Coordinator presents an annual report to the Board in late December. Financial Accounting. There are no separate accounts for the Institute since the economy is placed with each of the participants.

'''Financial Accounting'''

There are no separate accounts for the Institute since the economy is placed with each of the participants’ projects.

'''Financial Resources'''

The main financial resources for the Institute activity is the existing resources of individual participants and national and international research foundations.

Indication of the affiliations in the publications

The publications from the Institute are listed like: Own institution, John Snow Institute ...

'''Annual status report'''

The Coordinator is responsible for preparing an annual status report that is approved by the Board of Directors. The progress report should include a brief overview of last year's results with signatures and dates

'''FINANCIAL FUNDS''' European Foundation Study of Diabetes (EFSD)- http://www.europeandiabetesfoundation.org/ ITF Seafarers Trust https://www.seafarerstrust.org/ Novo Nordisk Found https://www.eshonline.org/online-education/teaching-seminars/ Hypertension Research Foundation http://www.hypertensionresearchfoundation.ch/EN/projets.html https://research-and-innovation.ec.europa.eu/research-area/health/diabetes_en The European Social Fund Danish Diabetes Academy The European Society of Hypertension https://www.eshonline.org/ And others….


'''DATA'''  (and others)

# American out-patient clinic (American Hospital,Inc) Metro Manila, National Capital Region, Philippines  Medical Director Dr. Joseph Bien Abesamis, MD

2. Nordic Medical Clinic Unit 1B, Maria Daniel Building, 470 San Andres Street Corner MH Del Pilar Street, Malate, Manila, 1004, Philippines +63     2 85627774 AOH: Medical Director Dr Margarita Huerte Mobile +63 917 1050252 PHILIPPINES peme@nordicmedical.no 

3.  Other
 

'''RESEARCHERS''' (in collaboration with the clinics)  ...

1. The John Snow Prediabetes Institute

2. Public Health Schools in Manila https://edurank.org/medicine/public/manila/ https://maritimefairtrade.org/top-maritime-schools-in-the-philippines/

3. Medical schools in Manila https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medical_schools_in_the_Philippines 3. Public Health Schools in PANAMAMetropolitan University of Education, Science and Technology (UMECIT), University of South Florida (USF) Health

4. University of Panama: school of public health within its medical faculty
----'''Reference:'''

Alberto, Nicole Rose I., Isabelle Rose I. Alberto, Michelle Ann B. Eala, Edward Christopher Dee, y Johanna Patricia A. Cañal. «Availability of essential diagnostics in the Philippines». The Lancet Regional Health: Western Pacific 19 (enero de 2022): 100375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanwpc.2021.100375.</text>
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      <text bytes="5934" sha1="qch00rzd50rnvli51dgqwy3277b08bv" xml:space="preserve">== '''BYLAWS''' &lt;small&gt;xxxx under edition&lt;/small&gt; ==
'''Definition of the Institute'''

The Institute is a non-profit, international network of clinical-, research- and educational institutes to collaborate on the early diagnostics and prevention on prediabetes, prehypertension and other metabolic diseases. (Alberto et al., 2022) The target countries are in the low- and middle-income countries where the availability of essential diagnostics remains a challenge. It is a brick-free center that unites interested institutions with activities in public- and occupational health research and education and application for fundings.

'''Objectives'''

· Create a network of health clinics producing data from the routine health examinations

· Create a network of public health schools to analyse and publish the data

· Main focus on early diagnosis and prevention of prediabetes and other metabolic diseases

· Apply for fundings to establish data collection and remission of prediabetes.

'''Ethical requirements'''

The ethical rules for database research in the respective Universities and other centers. The ICOH Code of ethics are complied with. Confidentiality in handling personal information is done according to the rules set out by the national Data Protection Agencies.Nno personal sensitive information is included so approval from the Ethics Committee is not necessary. All questionnaires ask for informed consent as the first question. The supervisors take care to secure that the data is processed under the Act on medical confidentiality as guidelines for good epidemiological practice. The participants' anonymity will be protected in every way and this will be indicated in the project description. It will be ensured that the electronic table is locked so that the information can not be seen by anyone other than the researchers. The researchers respect individual ownership of the data and share publications and the data where this is convenient and keep always good partnerships. The European Code of Conduct for Research Integrity for self-regulation in all research

'''Board of Directors'''

The Institute's main decision-making authority is the Board. The Board is made up of representatives from the associate institutions.

'''Institute Cordinator'''

· The Board of Directors selects a Coordinator of the Institute for 1 year to be reelected at the annual meeting of the Board in August, in presence and hybrid meeting

· One Board meeting is held annually, in presence and hybrid

· The Coordinator is responsible for convening Board meetings

'''Advisory Committee'''

Representatives from the relevant Universities, Clinics and Scientific Associations.

'''Goals'''

In collaboration with the Coordinator, the Board establishes objectives for which research and educational areas and applications for fundings should be prioritized and what results are expected to be obtained from research in these areas.

'''Evaluation of the activities of the Institute'''

The Board of Directors understands every year an evaluation of the activities of the Institute. The Coordinator presents an annual report to the Board in late December. Financial Accounting. There are no separate accounts for the Institute since the economy is placed with each of the participants.

'''Financial Accounting'''

There are no separate accounts for the Institute since the economy is placed with each of the participants’ projects.

'''Financial Resources'''

The main financial resources for the Institute activity is the existing resources of individual participants and national and international research foundations.

Indication of the affiliations in the publications

The publications from the Institute are listed like: Own institution, John Snow Institute ...

'''Annual status report'''

The Coordinator is responsible for preparing an annual status report that is approved by the Board of Directors. The progress report should include a brief overview of last year's results with signatures and dates

'''FINANCIAL FUNDS''' European Foundation Study of Diabetes (EFSD)- http://www.europeandiabetesfoundation.org/ ITF Seafarers Trust https://www.seafarerstrust.org/ Novo Nordisk Found https://www.eshonline.org/online-education/teaching-seminars/ Hypertension Research Foundation http://www.hypertensionresearchfoundation.ch/EN/projets.html https://research-and-innovation.ec.europa.eu/research-area/health/diabetes_en The European Social Fund Danish Diabetes Academy The European Society of Hypertension https://www.eshonline.org/ And others….


'''DATA'''  (and others)

# American out-patient clinic (American Hospital,Inc) Metro Manila, National Capital Region, Philippines  Medical Director Dr. Joseph Bien Abesamis, MD

2. Nordic Medical Clinic Unit 1B, Maria Daniel Building, 470 San Andres Street Corner MH Del Pilar Street, Malate, Manila, 1004, Philippines +63     2 85627774 AOH: Medical Director Dr Margarita Huerte Mobile +63 917 1050252 PHILIPPINES peme@nordicmedical.no 

3.  Other
 

'''RESEARCHERS''' (in collaboration with the clinics)  ...

1. The John Snow Prediabetes Institute

2. Public Health Schools in Manila https://edurank.org/medicine/public/manila/ https://maritimefairtrade.org/top-maritime-schools-in-the-philippines/

3. Medical schools in Manila https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medical_schools_in_the_Philippines 3. Public Health Schools in PANAMAMetropolitan University of Education, Science and Technology (UMECIT), University of South Florida (USF) Health

4. University of Panama: school of public health within its medical faculty
----'''Reference:'''

Alberto, Nicole Rose I., Isabelle Rose I. Alberto, Michelle Ann B. Eala, Edward Christopher Dee, y Johanna Patricia A. Cañal. «Availability of essential diagnostics in the Philippines». The Lancet Regional Health: Western Pacific 19 (enero de 2022): 100375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanwpc.2021.100375.</text>
      <sha1>qch00rzd50rnvli51dgqwy3277b08bv</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824198</id>
      <parentid>2824194</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T08:10:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NDM2024</username>
        <id>2984088</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2824198</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5919" sha1="f8cl84bxgwvb6dnvjrg3lnaocz6p6yk" xml:space="preserve">== '''BYLAWS''' &lt;small&gt;xxxx under edition&lt;/small&gt; ==
'''Definition of the Institute'''

The Institute is a non-profit, international network of clinical-, research- and educational institutes to collaborate on the early diagnostics and prevention on prediabetes, prehypertension and other metabolic diseases. (Alberto et al., 2022) The target countries are in the low- and middle-income countries where the availability of essential diagnostics remains a challenge. It is a brick-free center that unites interested institutions with activities in public- and occupational health research and education and application for fundings.

'''Objectives'''

· Create a network of health clinics producing data from the routine health examinations

· Create a network of public health schools to analyse and publish the data

· Main focus on early diagnosis and prevention of prediabetes and other metabolic diseases

· Apply for fundings to establish data collection and remission of prediabetes.

'''Ethical requirements'''

The ethical rules for database research in the respective Universities and other centers. The ICOH Code of ethics are complied with. Confidentiality in handling personal information is done according to the rules set out by the national Data Protection Agencies.Nno personal sensitive information is included so approval from the Ethics Committee is not necessary. All questionnaires ask for informed consent as the first question. The supervisors take care to secure that the data is processed under the Act on medical confidentiality as guidelines for good epidemiological practice. The participants' anonymity will be protected in every way and this will be indicated in the project description. It will be ensured that the electronic table is locked so that the information can not be seen by anyone other than the researchers. The researchers respect individual ownership of the data and share publications and the data where this is convenient and keep always good partnerships. The European Code of Conduct for Research Integrity for self-regulation in all research

'''Board of Directors'''

The Institute's main decision-making authority is the Board. The Board is made up of representatives from the associate institutions.

'''Institute Cordinator'''

· The Board of Directors selects a Coordinator of the Institute for 1 year to be reelected at the annual meeting of the Board in August, in presence and hybrid meeting

· One Board meeting is held annually, in presence and hybrid

· The Coordinator is responsible for convening Board meetings

'''Advisory Committee'''

Representatives from the relevant Universities, Clinics and Scientific Associations.

'''Goals'''

In collaboration with the Coordinator, the Board establishes objectives for which research and educational areas and applications for fundings should be prioritized and what results are expected to be obtained from research in these areas.

'''Evaluation of the activities of the Institute'''

The Board of Directors understands every year an evaluation of the activities of the Institute. The Coordinator presents an annual report to the Board in late December. Financial Accounting. There are no separate accounts for the Institute since the economy is placed with each of the participants.

'''Financial Accounting'''

There are no separate accounts for the Institute since the economy is placed with each of the participants’ projects.

'''Financial Resources'''

The main financial resources for the Institute activity is the existing resources of individual participants and national and international research foundations.

Indication of the affiliations in the publications

The publications from the Institute are listed like: Own institution, John Snow Institute ...

'''Annual status report'''

The Coordinator is responsible for preparing an annual status report that is approved by the Board of Directors. The progress report should include a brief overview of last year's results with signatures and dates

'''FINANCIAL FUNDS''' European Foundation Study of Diabetes (EFSD)- http://www.europeandiabetesfoundation.org/ ITF Seafarers Trust https://www.seafarerstrust.org/ Novo Nordisk Found https://www.eshonline.org/online-education/teaching-seminars/ Hypertension Research Foundation http://www.hypertensionresearchfoundation.ch/EN/projets.html https://research-and-innovation.ec.europa.eu/research-area/health/diabetes_en The European Social Fund Danish Diabetes Academy The European Society of Hypertension https://www.eshonline.org/ And others….


'''DATA'''  

# American out-patient clinic (American Hospital,Inc) Metro Manila, National Capital Region, Philippines  Medical Director Dr. Joseph Bien Abesamis, MD

2. Nordic Medical Clinic Unit 1B, Maria Daniel Building, 470 San Andres Street Corner MH Del Pilar Street, Malate, Manila, 1004, Philippines +63     2 85627774 AOH: Medical Director Dr Margarita Huerte Mobile +63 917 1050252 PHILIPPINES peme@nordicmedical.no 

3.  Other
 

'''RESEARCH''' (in collaboration with the clinics)  ...

1. The John Snow Prediabetes Institute

2. Public Health Schools in Manila https://edurank.org/medicine/public/manila/ https://maritimefairtrade.org/top-maritime-schools-in-the-philippines/

3. Medical schools in Manila https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medical_schools_in_the_Philippines 3. Public Health Schools in PANAMAMetropolitan University of Education, Science and Technology (UMECIT), University of South Florida (USF) Health

4. University of Panama: school of public health within its medical faculty
----'''Reference:'''

Alberto, Nicole Rose I., Isabelle Rose I. Alberto, Michelle Ann B. Eala, Edward Christopher Dee, y Johanna Patricia A. Cañal. «Availability of essential diagnostics in the Philippines». The Lancet Regional Health: Western Pacific 19 (enero de 2022): 100375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanwpc.2021.100375.</text>
      <sha1>f8cl84bxgwvb6dnvjrg3lnaocz6p6yk</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Empathy and jury decision-making</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>331390</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2824203</id>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T08:28:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3253363</username>
        <id>3106362</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Exploring empathy within similar contexts */ new section</comment>
      <origin>2824203</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1613" sha1="hdfgwqd05jj1daggw1sjk1quj7n2js8" xml:space="preserve">== Exploring empathy within similar contexts ==

Hi there 

This chapter is starting to look really interesting! I am also interested in empathy within a host of contexts. I recently read some research (see below) about how empathy affects helping behaviour. I wonder if this type of research could introduce an interesting alternative perspective and unique depth to your chapter? 

Are the mechanisms of empathy and motivation behind helping a stranger who is perceived as fully innocent and in a non-legal context (i.e. helping someone struggling to carry many items to their car) different to those operating when a jury makes their judgement? In other words, how does empathy play a role in general pro-social behaviour as compared to juror decision-making? 

I'm keen to read your chapter when it's complete and to support each other's writing process along the way. All the best with your book chapter!

- Pepper

Decety, J., Bartal, I. B., Uzefovsky, F., &amp; Knafo-Noam, A. (2016). Empathy as a driver of prosocial behaviour: highly conserved neurobehavioural mechanisms across species. P''hilosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences, 371''(1686), 20150077. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0077&lt;/nowiki&gt; 

Eisenberg, N. (2006). Empathy-related responding and prosocial behaviour. In G. Bock, &amp; J. Goode (Eds.), ''Empathy and fairness''. Novartis Foundation. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470030585.ch6&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[[User:U3253363|U3253363]] ([[User talk:U3253363|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3253363|contribs]]) 08:28, 22 August 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>hdfgwqd05jj1daggw1sjk1quj7n2js8</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Draft:Anti-IL-6 scFv–RDVLPGT fusion concept</title>
    <ns>118</ns>
    <id>331391</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2824217</id>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T08:59:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jayhan0302</username>
        <id>3109012</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Create a literature-grounded student research draft; bibliographic references retained as plain text without external hyperlinks.</comment>
      <origin>2824217</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4418" sha1="7hia7kc78fabv5ypetnuefxe6688tao" xml:space="preserve">{{Research project}}

'''Project status.''' This is a student-generated, literature-based design hypothesis. It has not been experimentally validated and should not be interpreted as a therapeutic claim.

== Research question ==
Could one molecular design combine an anti-IL-6 single-chain variable fragment (scFv), intended to recognize extracellular IL-6, with RDVLPGT, a MyD88 BB-loop-derived peptide reported to interfere with MyD88 TIR-domain association?

== Literature basis and proposed architecture ==
Loiarro ''et al.'' reported that a cell-permeable peptide containing the MyD88 BB-loop sequence RDVLPGT interfered with MyD88 homodimerization and inhibited IL-1-dependent NF-κB activation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Loiarro2005&quot;&gt;Loiarro, M., Sette, C., Gallo, G., Ciacci, A., Fantò, N., Mastroianni, D., Carminati, P., &amp; Ruggiero, V. (2005). Peptide-mediated interference of TIR domain dimerization in MyD88 inhibits interleukin-1-dependent activation of NF-κB. ''Journal of Biological Chemistry'', 280(16), 15809–15814.&lt;/ref&gt; This project therefore considers three parts:

* '''anti-IL-6 scFv:''' a proposed extracellular IL-6-binding component;
* '''linker:''' a design variable intended to preserve flexibility; no sequence is claimed as optimized;
* '''RDVLPGT:''' a MyD88-derived motif considered as an intracellular signaling-interference component.

This is an architectural hypothesis only. Binding affinity, delivery, stability and biological effect have not been measured.

== Central limitation ==
The components do not naturally act in the same cellular compartment. An anti-IL-6 scFv is expected to encounter IL-6 outside the cell, whereas RDVLPGT is intended to affect MyD88 inside the cell. A direct fusion does not explain how both components could reach their targets. The compartment mismatch is therefore the main design problem, not a minor implementation detail.

Before the concept could be considered plausible, a future study would need to justify delivery and topology, linker behavior, retention of scFv folding and IL-6 binding, and sequence-specific MyD88-related activity. A minimum comparison set would include the scFv alone, a delivered RDVLPGT-containing peptide, a scrambled-peptide control, and a construct lacking the proposed intracellular-delivery element.

== Falsifiable expectations ==
* If only extracellular IL-6 recognition is retained, the construct should not be described as dual-targeting.
* If intracellular delivery disrupts scFv folding or IL-6 binding, the fused architecture is not supported.
* If RDVLPGT and a scrambled sequence behave similarly, sequence-specific MyD88 interference is not supported.

== Interactive structural context ==
Open the iCn3D view of PDB 4DOM with chain A residues 196–202 highlighted. The view uses the experimentally determined human MyD88 TIR-domain structure and shows the structural context of RDVLPGT.&lt;ref name=&quot;Snyder2013&quot;&gt;Snyder, G. A., ''et al.'' (2013). Molecular mechanisms for the subversion of MyD88 signaling by TcpC from virulent uropathogenic ''Escherichia coli''. ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences'', 110(17), 6985–6990.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;4DOM&quot;&gt;RCSB Protein Data Bank. PDB 4DOM: Crystal structure of the TIR-domain of human MyD88.&lt;/ref&gt; It is not a model of the proposed fusion.

== Questions for open review ==
* Is there a biologically defensible architecture that lets the two components act in different compartments?
* Would a cleavable or cell-penetrating strategy be necessary, and what new risks would it introduce?
* What evidence would distinguish true dual action from IL-6 neutralization alone?

Readers are invited to identify unsupported assumptions, propose better controls, or suggest a more coherent architecture. A reasoned decision not to pursue the fusion would also be a useful outcome.

== Scope of the claim ==
'''Supported by literature:''' RDVLPGT is derived from the MyD88 BB loop, and a cell-permeable peptide containing it was reported to interfere with MyD88-dependent signaling in the cited study. '''Proposed but unverified:''' connecting an anti-IL-6 scFv to RDVLPGT could yield a useful bifunctional construct. '''Not claimed:''' clinical utility, safety, successful intracellular delivery, an optimized linker, or an experimentally confirmed fusion structure.

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

[[Category:Research]]
[[Category:Biochemistry]]
[[Category:Immunology]]</text>
      <sha1>7hia7kc78fabv5ypetnuefxe6688tao</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824226</id>
      <parentid>2824217</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T09:05:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koavf</username>
        <id>147</id>
      </contributor>
      <origin>2824226</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4782" sha1="6k6lnip9otbwbkjh2daqp7pourex4oc" xml:space="preserve">{{Research project}}

'''Project status.''' This is a student-generated, literature-based design hypothesis. It has not been experimentally validated and should not be interpreted as a therapeutic claim.

== Research question ==
Could one molecular design combine an anti-IL-6 single-chain variable fragment (scFv), intended to recognize extracellular IL-6, with RDVLPGT, a MyD88 BB-loop-derived peptide reported to interfere with MyD88 TIR-domain association?

== Literature basis and proposed architecture ==
Loiarro ''et al.'' reported that a cell-permeable peptide containing the MyD88 BB-loop sequence RDVLPGT interfered with MyD88 homodimerization and inhibited IL-1-dependent NF-κB activation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Loiarro2005&quot;&gt;Loiarro, M., Sette, C., Gallo, G., Ciacci, A., Fantò, N., Mastroianni, D., Carminati, P., &amp; Ruggiero, V. (2005). [https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.C400613200 Peptide-mediated interference of TIR domain dimerization in MyD88 inhibits interleukin-1-dependent activation of NF-κB]. ''Journal of Biological Chemistry'', 280(16), 15809–15814.&lt;/ref&gt; This project therefore considers three parts:

* '''anti-IL-6 scFv:''' a proposed extracellular IL-6-binding component;
* '''linker:''' a design variable intended to preserve flexibility; no sequence is claimed as optimized;
* '''RDVLPGT:''' a MyD88-derived motif considered as an intracellular signaling-interference component.

This is an architectural hypothesis only. Binding affinity, delivery, stability and biological effect have not been measured.

== Central limitation ==
The components do not naturally act in the same cellular compartment. An anti-IL-6 scFv is expected to encounter IL-6 outside the cell, whereas RDVLPGT is intended to affect MyD88 inside the cell. A direct fusion does not explain how both components could reach their targets. The compartment mismatch is therefore the main design problem, not a minor implementation detail.

Before the concept could be considered plausible, a future study would need to justify delivery and topology, linker behavior, retention of scFv folding and IL-6 binding, and sequence-specific MyD88-related activity. A minimum comparison set would include the scFv alone, a delivered RDVLPGT-containing peptide, a scrambled-peptide control, and a construct lacking the proposed intracellular-delivery element.

== Falsifiable expectations ==
* If only extracellular IL-6 recognition is retained, the construct should not be described as dual-targeting.
* If intracellular delivery disrupts scFv folding or IL-6 binding, the fused architecture is not supported.
* If RDVLPGT and a scrambled sequence behave similarly, sequence-specific MyD88 interference is not supported.

== Interactive structural context ==
[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Structure/icn3d/full.html?mmcifid=4DOM&amp;command=select%20all%3B%20style%20proteins%20ribbon%3B%20color%20lightgrey%3B%20select%20.A%3A196-202%3B%20style%20proteins%20stick%3B%20color%20red%3B%20toggle%20highlight Open the iCn3D view of PDB 4DOM with chain A residues 196–202 highlighted]. The view uses the experimentally determined human MyD88 TIR-domain structure and shows the structural context of RDVLPGT.&lt;ref name=&quot;Snyder2013&quot;&gt;Snyder, G. A., ''et al.'' (2013). [https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1215770110 Molecular mechanisms for the subversion of MyD88 signaling by TcpC from virulent uropathogenic ''Escherichia coli'']. ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences'', 110(17), 6985–6990.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;4DOM&quot;&gt;RCSB Protein Data Bank. [https://doi.org/10.2210/pdb4DOM/pdb PDB 4DOM: Crystal structure of the TIR-domain of human MyD88].&lt;/ref&gt; It is not a model of the proposed fusion.

== Questions for open review ==
* Is there a biologically defensible architecture that lets the two components act in different compartments?
* Would a cleavable or cell-penetrating strategy be necessary, and what new risks would it introduce?
* What evidence would distinguish true dual action from IL-6 neutralization alone?

Readers are invited to identify unsupported assumptions, propose better controls, or suggest a more coherent architecture. A reasoned decision not to pursue the fusion would also be a useful outcome.

== Scope of the claim ==
'''Supported by literature:''' RDVLPGT is derived from the MyD88 BB loop, and a cell-permeable peptide containing it was reported to interfere with MyD88-dependent signaling in the cited study. '''Proposed but unverified:''' connecting an anti-IL-6 scFv to RDVLPGT could yield a useful bifunctional construct. '''Not claimed:''' clinical utility, safety, successful intracellular delivery, an optimized linker, or an experimentally confirmed fusion structure.

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

[[Category:Research]]
[[Category:Biochemistry]]
[[Category:Immunology]]</text>
      <sha1>6k6lnip9otbwbkjh2daqp7pourex4oc</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:~2026-45872-54</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
    <id>331392</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2824218</id>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T08:59:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Welcome</comment>
      <origin>2824218</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2060" sha1="d9ah45mwqny7pzndgsxv3xa6nihttu3" xml:space="preserve">{{#ifeq:{{NAMESPACE}}|User talk||{{error|Error: substitution required. Use &lt;nowiki&gt;{{subst:Welcomeip}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; instead.}}[[Category:Template substitution errors]]&lt;div style=&quot;display:none;&quot;&gt;}}{{Robelbox|theme=9|title=Welcome!|width=100%}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
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&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
{{#ifeq:{{NAMESPACE}}|User talk||&lt;/div&gt;}}</text>
      <sha1>d9ah45mwqny7pzndgsxv3xa6nihttu3</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Jayhan0302</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
    <id>331393</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2824224</id>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T09:03:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koavf</username>
        <id>147</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Created page with &quot;{{subst:welcome}} ~~~~&quot;</comment>
      <origin>2824224</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2704" sha1="grehm96mu1xsmn9f2lw9pp01snf5vzo" xml:space="preserve">==Welcome==
{{Robelbox|theme=9|title='''[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]],  Jayhan0302!'''|width=100%}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
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&lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot;/&gt;

To get started, experiment in the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or on [[special:mypage|your userpage]].

See you around Wikiversity! --―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 09:03, 22 August 2026 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- Template:Welcome --&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (&lt;span style=&quot;color:grey&quot;&gt;ko'''a'''&lt;span style=&quot;color:black&quot;&gt;v&lt;/span&gt;f&lt;/span&gt;)]]&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯&lt;/span&gt; 09:03, 22 August 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>grehm96mu1xsmn9f2lw9pp01snf5vzo</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Tammysaurus</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
    <id>331394</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2824231</id>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T09:07:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Created page with &quot;{{subst:Welcome}}&quot;</comment>
      <origin>2824231</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2329" sha1="h06fzmwv69wazndppwuf4d58wtvwqv3" xml:space="preserve">==Welcome==
{{Robelbox|theme=9|title='''[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]],  Tammysaurus!'''|width=100%}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or get in touch with [[User talk:Jtneill|me personally]] if you would like some [[Help:Contents|help]].

Remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature#How to add your signature|sign]] your comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. Using the signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] makes it simple.

We invite you to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] and [[Wikiversity|assume good faith]]. Please abide by our [[Wikiversity:Civility|civility]], [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|privacy]], and [[Foundation:Terms of Use|terms of use]] policies.

To find your way around, check out:
&lt;!-- The Left column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;
* [[Wikiversity:Introduction|Introduction to Wikiversity]]
* [[Help:Guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|how to edit]]
* [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] or visit an educational level portal:&lt;br&gt;[[Portal:Pre-school Education|pre-school]] | [[Portal:Primary Education|primary]] | [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]] | [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]] | [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal]]
* [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] links in left-hand navigation menu
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- The Right column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;

* Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]]
* Learn [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]]
* Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities
* Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your observations
* Discuss issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]]
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot;/&gt;

To get started, experiment in the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or on [[special:mypage|your userpage]].

See you around Wikiversity! ---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:07, 22 August 2026 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- Template:Welcome --&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}</text>
      <sha1>h06fzmwv69wazndppwuf4d58wtvwqv3</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Nabal Kishore Pande</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
    <id>331395</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2824237</id>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T09:14:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Welcome</comment>
      <origin>2824237</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2337" sha1="9k5q5c6bfyn9kvb2w3p9kxcij8hylu6" xml:space="preserve">==Welcome==
{{Robelbox|theme=9|title='''[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]],  Nabal Kishore Pande!'''|width=100%}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or get in touch with [[User talk:Jtneill|me personally]] if you would like some [[Help:Contents|help]].

Remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature#How to add your signature|sign]] your comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. Using the signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] makes it simple.

We invite you to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] and [[Wikiversity|assume good faith]]. Please abide by our [[Wikiversity:Civility|civility]], [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|privacy]], and [[Foundation:Terms of Use|terms of use]] policies.

To find your way around, check out:
&lt;!-- The Left column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;
* [[Wikiversity:Introduction|Introduction to Wikiversity]]
* [[Help:Guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|how to edit]]
* [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] or visit an educational level portal:&lt;br&gt;[[Portal:Pre-school Education|pre-school]] | [[Portal:Primary Education|primary]] | [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]] | [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]] | [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal]]
* [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] links in left-hand navigation menu
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- The Right column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;

* Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]]
* Learn [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]]
* Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities
* Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your observations
* Discuss issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]]
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot;/&gt;

To get started, experiment in the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or on [[special:mypage|your userpage]].

See you around Wikiversity! ---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:14, 22 August 2026 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- Template:Welcome --&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}</text>
      <sha1>9k5q5c6bfyn9kvb2w3p9kxcij8hylu6</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Pristome</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
    <id>331396</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2824240</id>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T09:15:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Welcome</comment>
      <origin>2824240</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2326" sha1="8237ia5js28dp9m5tskqu5ioe2vt9sz" xml:space="preserve">==Welcome==
{{Robelbox|theme=9|title='''[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]],  Pristome!'''|width=100%}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or get in touch with [[User talk:Jtneill|me personally]] if you would like some [[Help:Contents|help]].

Remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature#How to add your signature|sign]] your comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. Using the signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] makes it simple.

We invite you to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] and [[Wikiversity|assume good faith]]. Please abide by our [[Wikiversity:Civility|civility]], [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|privacy]], and [[Foundation:Terms of Use|terms of use]] policies.

To find your way around, check out:
&lt;!-- The Left column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;
* [[Wikiversity:Introduction|Introduction to Wikiversity]]
* [[Help:Guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|how to edit]]
* [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] or visit an educational level portal:&lt;br&gt;[[Portal:Pre-school Education|pre-school]] | [[Portal:Primary Education|primary]] | [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]] | [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]] | [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal]]
* [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] links in left-hand navigation menu
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- The Right column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;

* Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]]
* Learn [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]]
* Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities
* Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your observations
* Discuss issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]]
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot;/&gt;

To get started, experiment in the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or on [[special:mypage|your userpage]].

See you around Wikiversity! ---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 09:15, 22 August 2026 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- Template:Welcome --&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}</text>
      <sha1>8237ia5js28dp9m5tskqu5ioe2vt9sz</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:WonderfulKitten3</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>331397</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2824243</id>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T09:21:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WonderfulKitten3</username>
        <id>3109016</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Created page with &quot;== Self-Introduction == Hello, I am Hung Nguyen - born 22 December, 2005 in Bega, NSW. This account has been made for a University of Canberra assignment assessing topic development from a variety of psychological scientific articles.&quot;</comment>
      <origin>2824243</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="234" sha1="2mtoixtjgsrmaf0bnzacy1dym1arwp3" xml:space="preserve">== Self-Introduction ==
Hello, I am Hung Nguyen - born 22 December, 2005 in Bega, NSW. This account has been made for a University of Canberra assignment assessing topic development from a variety of psychological scientific articles.</text>
      <sha1>2mtoixtjgsrmaf0bnzacy1dym1arwp3</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Emotional intelligence and emotional wellbeing</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>331398</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2824260</id>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T09:50:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3236349</username>
        <id>3005692</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Possible changes to improve chapter */ new section</comment>
      <origin>2824260</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="481" sha1="f9t6n6zjxd6mv03l68fxcuzata67hju" xml:space="preserve">== Possible changes to improve chapter ==

Hey! 

Nice work so far. Love the in depth planning. 

I think it would really help to start making references to academic/research papers for each statement that is made. This should allow you to easily refer back to which article you relied on to make specific statements. 

Hope that helps a bit. :) [[User:U3236349|U3236349]] ([[User talk:U3236349|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3236349|contribs]]) 09:50, 22 August 2026 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>f9t6n6zjxd6mv03l68fxcuzata67hju</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>African Arthropods/Psenidae</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>331399</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2824278</id>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T11:45:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alandmanson</username>
        <id>1669821</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Created page with &quot;==Afrotropical [[w:Psenidae|Psenidae]]==  Psenidae is a family of apoid stinging wasps (Infraorder [[African Arthropods/Aculeata|Aculeata]], Superfamily [[African Arthropods/Apoidea|Apoidea]],).   Afrotropical Psenidae comprise four genera.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Psenidae/Classification/index.htm&lt;/ref&gt;.  These wasps prey mainly on [[w:Leafhopper|leafhoppers]], which they use to provision their nests. *'''Genus ''Mimesa'''''  *'''Genus ''Psen'''''  *'''Genus...&quot;</comment>
      <origin>2824278</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="562" sha1="pwbj3vl89a0c9hvdj0mivzspprnbecw" xml:space="preserve">==Afrotropical [[w:Psenidae|Psenidae]]==

Psenidae is a family of apoid stinging wasps (Infraorder [[African Arthropods/Aculeata|Aculeata]], Superfamily [[African Arthropods/Apoidea|Apoidea]],). 

Afrotropical Psenidae comprise four genera.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Psenidae/Classification/index.htm&lt;/ref&gt;.

These wasps prey mainly on [[w:Leafhopper|leafhoppers]], which they use to provision their nests.
*'''Genus ''Mimesa'''''

*'''Genus ''Psen'''''

*'''Genus ''Pseneo'''''

*'''Genus ''Psenulus'''''

&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;

&lt;/gallery&gt;</text>
      <sha1>pwbj3vl89a0c9hvdj0mivzspprnbecw</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824279</id>
      <parentid>2824278</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T11:45:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alandmanson</username>
        <id>1669821</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Afrotropical Psenidae */</comment>
      <origin>2824279</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="592" sha1="4f9dgaf6inbt0tv0mpbv4h66y8umtbk" xml:space="preserve">==Afrotropical [[w:Psenidae|Psenidae]]==

Psenidae is a family of apoid stinging wasps (Infraorder [[African Arthropods/Aculeata|Aculeata]], Superfamily [[African Arthropods/Apoidea|Apoidea]],). 

Afrotropical Psenidae comprise four genera.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Psenidae/Classification/index.htm&lt;/ref&gt;.

These wasps prey mainly on [[w:Leafhopper|leafhoppers]], which they use to provision their nests.
*'''Genus ''Mimesa'''''

*'''Genus ''Psen'''''

*'''Genus ''Pseneo'''''

*'''Genus ''Psenulus'''''

&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;

&lt;/gallery&gt;
== References ==

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>4f9dgaf6inbt0tv0mpbv4h66y8umtbk</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2824280</id>
      <parentid>2824279</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-08-22T11:46:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alandmanson</username>
        <id>1669821</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Afrotropical Psenidae */</comment>
      <origin>2824280</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="592" sha1="ho0vt6rcttp2kqnam04iz665a9yksgy" xml:space="preserve">==Afrotropical [[w:Psenidae|Psenidae]]==

Psenidae is a family of apoid stinging wasps (Infraorder [[African Arthropods/Aculeata|Aculeata]], Superfamily [[African Arthropods/Apoidea|Apoidea]]). 

Afrotropical Psenidae comprise four genera.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.waspweb.org/Apoidea/Psenidae/Classification/index.htm&lt;/ref&gt;.

These wasps prey mainly on [[w:Leafhopper|leafhoppers]], which they use to provision their nests.
*'''Genus ''Mimesa'''''

*'''Genus ''Psen'''''

*'''Genus ''Pseneo'''''

*'''Genus ''Psenulus'''''

&lt;gallery mode=packed heights=200&gt;

&lt;/gallery&gt;

== References ==

{{BookCat}}</text>
      <sha1>ho0vt6rcttp2kqnam04iz665a9yksgy</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
</mediawiki>